Surveying
(CE2005)
Linear Measurements ~ Chaining
Dr. Bibekananda Mandal
Assistant Professor
Department of Civil Engineering
Linear measurements
Direct Indirect
measurements measurements
Fig. 1
1. Using chain or, tape 5. Optical means:
Using telescope
Fig. 5
Generally
2. Pacing/stepping
used in Fig. 2
Preliminary
survey 6. E.D.M.: Using
3. Passometer Radio/IR waves
Fig. 3
4. Speedometer etc.
Fig. 4
Fig. 6
Chaining
• This is an accurate and common method of measuring distance.
• Distances are directly measured in the field by chain or, tape. The
distances measured by chaining form the basis of all surveying.
Equipment
i. Chain or, tape
ii. Ranging rods
iii. Offset rods
iv. Pegs
v. Arrows
vi. Plumb bob
i. Chain
Chains are made of pieces (links) of galvanised mild steel wire, bent
into rings at the ends and joined each other by three small circular or
oval rings. These rings offer flexibility to the chain.
The ends of the chain are provided with brass handle at each end with
swivel joint, so that the chain can be turned without twisting.
The total length is measured from one handle end to another handle
end.
Types
• Metric chain
• Gunter's chain or Surveyor's chain
• Engineer's chain
• Revenue chain
Metric chain
Available in 5 m, 10 m, 20 m and 30 m lengths.
20 m and 30 m metric chains:
• A 20 m chain has 100 links each of 20 cm and 30 m chain has 150
links.
• Tallies are provided at every 5.0 m length of chain.
• Each tally has different shape indicating 5 m, 10 m, 15 m lengths from
any one side of the chain.
• At every one meter interval of chain, a small brass ring is provided.
Metric chain
Metric chain
5 m and 10 m metric chains:
• A 5 m chain has 25 links
each of 20 cm and 10 m
chain has 50 links.
• Tallies are provided at
every 1.0 m length of
chain.
Other types of chains
• Gunter's chain: 66 ft long and divided into 100 links.
• Engineer's chain: 100 ft long and divided into 100 links. Tallies are
provided at every 10 links i.e. 10 ft.
• Revenue chain: 33 ft long and divided into 16 links.
• Steel band or, band chain: 20 m or, 30 m long. More accurate but, get
broken easily.
Tapes
Tapes are used for more accurate measurements. Tapes are made with
different materials.
Types of tapes:
• Cloth or, linen tape
• Steel tape
• Inver tape: Used mainly for measurements of a very high degree of precision,
such as measurements of base lines. The invar tape is made of alloy of nickel
(36%) and steel (64%), and has very low coefficient of thermal expansion.
ii. Ranging rods
• Ranging rods mark the positions of stations easily
visible.
• Also used to set out ranging lines.
• Generally made of well-seasoned wood of circular
section & 2 m to 3 m long, with flag.
• A pointed steel shoe at bottom is attached for fixing
the rod into the ground.
iii. Offset rods
• Similar to ranging rods, 3 m long.
• The rod is mainly used for measuring rough
offsets nearby.
iv. Pegs
• Wooden pegs are used to mark the positions of the
stations or terminal points of a survey line.
• Dimension: 2.5 cm or 3 cm square, 15 cm long,
tapered at the end.
• Driven in the ground with the help of a wooden
hammer and kept about 4 cm projecting above the
surface.
v. Arrows
• Arrows or, marking pins are made of good quality
hardened and tempered steel wire, 4 mm in
diameter.
• Length: 25 cm to 50 cm, common length 40 cm.
• Generally, 10 arrows are supplied with a chain.
• An arrow is inserted into the ground after every
chain length measured on the ground.
• One end of the arrow is made sharp and other end
is bent into a loop or circle for facility of carrying.
vi. Plumb bob
• Plumb-bob is used to transfer points on
the ground.
• It is also used to make ranging poles
vertical.
• In addition, it is used for checking centre
of different instruments, like: theodolites,
compass, plane table etc.
Ranging
The process of establishing intermediate points on a straight line
between two end points is known as ranging.
• If the length of line is less than the length of the chain, there will be no
difficulty, in measuring length of a line. If, the length of the line
exceeds the length of the chain, some intermediate points will have to
be established in line with the two terminal points before chaining is
started.
• Ranging can be done by the naked eye or by line ranger or by
theodolite. Generally, ranging is done by naked eye with the help of
three ranging rods.
• Methods of ranging: (i) Direct ranging and (ii) Indirect ranging.
Direct ranging
Direct ranging is done when the two ends of the survey lines are inter-
visible.
• Let A and B be the two points at the ends
of a survey line and a new point P to be
located on the line AB.
• A ranging rod is erected at the point B
while the surveyor stands with another
ranging rod at point A holding the rod at
about 0.5 m length.
• The assistant then goes with another
ranging rod and establishes the rod at a
point (P1) approximately in the line with
AB at a distance not greater than one chain
length from A.
• The surveyor at A then signals the
assistant to move transverse to the chain
line, till P is in line with A and B.
Indirect ranging
Indirect or Reciprocal ranging is performed when both the ends of the survey
line are not inter-visible either due to high intervening ground or due to long
distance between them.
• In such a case, ranging is done
indirectly by selecting two intermediate
points M1 and N1 very near to the chain
in such a way that from M1 both N1 and
B are visible and from N1 both M1 and
A are visible.
• Two surveyors station themselves at
M1 and N1 with ranging rods. The
person at M1 then directs the person at
N1 to move to a new position N2 in line
with M1B.
Indirect ranging Contd.
• The person at N2 then directs the person at M1 to move to a new
position M2 in line with N2A. Thus, the two persons are now at M2 and
N2 which are nearer to the chain line than the positions M1 and N1.
• The process is repeated till the points M and N are located in such a
way that the person at M finds the person at N in line with MB and the
person at N finds the person at M in line with NA.
• After having established M and N, other points can be fixed by direct
ranging.
Errors in chaining
• Incorrect length of tape: + or -
• Bad ranging: +
• Tape not stretched horizontally: +
• Error due to temperature: + or -
• Variation in pull: ±
• Error due to sag: +
• Error due to slope: +
• Errors in reading the tape
• Incorrect counting of tape lengths etc.
Next class
• Errors in chaining and corrections ~ Theory and Numerical problems
• Chain surveying
Thank you…