NUR112: ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
ISU Echague – College of Nursing
Module 9
The Endocrine System
Overview/ Introduction
Adaptation is accomplished by the ability of an organism to adapt to its environment. The
body has two means of regulation. The endocrine system and the nervous system. The endocrine
system is a long acting response of the body. In this module we are to study how the body responds
to external and internal stimulus.
Course Objectives.
After this module, you are expected to
1. Identify and locate the endocrine glands
2. Enumerate the hormones released by each gland
3. Identify the response of the body to each hormone secreted
Course Contents
The endocrine system is made of different
endocrine glands. These glands releases hormones that
affect specific target organs. Endocrine glands have
different functions. Some of these are the following.
1. Metabolism and tissue maturation
2. Ion regulation
3. Water Balance
4. Immune system regulation
5. Heart rate and blood pressure regulation
6. Control of blood glucose and other nutrients
7. Control of reproductive function
8. Uterine contractions and milk release
Hormones
Hormones are chemical substances secreted by cells
into the interstitial fluid and diffuse into the blood. They
act on specific tissues, called target tissues. They have
lag times ranging from seconds to hours. It tend to have
prolonged effects. Hormones are chemically categorized
as belonging to the Protein group (Proteins, glycoproteins, polypeptides, and amino acid derivatives)
and Lipid group (Steroids and fatty acid derivatives)
Most hormones are regulated by Negative-feedback mechanisms, which maintain homeostasis,
control the secretion of most hormones. Hormone secretion from an endocrine tissue is regulated
by one or more of these three mechanisms:
1. Changes in the extracellular concentration of a non-hormone substances
2. Stimulation by the nervous system
3. Stimulation by a hormone from another endocrine tissue
Hormones are dissolved in plasma or bind to plasma proteins. They do not reach their
destinations through ducts, itstead they are released and transported through the blood. Water-
soluble hormones such as proteins, epinephrine, and norepinephrine do not bind to plasma proteins
or readily diffuse out of the blood. They are quickly broken down by enzymes or are taken up by
tissues. These hormones regulate activities that have a rapid onset and a short duration. The Lipid-
soluble hormones and thyroid hormones do not quickly removed from the blood. They produce a
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ISU Echague – College of Nursing
prolonged effect. Hormones leave the blood to reach target tissues or are excreted by the kidneys or
liver
Hormones target only cells that have receptors for them. Receptors may be membrane
bound or intracellular. Membrane-bound receptors span the plasma membrane. It binds to water-
soluble or large-molecular-weight hormones. Intracellular receptors are located in the cell cytoplasm
or nucleus. They bind to lipid-soluble hormones
Pituitary Glands
The pituitary gland secretes at least nine hormones that regulate numerous body functions and
other endocrine glands. The hypothalamus regulates pituitary gland activity through hormones and
action potentials.
Posterior pituitary also known as NeurohypophysisDevelops from the floor of the brain and
connects to the hypothalamus by the infundibulum. It secretes oxytocin that stimulates uterine
contraction and milk let down reflex during breast feeding. It also releases the ADH or vasopressin
that plays an important role in water conservation.
Anterior pituitary also known as Adenohypophysis Develops from the roof of the mouth. Major
hormones, their target tissues, and their effects on target tissues are listed in Table 15.2
• Growth Hormone (GH)
• Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)
• Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
• Melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH)
• Luteinizing hormone (LH)
• Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)
• Prolactin
Growth Hormone
Growth Hormone stimulates growth in most tissues and is a regulator of metabolism. GH
stimulates the uptake of amino acids and their conversion into proteins, the breakdown of fats and
the synthesis of glucose, t he production of somatomedins (with GH they promote bone and
cartilage growth). GH secretion increases in response to low blood glucose, stress, and an increase in
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ISU Echague – College of Nursing
certain amino acids. GH is regulated by two hypothalamic hormones, Growth hormone-releasing
hormone (GHRH) and Growth hormone-inhibiting hormone (GHIH)
Thyroid Gland
The Thyroid gland is the largest endocrine
gland. It is located in the anterior neck and
consists of two lateral lobes connected by a
median tissue mass called the isthmus. It is
composed of follicles that produce the
glycoprotein thyroglobulin. Other endocrine
cells, the parafollicular cells, produce the
hormone calcitonin. The Thyroid hormones
consist of two related iodine-containing
compounds. The Triiodothyronine (T3) has two
tyrosines with three bound iodine atoms (90%)
and the Tetraiodothyronine (thyroxine or T4):
has two tyrosine molecules plus four bound
iodine atoms (10%).
Iodides (I–) are actively taken into the cell, oxidized to iodine (I 2), and released into the lumen.
thyroglobulin is synthesized and discharged into the lumen. Iodine attaches to tyrosine. Mediated
by peroxidase enzymes forming T1 (monoiodotyrosine, or MIT) and T2 (diiodotyrosine, or DIT).
Iodinated tyrosines link together to form T3 and T4. Large amounts of T3 and T4 are stored within the
thyroid follicles as part of thyroglobulin (~ 2-4 month supply). Thyroglobulin (with T 3 and T4 attached)
is then brought in by endocytosis. Combined with a lysosome, T 3 and T4 are cleaved and diffuse into
the bloodstream
T3 and T4 increase the rate of glucose, fat, and protein metabolism in many tissues and it also
increase body temperature. T3 and T4 play a role in Maintaining blood pressure, Regulating tissue
growth, Developing skeletal and nervous systems, Maturation and reproductive capabilities
The regulation of thyroid hormone is accomplished through negative feedback mechanism.
Thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH) and thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) regulate T 3 and T4
secretion. TRH from the hypothalamus increases TSH secretion. Increases as a result of chronic
exposure to cold. Decreases as a result of food deprivation, injury, and infection. Increased TSH from
the anterior pituitary increases T3 and T4 secretion. T3 and T4 inhibit TSH and TRH secretion (negative
feedback)
The thyroid Parafollicular cells secrete calcitonin directly regulated by blood Ca 2+ levels. Blood
Ca2+ levels drop results to calcitonin levels drop. Blood Ca 2+ levels rise results from calcitonin levels
rise. Calcitonin targets the skeleton to inhibit osteoclast activity and the release of calcium from the
bone matrix and stimulate calcium uptake and incorporation into the bone matrix
Parathyroid Glands
The parathyroid glands are tiny glands embedded in the posterior aspect of the thyroid.
They secrete a polypeptide hormone called parathyroid hormone (PTH). PTH is essential in
regulating calcium balance in the blood (much more important than calcitonin). PTH increases the
release of Ca2+ from bones into blood by increasing the number of osteoclasts
PTH also Promotes Ca2+ reabsorption by the kidneys and the formation of active vitamin D by
the kidneys. Active vitamin D increases calcium absorption by the intestine. A decrease in blood Ca 2+
levels stimulates PTH secretion
Adrenal Glands
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NUR112: ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
ISU Echague – College of Nursing
The Adrenal Glands are paired, pyramid-
shaped organs that sit on top of the kidneys.
The organ is divided into two parts, Adrenal
medulla (inner area) arises from the same
cells that give rise to postganglionic
sympathetic neurons and Adrenal cortex
(outer area), a Glandular tissue derived from
embryonic mesoderm. The Adrenal medulla
is composed of three layers, the Zona
glomerulosa, Zona fasciculate and Zona
reticularis. Structurally and functionally, they
are four glands in one
In adrenal medulla, Approximately 80%
of the hormones released is epinephrine
(adrenaline) and 20% is norepinephrine.
Secretion of these hormones prepares the
body for physical activity by Increasing blood glucose levels, Increasing the use of glycogen and
glucose by skeletal muscle, Increasing heart rate and force of contraction, Causes vasoconstriction in
the skin and viscera, Causes vasodilation in skeletal and cardiac muscle
Adrenal Cortex Synthesizes and releases steroid hormones called corticosteroids. Different
corticosteroids are produced in each of the three layers. Zona glomerulosa: mineralocorticoids
(chiefly aldosterone), Zona fasciculata: glucocorticoids(chiefly cortisol) and Zona reticularis
gonadocorticoids (chiefly androgens).
The zona glomerulosa produces Mineralocorticoids which regulate electrolytes in extracellular
fluids. Aldosterone is most important mineralocorticoid. It maintains Na + balance by reducing
excretion of sodium from the body, stimulates reabsorption of Na + by the kidneys, and decreases K+
and H+ levels in the blood. Aldosterone secretion is stimulated by rising blood levels of K +, Low blood
Na+ and Decreasing blood volume or pressure
Zona Fasciculata produces the hormone glucocorticoids especially cortisol. This hormone help
the body resist stress by keeping blood sugar levels relatively constant and maintaining blood
volume and preventing water shift into tissue. Cortisol provokes Gluconeogenesis (formation of
glucose from non-carbohydrates) and Rises in blood glucose, fatty acids, and amino acids. Excessive
levels of glucocorticoids on the other hand depress cartilage and bone formation, inhibit
inflammation, depress the immune system and promote changes in cardiovascular, neural, and
gastrointestinal function.
Zona Reticularis produces the hormone
Gonadocorticoids (Sex Hormones). Most
gonadocorticoids secreted are androgens (male sex
hormones), and the most important one is
testosterone. Androgens contribute to the onset of
puberty, the appearance of secondary sex
characteristics and sex drive in females. Androgens can
be converted into estrogens after menopause
The Pancreas
The pancreas is a triangular gland, which has both
exocrine and endocrine cells, located behind the
stomach. The Acinar cells produce an enzyme-rich juice
used for digestion (exocrine product). Pancreatic islets
(islets of Langerhans) produce hormones (endocrine
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ISU Echague – College of Nursing
products). The islets contain two major cell types, the Alpha () cells that produce glucagon and the
Beta () cells that produce insulin.
Insulin Target tissues such as Liver, Adipose tissue, Muscle and the Satiety center in the
hypothalamus. The Nervous system relies on blood glucose levels maintained by insulin. Insulin
increases the uptake of glucose and amino acids by cells. These Glucose Is used for energy, Stored as
glycogen and may be Converted into fats. Amino acid are also influenced by insulin to produce
proteins. Low levels of insulin promote the formation of ketone bodies by the liver
Glucagon is produced by the Alpha cells of the pancreas,. The Target tissue is mainly the liver. It
Causes the breakdown of glycogen to glucose. It Stimulates the synthesis of glucose from amino
acids and Liver releases glucose into the blood
Insulin production Increases because of Elevated blood glucose levels, Increase in some amino
acids, Parasympathetic stimulation and Gastrointestinal hormones. Sympathetic stimulation
decreases insulin secretion
Glucagon Secretion is stimulated by Low blood glucose levels, Certain amino acids, Sympathetic
stimulation. Somatostatin inhibits insulin and glucagon secretion
Testes and Ovaries
The Testes Secrete testosterone. This hormone initiates maturation of male reproductive
organs. It causes appearance of secondary sexual characteristics and sex drive. It is is necessary for
sperm production. It also maintains sex organs in their functional state
Ovaries secrete estrogens and progesterone. These hormones stimulates maturation of the
reproductive organs and appearance of secondary sexual characteristics. Breast development and
cyclic changes in the uterine mucosa is also influenced by this hormone. We will study this in greater
detail when we reach Maternal Nursing.
The Pineal Body
This is a Small, pinecone-shaped structure located superior and posterior to the thalamus
and secretes melatonin. Melatonin can inhibit reproductive maturation and may regulate sleep-
wake cycles
The Thymus
The Thymus is a Lobulated gland located deep to the sternum. The major hormonal products are
thymopoietins and thymosins. These hormones are essential for the development of the T
lymphocytes (T cells) of the immune system
Teaching Learning Activity
1. Compare the body of a 5 year old child to the body of a 15 year old. Describe the differences.
2. Please share your experience when you were once put in a dangerous situation. (attacked by dogs,
left alone at home, walked alone at a scary place) how were your breathing, heart rate and
sensitivity of sense
Assessment task.
1. trace the regulation of thyroid hormone during the negative feedback mechanism.
2. make a table showing the different endocrine glands, their hormones, their target organs and the
response of each
References:
Geb, Elaine N. (2019), Essentials of Human Anatomy and Physiology, 8th Edition
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NUR112: ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
ISU Echague – College of Nursing
Philip (2009), Seely’s Principles of Anatomy and Physilogy, McGraw Hill Publication
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