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Understanding Digital Computers
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UNDERSTANDING DIGITAL COMPUTERS {LEARN ELECTRONIC ARITHMETIC SPEED AND CONVENIENCE WHATS A COMPUTER? LEARN THE ANSWERS IN PRECISE, SIMPLE TERMS DISCOVER THE WIDE VERSATILITY OF COMPUTER MEMORIES BECOME FAMILIARIZED WITH NUMBER SYSTEMS ‘COMPUTER PROGRAMING = FROM ANALYSIS TO COMPLETE APPLICATIONS LEARN ABOUT BINARY Lost, HOW IT WoRKS ‘AND HOW 10 USE Ir Understanding Digital Computers by Forrest M. Mims, Il Radio Shaek fARgT EDITION \Sopyant © 1978 by Rado Shack, » Tandy Corporation Company, Fo ‘Norm, Tous 7102 Pind inte Une Sates ot Ametcn, Al ahs reserved. production of use without express periein. of ator‘ ptr cone. many mont provid No par ‘aity te etumed ahveepect othe ate teintratonconaied| her Wlesvrygrocain has Saen tan inte peperaton 9th oot ta pucer ssumee no responslity ‘or sro or mina emer dry naony seme for sumagee rosutng nom we wa oe Intonation cortanes hare Preface Several yoare ago the president of @ small electronics company, FL Edward Roberts. ssked'me fo write an operator manus for a not) {onpular hi i wae planning towel Eo eorvinosd me tat wring ‘anual would bean atelln! way To lean about computers. and he Should wren. Eas company was MITS, Ine. and the computer was the famous ALTAIR (TM) 8800, the machin tht Began the hobby eoriputer Working on tls Back has Been even mor of learning experince than tinting tee ALTAIR manual ee been nine busy months of searching {rough libvares, visting computer stores, attnding tho 7877 National {Computer Gonforones, eolecting Information ana’ photos trom cozens Sf sompanies and touring the fascinating 18M exhibit onthe history of cane nS rs 0 put In some tine Iearhing to program the ALTAIR 8800 and FMA migrocomputers and Radio Shacks TAS-0 personal compute. {ogeher'a'working computer based on PIP. the computer desorbed InGhaptor 8 {haa Inluded PIP Ina sores ol lectuon at UCLA's Sum ‘mor Student Rosearen Program, and nono ef the students cou tnd [ny bugs In the oes. Sl, te only way to make eure PIP-1 worked was to bulld a working ‘ode. A crash program recltod In ara’ nest of colored lies and Intogrates crite that's happily Rashing ie rows of lights at thie very ‘moment "hope you lear oe much trom ih Book ag | have. Don' fet ted down by the Grdor ofthe chapters, Tha book ls organized im auoh a way nat you ean begin anywhere you tke It you already know about number Systoma, for example, you can skip Chapter 3. Or youre up to date ‘oh ogie ciel you Gan mov» al the way up to Chapter & It things get {Wo techies dont shelve the Book ust move up (or back) to another ‘hapten You can alway come back to the Lough pats llr In any event | do suggest you begin by browsing through Chapter 4 Trek ts'a general baekgrourd eheptor witha iia history about cor ultra you might enjoy. Frem than on, you ean continue wih Chapter 2 ‘oF skp Upto Ghaptore 0 ena 10 te upto you ‘Thiele geoarning book with tots of checkpoints to messure your Progross. Try te cover allot am you can, They help you remember ey pons, etimulate your tirking and theyre great or reviewing chap: tore you might alteady know something aBout ‘Also, each chepter has reacing list you'l want fo keepin mind. Some. fealy goad desks and alles on computers are ited. ane vouil want {Shaves looe st some of ther Wearing comeing about computers, why not consider Personal compuing? Pick up a copy of Byte, Kiobeve, Interface Ago ot one of the cher hobby eomputer magazines. Stop B) ‘Toca! computer store. Visita computer cub ‘The possibtioe want to Sonedor some ming. Happy computing! ttuly ming expancing and you might even llegelevel coutees on Gomputere snd program Forrest M. Mima, [ABOUT THE AUTHOR Forrest Mine i the author of many Radio Shack project Books and 2 contbuting eller of Popular Eleovanios magazine. He lve with Mit ‘le and two children In Sen Maree, Texas CHAPTER 1 What I a Computer? ‘CHAPTER 2 Number Systems Tee tr 2 ey ore ee ‘ating Decimal to Bnan-—Binary- Coded Decinal—The Octal Sye- ‘tom—The Hexagacimal System—Conelusion a ‘CHAPTER 9 Binary Logie : {se~eiacronte Lage Crate GsteTne AND Creat—Tno OR Gregi koyooara into patterns of Gs ana te, Tis lets you communicate with a computer Using an assortment of oranary enghsh ores culea” =| computer Tanatags. (One ofthe most popular computer languages Is called BASIC. Anyone tan lear the asiesof BASIC less than helt an hour and be wating ‘imple programe witin an Nour Lets give It sy Imagine you're seated ot tho keyboard of @ computer that understands BASIC. The vigoo eoreon race EADY (Go ahead, ype & wor into the koyboar Basic lent 2 Now ove the Keyboard areal workout Fis, press fod CLEAR. Than try every eter nth alphabet THE QUICK BROWN FOX JUMPS OVER THE LAZY DOG Fil he entice screen with numbers, later, words and i you ‘rant tol Make an eror? No problem. You can elacronlcally erase By Fiting the key marked Than retype the correct snaactr. mark this page. We're going to uncover some interesting facts sbout ‘iro wo got the computor rant after te next cheexpont cHecKPOINT 1. What's the fs thing hat happens ater you type ‘any character, into 8 computer keyboard? 2. Tie Some ofthe BASIC nsvuctlons we've covered so far. character, ANSWERS: 1. converted into a binary number, a sting of 0s and 1: 2. PRINT, RUN, INPUT, REM, LET and END. Well caver those ana mmote BASIC Instructions In more deta In Chapter 1a HOW IT ALL BEGAN For thousands of yeas poope have made all kinds of gadgets to help ‘thom count and do srmeti The moet famous number machine fae zou. But finger counting, slohed sticks ned singe and pebbles wore in ue long beloe the abacus was inventea Incigentaly, most people think the abacus isa prety primitive number ‘machine. Not se. On November 11,1946, Mr. Kioshl Matsuzak of tro “paneae Postal Atminstraon and his trusty abacus won four of ve lafees of competion ina contest against the lalest electri eating iachine! Even ns age of post eal, ios fo Japan en Loa of other mecharical calculating nstrumonts helped pave the way forthe digial computer Mere are 8 few of thom (atong ny important dates 1842, At he age of 19, Baise Pasoa,a Fone mathematician, Invented ‘Amachine ist assed ana susracied.H uses rating wheels wih tas {hat fumed the whee o the ll tenn of revolution Yor one fll evo luton ofthe wea! tothe vight Each whoel was mated wlth the digits ‘0 around its eroumierence, The edometer ea modem version of his Ingenious invention 1671, Gottriag wiholm Lebriz designed a machine that multiplied and vides because, he wea, itis unworthy of excelent mento loee hours Tike savon in th labor of cautation.-- (Have You ever felt hat way Just batore a big mata exam’ 1804, Chavis Babbage, an English mathemstician,aniipste the mod- fm cite computer when he Degen designing the realy advenced Sha complex Analyca Engine. Tha machine Included all the sections fh modern cigtal computer snd would have boon able to process aa. Vanees programe punched Ise paper cards. The machine Was 0 {ar tsheod of te tna t couldn't bo bul withthe tachnology ten avalable. ‘THE FIRST ELECTRONIC COMPUTERS ‘The fist arg scale itl computer wa the Mark Atleast at's what moat Booka sbout computers aay ‘Actual 2 German eli engineering student who, ike Pascal and Leib- ‘il, wae fe up with warking ut fg matheratel calculations oy end ‘cane up withthe beaic ie for ho word's frst electrnte ig com bute n'1038, Konrad Zuse wan ha name, and by 1941 he dosrgned ond bul ne 23.8 aga computer that uses vlaye fo perorm esleuations, Now that wove eat the record straight, let's return to the Mark. JBM Bult itor Harvard Unversity during World Vier and twas Used from ‘844 (to yoar I wos born) unl 1859, 'BM called the Mark | the Automatic Sequence Controlled Caleulator, was an electromechantel computer since It used gears snd relays, ‘ot vacuum iuboe That meahe R wes s-l--o-w by todays sanseies Itrequired 0.3 socona to asa or ubtact@ seconds Ya muloly and 114 seconds to cvde, ust fing the sie of an angie tooe 9 ful min And te Wark | was as big ag twas slow: St fet long, 8 feat hgh sha ‘weighed tone! ‘The fst alkelectonic dita computer was the ENIAG om Electron Numecal integrator ana Comput). wes butt the Univeral ct Pennsyivania between 7048 and 1048 ENIAC was a number crunching monster the biggest electronic oon raption ots tne. A tom the ste ofa smal Rouse was nesded fo Pld {ts panels of hunareds of contol itches ang irout eabnets conta Ing’more than 16000 vacuum tuses all of which weighed In e's ty 30 tons! ENIAC proved thst super complicated olectronic computers would work “That was big news Beck in To46 when one skeptic Claimed the furs rate of ENIAC’ tubes would beso high that fincing and placing dec tive tubes would take 24 noura a dayt Fortunately for ENIAC fond
— ee = = =e ‘SUMMING UP BINARY LOGIC ‘This has been en important chapor. Weve learned somethin ‘imple AND, OR, NOT end Yes Tunetons, Wo'va alse learned about the ‘compound AND-NOT (or NAND) or OF-NOT (oF NOR) tunctons. {AIL hege functions hve one or more Incoming conditons (he inputs) ‘hat give a single outgoing condion (he eu, The conditions at the Inoufla) end output can have only two sites you or no. tus or Ilse, ‘.Thia moane tho fwo-cigt binary number system ean represent logic functions by loting yee = snd no=0 (poatve fogle) oF yoa = O and o= 1 (regative fat) ite easy to make evitchike electronic cleus called gates tht ‘her eh (rot Oy Legis pstee san perform Binary loge sa In Chapter 6, arhmetc Final, we've learned that the AND and OF or NAND and NOR functions ‘ecome equivalent we deine ane funtion with positive loge and the ‘ther wih nagave Topi: Te mana vitualy ay lage hnetlon ean Be perfomea with ony NAND of NOR gates! READING LIST Now that you've leamed something sbout inary loge, why not probe It th simple logie gatos and soe how thoy work? For starters. visit your local rary and took up the September 1877 ‘save of Seiontie American. An aricle by Jemes D. Melnal (Mlrosiec- ‘tonic Cireult Elements" pp. 70-51) wil’ Ghe you an excellent Iaea ct ‘ow tho Wandstors n'a ogle gato ae mede and how they work. The frst Dat ofthe flowing arte ("The Largo-Seale inegration ot Microoloc- fone Ckeuls” by Willam ©. Hoton, pp. 62-6) wil show you how tae Siete are combined into eaten ‘Want more information about gates? Then read Chapters 4 and 5 to aoe how theyre connected together to perfor a Kinds of useful functions {The reading it for those eneptare wil ive You tome Moto rotoronoos on binary gle Noves noves CHAPTER 4 Combinational Logi [od Want to find out how to use logic gates as electronic building blocks? In this chapter we're going to do lots of useful things to binary numbers with some straightforward combinations of simple gates. By the time you finish the chapter you'll be well on your way to understanding some of the most Important parts inside a computer. ‘Almost all logle networks oan be classed as ether combinational or inthis chapter wal tke = clos ook at mary dierent Finds Fespond fo coming dela or commands (which aro nothing more than Binary numbers or Bi patterns) almost simultaneously ‘Sequential circuits, which well examine in Chapter 5 store information Ite form of ot patierns ebout previous happenings, nd this ater thelr responce fo new data or commands, The stage cule of esauen tal agie networks require more time o change states than simple lole (gree so sequantal gle generaly much siower than the Combine Tonal verity. Nevertheless. sequanal gle eels worklng im close oocanation wit combinational networks form the Baln of every dial computor. ‘THE [Link] CIRCUIT ‘Te simplest combinational gle network isthe EXCLUSIVE-OR clrcul, Uke the NANO and NOR circuits te EXCLUSIVE-OR gatos simost Always considerod a basic Togle slement. But as you can seo below, ‘the EXCLUSIVE-OR eleit requis a leas four separa gate. “The tuth table for the EXCLUSIVE-OR gate ie almeet identical to that ot the OR etreult. Tho only aforenc le that a at both Inputs givoe 20 tthe output In ther words the [Link] circuit exponge excl: chunk of computer data comes in slice of bits called a word. An 8-bit Sora cig aye anda Et worse ee page Apa oven and a1 ifthe numberat ia 8 003, Ths protees an ven nm: ber of fen the binary word so its called even pay. Here are some ‘Skampioe of even arly: Binary Nibble Parity Bit Niboo/Party Bit “001 ° ‘0%0 oo: ‘ anos (i party can algo be used o este ecrore, Aa ts name imple. od party isa scheme which proazees a binary word having an od number tT, Here ao some examples Binary Nibble Party BR —_Nibbl/Party Bit ‘10 ? ‘rot vor ° 1010 O10 ‘ ori How is party checked? Retuning to the basle EXCLUSIVE-OR cleut you can se that sa simple ood parity detector sine it signals an od Fhumber of tbls wih an oulut signal (1). Mace complicates EXCLU- SIVE-OR networks can detect the par of longer inary numbore. — dite up sively tothe OR functions (0 OR 1 snd 1 OR 0) wile lanerng the AND function (T/AND 1]; Horas tho trath table ° EXCLUSIVE-OR gate nas several imporiant applications. t you't Glance back a the truth table, youl note int tho eeu compares he {vo input state. thoy ae arent tho output ist toy are trea ‘the output is 0. This operating feature makes: possible & method of checking the pay of @ binary number Oftn its necessary to ‘ther oF between a process bis canbe lost [stited tx aud ora fomporary banana tke milion colar ered {o'tne 6287 balance In your svecking account down atthe bank Party ig way to catch mest orrore whan computor data le ranemited from one point to another. One amp party system works lke tis: Each ‘A notwork of EXCLUSIVE-CR gates ean oven generate the party bit For exemple, the evelt shown below inpects the bits in 2 #0 nibble ‘and axce af I the nible nes an ocd number of fa and a 0 i hae an fen number of Te. The rest is alleg an even panty bit generator. =D es ‘You can vor the operation of the hope his truth table Computers use simple circits for automaticaly eliminating the patty ‘Strom esleutatons but we 4on' news to over them hers Pay, na ‘ver, ian important concept and we'l touch upon in lator chapters Sot the checkpoint to ses how wall you undestane patty. cHeckeomr 4. Party lea way of etecing 2. Convert s0010011 to o@@ pay: z 5. Gonven 10101045 to even party ‘AuswERS: 4. Eirors, 2, Tootoorst, 3, 201010111, ‘THE HALF-ADDER CIRCUIT the EXCLUSIVE-OR circuit has several important Applications. and party eetectors and ganesters are only two of thom, ‘An ven more important role of tho EXCLUSIVE-OR ae fs a8 Dina ‘2dder. That's rights the EXCLUSIVE-OR gato adds two binary Bis ene Prodvees the correct sum at its output. Wel It produces mest of the Eoroct sum. Since the EXCLUSIVE-OR gate hae only 2 single output connection it can only elsplay the least saniicant bt of the sum, Tasts na prbiem fr te it tre combination of th EXSLUBTVE-OR tuth 31 eagy way to Solve this limitation, and wall look att shorty Frat tum back to page St fr a moment to soni thatthe EXCLUSIVE: OF cireuit realy does add binary bts by looking at strut table. ‘Gan you think ofa way to generate the cary bit when the EXCLUSIVE. OF gate is aazing 7-11 10 1 lathe cary BH)? Al you have to doe onnet the Inputs of an AND gate o the puts of the EXGLUSIVE-OR ‘ato ke te ‘The AND gato outpt wil avays be O unles two ts are present a ts input. en proauee an arpa ot Since ns amen Comte ‘aon cauoos the EXCLUSIVE-OFt gale Yo output a, the fw9 gates Pro ‘ide the coroct answer fort 1 = 10. Hero's to th tbl ‘As youl recall trom Chapter 2. binary action ofen cequles that tee Bite be acdod, For example, 11"r 11190 requires tho adaton of a 0 ‘The EXCLUSIVE;OR ate, however. can ony ad Bt, Fortis eae En sell a hal-saerAcsng tos 9 ob fr te aad, rel weil oot st nox Fat rove the haar nth 8 suk Shockpoint Bo sur to follow the various bits through each ofthe gate to very what happens. Thon try the adlion problem lathe checkpoint. checkPoINT Insert the correct logic sits (0 or 1} Inthe following fu-edder reat for he problem 1 cary “ANSWERS: 1h 80 8b ce ‘A promise, you don't have to memorize how he vtious oss are con- fected Ina fuleacéor. Just conelger an navi ite elm ad Consign toa box ke ts ‘cHEcKPomT 1. Gan the halt-addor aad te bts 11 2 The hathadoor has —— outputs) ‘5 Assume you mano make 9 hal-ader from an EXCLUSIVE-OR reut but you dont have ary AND gates, Youve got panty of NAND gates What do you do? ANSWERS: 1. Sure thing 2 Two, 5, Use a couple of your NAND gates. Connect ona tothe crcl ax Ititwere an AND gate. Thon tet te Input a eacand NAND Gets togethor tomate an ivartor Connoct he np of tle ote {0 tho ouput of he rat and youve gt your halraddee ‘THE FULL-ADDER CIRCUIT It you think two haltadore make a fl-adder, youre simost right! Toss in’an OF gato and you've got a complete fulkadder cut Hare's how ‘everthing goee together You're right. does ook complicates, But even though it's not necessary 1b memorize haw fo connec all these eyo es very help Wace 2 couple of problems through the ul-adder 16 ge how it works. Then ‘Wall consign al those gates to single box and label ITFA tor fulradder For instance, hoe’ how 1-0" a cary (7h 0'+ 1) ls handlad By te futrecger Like any other togie ciel, the fulhadder has rth table, and it ooks ‘canny our_su This wraps up binary adder circle for now. Well seo how aders aro ade into practical computing sists in Chaptor 8 et ts necessary {O continue our cisevsion of combinational and sequertai ose sui, Betore moving on, however, ey the checkpoint to meke sure You under Sand the operation of he lkadder 1. Uso the fulradder tuth table to gum the binary bits O-+1-+ earn 2 How many ways can the truth table be interpreted to cum 0+ 1+ earn? “ANSWERS: 1.40, 2 Two, DECODERS ‘Many things inte ae very mach dependent ypon commonly understood, Yet high developed codes. Take the worde youre reading hi very ‘moment. You ean read them only because you know bye code known a6 Ihe Engion language Tepone crectin detonres othe agra, Stet signs, woather mapa, facipes and counlloas other everyeay things fare based upon various Kinde of codes. [Number systems are probably the most widespread ofall codes. Though moet evenone prefers to use the almost univeeat decimal cod when ‘rorking with numbers, #3 gossoia To earn einer umber codes Ti Sinan binary-codes decimal. oral and hexagsciel ‘The most popular number cae i, ofcourse, the decimal eystem. Sure, Ita easy t laa systems lke Siar, otal and hex, bt would you want 4 pocket ealevlatar with ony two digit keys (0 and) and a capey thet fied anewer like 1101016001010 It earsinly woud bo vty prac ‘eal for solving overysay problems ike balancing your chockbooR! ‘There's a versatile family of combinational logic networks called de coders nich ean transform he clumsy evinga of Os and ts ina nary a umber into other, more convenient number systems. For example, in Chapter 2 wo saw how the dell systom fs much easier to se than binary A simple decoder for converting a3-it binary number ito fetal qulvlont ook Ike tle! sa For any it binary number atthe Input tines, one octal output line Selected, Thus OF atthe input would wetvate out line pita |e ee ciecxvour 4. Atwo-ngut AND gste provides a logical 1 oni when both inputs Gr lgleal ts is gate actually a decoder? 2 How would you use a fourinput NAN gate fo make the paople- 8. Lets ssoume the elvatr doosn' work when its alarm bells rng Ing. one peteon gats af th elevator will continue to Wark Isthore a way to baat ha syst by having an extra person (ot total of 12) got on tho slovator? gst le vore much a aseader. 2. Use tho NAND gato In Gace of the AND gato and placo an i ‘ore at he ouput ofthe NAND gate f0 change le operation To ‘hat ot an AND gate 8. yout Took back at the ruth table for te people countar sna ‘decoder, youl note that the alarm ony rings when eleven per nthe slevaor. Therefore, twelve or more) persone wll ng the bell Its posible, of eouse, to design a ogi oircut to detect the ents passers. SIMPLIFYING DECODERS ‘The beauty of digital ogi stat you can accomplish the same objective ith many aitrent combining at gates This means you can always find another way to design a opie creull—oflen a simpler one ‘Tako the decoder which detec the number of passongors in an slovator, for example, I's possible to simply the docoger toa single Pweesnout AND gale! Digits! logic designers Use sophisiated diagrams ‘led Kemaugh mape to simpy loge eles to & minimum sumber of sates, ‘ulyou'can often use aktasionsd common sense todo the same thing. ‘You can think of tha decoder a8 a kind of lock. Only the proper combi- ation of Os an ta at te mut wil activate the desied output with 31 Decoders have many applications in computers, pocket calculators, ‘tal clocks and aher stone ogle cre. For exemp9,n Chapter S'yell sce how gatos ean be used to make 6 sequential ale creut naw asa eounter. Counters can be used ia such applications 35 locke, gadpet 19 measure frequency ané even digi! vetinator. assume we have a 4-bi binary eauntr which counts (in bin) the rot persone entering nc leaving an etovator The sevator Se- {Scary no mare thn ton persons, andthe counter atomically and eat each wha eaves on one Bycane bale. How ean we design a decoder whien wil interface wit the ‘counter and ng a bal hen more than ten people enter tho etovator? Here’ the poope-counter at upto show eleven persons nthe elevator: “The logleal way to detect when a binary number greater than 1010 (en) Ig roaent sto use e gat, A four input AND gate for example, wil ‘ide's loglesl 7 outpt ony when the proper cambinailon ot Ie prosert at is inputs fe Bin 1074 (eoven) lett Inverts the cre ‘This simple ezcuittrme a rus logic decoder since {nee of up to ten persone ont elevator and immedtitly {hs presence ofan eleventh person. 110 prowe thi for yursol by place Ing ferent combinations of Os and te atthe output ofthe counter to tne what happens. Here's how the operation ofthe clout looks when ‘Rs organizes into att able: pity the decoder or the eevalor people counter de- ie lating the aferert (aar f0 elven): tenbed nthe prviouseecion, fst make Stipts ofthe counter for he nmbers 000° From this tablo you can imately 6 that the last four numbers are ‘nique since they each bogi witha. Theroore, we ean ignore the fist, ‘ight nomiere and eonnect en AND gale input fo the D output fram the count. ‘Now all were concerned wit isthe last four numbers: +383 le there anything about 101 that distinguishes it from the other num- ‘Bers? Right only 10T1 haa 9 Tat both the 8 and A outputs from the Counter Al thats necessaryo compete the decoder i o connect both ‘hose oulpts fo the seme AND gate to which he D output has Been eon nected, Here's how the cut looks: Be eure to reviow this ampli decoder by comparing twit ts equally ‘fective but moro clumsy predecessor. Notice Now the simpleton process emphasized he perenie of Te while ignoring Os. "This made it fach easier to spot the uniue nate of 10. Will look at some more decoders in ¢ moment. Fie, try decoding this ‘checkpoint fo see how well you understan the subject 2 ar cHecKPOINT 4: Can 0s be emphasized winansimpliying logic circuits? 2 How does te spied cade respond Yo number higher than son? 2. Design a simple logic circuit to ring the bell when twelve oF more passongera ontor the elevator ANsweRs: 4, Sure. Just be constr ‘courte, Iti the ball when fieen passengers freon he alovator “This all low YoU f0Rotioe the dials datnelne sepont of tha numbers 1400 {o 1111 velveteen}: They each have a T atte D and © postions, Therefore, you can bull your ret witha single two- Input AND gate! Here's now I look! eeee FANCY DECODERS Oten its necessary for 2 decoder to indicate the presence of each of many diferent combirations of Os and To: Gatescah be uso, of eouree, Bathe resuling circuits sometimes become very complicated, For ox: mpl, here's a network which decodes BCD (binary-coded doeinel) rnumbere into tal decimal equivalents While the network of gates Inthe BCD-decimal decoder ia vary coml- Caled, te resulting iret every useful Fortunately you dont have fo memorize the brsin serambirg legle network to usa i einee the ante lout ls avelsble as a singe integrated clout. Light emiting codes {LeDe) can ‘oo connected to soch autpt to provides vieual indiaton of he decimal umber beleg decoded: When the input to the decode (0100, or example the LED walehindeste four wil glow. ‘Another complested but common decade isthe BCD to soversog- ment decoder. Tis decoder ia Togie network which aloe SCD nur bers tight up he segments of electrone readouts to orm the Socal dis. These roadouts aims! always have seven seperate segmonts ‘hich ean be iuminated moste aston to form the dts 0128, Here's the eovon-cogment veaion of each ofthe ton ch Ui Ic Cy WoO O} lg ‘Take a close look atthe readout of almost any dlgtal wate, clock or pocket calculator. and you'll tee the soven distinct segments of each {it positon Lock closely and you algo sow the Gecimal pont (alee tors ony Like the BCD-dacimal decoder, the BCD 10 seven-segment decoder Ie ‘complicated loge network Ss te diagram bolo. 0 you can very operation ofthe erclt wth an example or two, here's ‘he truth faba: ‘00 ‘ourpur To seawents a Here’ the truth able fr this decoder: Ir you have a fw soare minutes you can vel the operstion of he BCD to'severnsegment decoder with tho Rap of the fgle diagram ana fath table, Dut i's realy not neeoseary. And sinoe the logiciel has le ‘acy been design there's o need fo revert tne whee! by tying Yo Simply or worae, memorize fe alo easier for fovuso ready-made sever-segmont docoders n't Integrated [Link] 1 te immense num "ow be placod ona single chip ot sicon, many complex Integral Cults nlude thei own saver-segment decoders, Tha means the ‘tated eicult which may be a complete celelator or watan, can be onnected eect to 3 light emiting loge numero readout! In later chapters wel 988 how semiconductor memory ciouts can be ued a6 decoders on a much larger Su easly ungorteod seal, Meat ‘hil try this decoder checkpaint to see how yours coming along. ‘CHECKPOINT {: ls 10K to custom design your own leaie decoders? 2 Ist possibe to dosign an cola! to binary cooader? 8: How would you go about designing # ee dg combination tok sing docedors 4. Certain. But I's always wiv 1 s60 whats already avalible in the fom of commercial integrated iru voraions before Buling your own. Youll almost always eave plonty of ime, paper, De tienes ana esi 2 Sinoe decoders. By dafnition,ennunt Rina numbore int oer Aumnborsjetoms ho eneweristooiealy “ho 8. Theis a trek quaston. Since decoders conver binary numbers {[Link] number systems, there's no way ta make a eigial come bination foc using decoders. You can, however, use a clout alle the encoder. Soa te naxt section, ENCODERS. I you completed the last checkpoint you mets new term, the encoder, ‘Tho encoder is very much tho oppeelo of he decoder since t converts nombinary numbers nto binary For example, here's an oneodor which Convers ata fo Binary passengers allowed on the elstr without adcing atonal opie gstes ‘and at the same time preven cheating. An Ingenious rolton to his father formidaole probiom ie the mulipixer, a8 it also known, data selector In technical terms. mulitexing isa way of selecting specie bit trom aga aseoriment of avaliable is: Only one bi may be sleciod sony ‘ne timo. but al he bits ean 9s selenod one after anater ff desied eal equvaien ofa mutips postion ‘imple example {As shown, thle simple eel wil ght the lamp (Le, produce logical ‘otis wip only wins tne rrary ante fsa atone tana How fever, many other combinations of ston poets which wil ish the lamp ¢an be arranged by amaly siting the conection: Between the suite (ve, he Input to the multploxer) ang the baer. Sold state mutploxere are mate fram networks of... you guessed it) gates. Tho opie cagram of 2 mulpexcr lous ater fghtening at fst, But you realy should sas wha one looks Ike to more fly aporelate bot its eration and the wendertu achievement of somicandtor ‘schnology which permit sucha complcatod networe to be paced on {tiny chip of slcon. The lois dagram for 2 multiplexer which f the {oll sate equivalent os sinten poston rotary switch ie given Below, The four inputs labole 0, C, 8 and Ase eae data selector Inputs Together withthe AND gatos, thoy select whieh input ne (0.75) gts {rough 19 the single output Ine. (This fs why multiplexers are aten called data elector.) For example, when the" data selector Inputs {GcBA) are of, the opie! tte (0 or 1) apated to mut ine 8 appears atthe output Incidentally, since the data seoctor inputs address any desred Input line, the pattern of bits (which may or may not be conedered 8 inary umber) st the GBA inputs en called an address. Tn espocaly true in computer appicaions Here's the th table forthe octal o binary encoder: a4 8 {Before checking the logiedisgram of he octal to binary encoder against fe trim fabio o 200 ft rolly works, Took back atthe disgram for ‘moment Notte enyhing unusual? For one thing the encoder uses OR gat instead ofthe AND gates used bythe decoders we looked stealer, Also, note that the encoder Ras ‘any more combnatons of inute: 2 of 250 fo be exact. For reliable peraton only one ofthe inputs should bo at logical 1. For example, faztvating input 7 and anyother Input wll not tect tne binery output But accidently activating both impute and 2 (ult 2 logis! 1) when You intended to seve 2 would give an erroncovs cuput of OM Isiead erate, cHecKeomT 4. Decoder wse_ gatos. 2. Encoders use —_—— gees. 3 Encoders convert into ‘ANSWERS! [Link]-_2.0R 8. Any number system nto binary (MULTIPLEXERS (DATA SELECTORS) Remember tie poople-counting elevator wo tnkered with Back on page ‘337 Suppoee you wantod the ably fo change the maximum oumer st 2 Now at we've found out what multiplexere/data sectors (lake your ick are all abou lee atu othe poopie-counting elevator mentioned ‘gain atthe begining of ie socten Ft though, ty this ehecxpoint {o'see how well you understand wnat goes on insigem multplene. ‘CHECKPOINT 1. Mutipiexers access te outside word through the sels of con- noetlons. Gan you name them? 2. Another narme Yor the patom of Bits applied tothe data select Input of a muipioxe the 8. Almulpenor wit sitesn data put lines end one output tne fequies deta select input. ‘ANSWERS: 4, Data eoect input, deta Input, data output. 2 ross, Four (Remember, it takes four bis to expose al the decimal humbers betwee) 0 and 15: The seguenes goee 0900; E004; (0010; 00110 HH) How'd you do on th chockpoin? If you got all the questions answered correctly but el fel i heaiantsbout at mare of ose gles neve treo caling @ multiplexer nave no fear, You can forget soout ell hose ‘ites and consider the enlfo network a box wi some, aporontate Isbels. For example. here's whet our T6-ne-o-1mulipexer bosoms: Want to change the truth tabe to let more (ar fs) people on the ele ‘ator? Say you're expecting a sonventon of midgets fo use the elevator tnd you ah uo the maximum number of passengers tram sto ten No ote a pate inp eviring jb whl ka ny ie the new truth table, ‘OK, we've finally goten around to simpliying tha paope-counter auto: malic alarm mechanism for oat imaginary stevator withthe help Of 8 Tultplexer/data selector. The elevators working all ght now, Bat ow bout you? Here's a checkclnt that wil help You messure, your progress: ‘CHECKPOINT 1. Oscar Lezysars is ted of belng Bumped from our imaginary people counting elevator. The elovstr Ie programmod fo sever Eleven passengers and Oscar alwaye seems 10 So tat ni ‘car fe an electronics at and thnks he ean “the people ounte to acoopt an eter dozen passengers. What dons he do? 2. Lit at least two thor apeictions for data ealctr lagi. Tey 10 be speci ANSWERS: 4. Tobe on the eae soo, Osoar rt rawe up a tut table, Since the wants to Increase the numbor of passenger allowed by oniy Simple gn 1? Tie arrangement provides a the Information you ness to krow about tha very eomplloatedamay 0 gates Inige the Box-—wih= fut the hassle ofthe lose diagram. Now, back to the peope-countng elevator. Let's assume we need to etign a circuit which can change the maximum number of passengers fn the elevator without having to edd exta lope gatos. We also wart to ‘Setect chosing, What todo? ‘The data eolectr, naturally, supplies a super-smple solution to this problem. The mulileser/data selector lets you douse any uh table Fou desire wits bare minimuty of sort. And you ean change the fable Bychanaing wee Instead of adding sxtra gates In tho caso ofthe peopl counter, you want atuth table which can be ‘uieky mofieg to output a losial} (re. tng an alarm ball and top ‘ho elevator) en more than a certain numberof paseangere ener the ator For example, let's say you want no more than six passengers on the levator at sry time fo odes the land onthe motor Then your tity {able wil Too like ti (ote: The people counter wil count up to fen passengare—nat Se many adits ae our Imaginary slovator can hold. More than that ard they become seraines) ur s6:ino-t-outpt multiplexer’ data selectors ideal for implement Ing tis truth table Ale have to dole "program" the Sata Inte by Placing a logiol Ost inp 8 and a logical? et Inte 7-15. Tha’ a {hore ef Here's what the resulting solup look Ike In block lagram ‘i, abe eit the eran one wih one exeepton: theY2 la input changed rom 1168. A'inpe ig Job 2, fny azpliaton that hae auth tablet Use oats for simp ttn fables, ut H more than several gates ar required use 8 data fleotor. Specie apolcaions? Sophisteated burglar alarms ana Combination locke A gadget which can be programmed fo Inc i oxoeaaive speed, teperatu, allude, et. A gadget whieh bs programmed te inccata date "winaowa" tea. 8 ever ‘ormometor which signa "OK fora narrow range of tempera lures controd about 888 degre and lights a warning lamp for Tower or higher temperiues), Logie cious whieh inlcato oa taven numbers A progammebie digital larm clock. Ad Many, ‘many others DEMULTIPLEXERS. Since binary logic ercuite se 30 amazingly veratile, our aioussion shout muliplexers would be neomplete without a east mentioning e- mulipover. ulplocera sett the logleal state of one of sveral I= ute and appl ito an [Link] apply the logical state fa singe Input to one of serral outputs By now you mld be scaly meres with (or pape trop {complox lgle dlagramt of conbinaionl Togle network to us {he subaitton ots stpleb3x symbol or fe mae of Sates inize the typical Somutipixer. To wit here's @ empl ine to's fine’ domull- Blexer nea packaged In' abled box: nese for is gaeaet i a a cacoder Place a lea tate Input Sho the tut table toe ke th eur | ourpur seurcr nPuTs ourruts laa his clear? it you're not quite sure ofthe diterence between mult- Ploxors. and. domutplxare, here's 9 rotary enti equivalent wnich Should eet hinge straight: = Got the plewre now? How about applications for the demultiplexer. Decoding ie an impor- {ant applieaton. partcuary since tha cematpiexer eat Be easly "pro- ‘rammed’ for any cferrt autout patems. Another application fa ounce generator which avalos each of sever oul ines with {geal tin succession A counter cieut connected fo the Cuiput Select Inputs determines the cycle ime. Soth molplexara and demu Blexers ave Important sppleaions In gaining acaess to the semicon voter memories used in pocket calculators and many Kinds of Com puters cneckeomr 1. Can 2 demutiptexer have four output sleet inputs? 2.118 domuliploret has four output asec pt tne, how many ‘utp nos de it neve ‘8. Domutipieners are commonly used ae ‘ANSWERS: 1 Bue? Sieen (010 15). 2 Decoders SUMMING UP COMBINATIONAL Loic ‘The simple logic gatos we looked a in Chapter 3 might not have seemed ‘ory impreasive. But now you know ow they can ov combined fo add {couple of binary numbers dacede binary humors ino aime number ‘Systems and eneode other number systems ino brary, ‘You also knaw now a combination of gates can multiplex data by selet- ing a specie bt fem an assorimert of pralble hits Ana you know ‘now to demutplx data by placing space tanto one of an asso: iment of aval outputs ‘As you can sea, thse simple gates are actualy very powerful lacronic builsng Socks, Cnaper® wil show you ow to do Tote more wth gates by connecting them as memory crcl NoTes READING LIST ‘One of tho best books Ivo 200n on combinational logic fs M. Moris Manoa "Computer Logie Design” (Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cli, Now ‘loveey 1872). This Book has ots of goed material on both combinational ‘an sequential oie. Anater good beck ls "Analysla and Design of Oi {al Circuits and Computer Systems” by Paul M. Chitfan (Mate: Pub liahers, Champaign line's. 1876). Ths 608. page book covers binary tithmete, computer design and ote tpies ee wal as combinational {opie talzo has a tice appona iat explain how eomiconduto nt ‘rated eit wore Nores a CHAPTER § Sequential Logic Have you ever wondered how a digital clock remembers the numbers flashed on its readout until new, updated numbers appear? It's all done with flip- flops, simple memory circuits made from as few as two logic gates. Com- puters use flip-flops, too. They count, remember information and shift num- bers around. Without flip-flops, computers wouldn't be able to march se- 4quentially through a problem step-by-step with perfect synchrorization, In this chapter we'll see how flip-flops make sequential logic circuits do their thing. We'll also get ready for the discussion of how computers add coming up in Chapter 6. ‘ng memory This can eas lg pro lems since many cgi foie operations, especialy ‘hose employed by computers, require twe capably to siore Binary numberest femporsiy Fortunately. storing binary numbera ea chore for which sequential logic ireults are lally suited The most basi sequent ogie element is he fipetop, = emote cireut made trom as fow te two NAND tes com nected fogether in erss-cross fasion. & base ip fop has Wo outout, ach of which i ts iogie sine opposte tat of te other. Since each futput can onl have a logc tte of 0 or 1, the fiptop is called 8 ‘able (or two slate) logic circu, Two or more fipstops can be inte onnectod to giva several combinaions of stable output states, Ts forming a malistable cr polystable circu ll sequel logic cious canbe categorized as either asynchronous or synchronous. Asynchronous cieuta eoange elas each tee Input i fogical 0, since the NAND gate outout ea ogi! 0 only if both is inpote are logical T, we brow the output of tha reset gate tt bo Iopiel This takes cre ofthe output ‘Tho sot Input ls st logical + and the T output (which ie coupled back to the second input ofthe set NANO gato) Is also logical 1. Since two logh- al 18a ho Inputs of & NAND gate give 20 output the Q output of tho hip te logical 0, Tale. of euure, fie the detiition of the Tp-op we learned inthe ivoduction otha shapter=-ines the te ouputs 1 fp-op must complemont ane ancter (Theres an exception #0 his Fue and wal ver in moment). efor roviowing with a eheckeoin, here's Its Casi tip-top. Fret. oven though is fp, can be designate the RS {or SA) ,Whan Ge Goto legcal (Se: 4) the etn sa The fpsop is reset whon tho @ output is logical 1 (S = 11 =). Often lye @ euput ot tipop used in soquentlalerout Fo hie in. tho fiplog fe usualy sei to be eleared when a0 paced at tho eset input to reset tho @ output to Information about put changes states, For exams, © basic tworgate fp-slop I the sim Blast aeynahronovelogle lc. Synchronous lage clrults change sates only when triggered by a 0 or Sita speck! input. The trigger elena ie usualy produces by an elec ina! ceut called a clock whieh proguces Os and tein tho fm of & Fegular sores of electrical pulses, Depending on ts poarty (in other (rots whether its postive or negate), pulse can belother 80 or = ‘Too end result eecaynehvoncea. sequential loge, makes powscls Ail lobe, cleus and ofcourse, computers. In this chapter you'l lam Iota more abou fip-tlops and how thoy can bi connncted gether fo form very uselul asynchronous and syneho- ‘Rovs sequential fogie eet Weil bogin withthe most bate Mipflope ‘Shorty at se haw well youve olng oo far by tying tne cuick check both th § and R inputs ate a opie! 0, both outputs become but aly hon both inputs say ©. Even hs inpte are removed 2 pro- (aot the samo instant tna gese wl ave one anther to change states. Since there's na eonrl over wih sate the lipo Tatches on to, is Condition ie ald fo be dlealowed, How cose te lipflop store o romember binary numbers? Unlike or nary loge gates the fip-tog changes slsteoand remains in its new Slate even aera momentary input sana Nowmaly bot Input of the NaNg te fip-op are at foie and the late Ie cleared (@ ‘2h, But apsving oven a vry bret Oto tho sot put wil se he latch (O= ti GO, Yo lath wl remaln st (toring 1 ts Q output) unt Its eleore by a Brt 0 aped to tho oso rut i al this is baginning ta sound afte complleata, nore’ a truth wich nicely sums Up eventing we've covered In iis set: ‘2, The most basio sequential loge circuit is the 4 The types of soquenta loge eeuts ar called on ANSWERS: 1, Sequenta circuits nave the ability to etco binary numbers; they 2 Flpston 2, Aaynohronoue and synchronous. THE BASIC FLIP-FLOP Here's hom you connect couple of NAND gates together In erss-roes fashion to form a simple lp-op ro “This is fascinating ile cioul 2 las fake time to analyze. First Temorbor that the suput of opie gate ls eter 0 or 4, Knowing th {ete assume tho et input of cur baste Tipfop ts logical t and the reset * cueckeomr | janie 1. What th bg citernce between combinational and sequent ay Iie sree Pee |e ‘Simplo, isn't? Just member tls rath tale an the fact thatthe atch Store its output sates even ater the Inpat information Is removed, ahd youve got it mage. Now hera's that checkpoint cHecKPomT 4, True or False: The basi RS fiplop ig a wus agtletoran 2, Borels an RS ips win 2 0 on tho sot input and 1 on he re S01 nput Fil Inthe loge eats at the indicted sp 3 A lipsop is cleared wnen the output I 0. Therefore, you place ‘logical atthe reset npul Or you ean return both fe MS pute forthoirnomal opie ea (i) Betore moving on it's Important to nete thet you can bulld an RS flp- flop ftom 2 couple ot NOF gees, too. Here's how i look! 5 do all the workin NANO gate flp-tops. Normally bol inputs are log fal But a0 at the sel input store @'1 at tho Q output and 20 81 Re Feeel input cleara the fp, ‘The 1s dol the work In NOR gate ipstons. Normal, both inputs ‘ogicl 0. tates! tat the sot input stores tat the @ Output At at ‘he reset input clears the fp ton Hare's the truth table safes FT esstowes Incidental, bout that dealiowed ete sana, When both inputs tothe [NOR gale latch are 1, both outputs become O—but only neh the input ogi stats are maintain, When the inuteignaia are removed the ut. ts may assume any sat. That'e why thi state anid to. ciao, ‘SUMMARIZING THE BASIC RS FLIP-FLOP ven hough the basic RS Mp-op ls mage from only two gates its ies! always considered an independent ogi bulling block andy Bolized by box or rectangle, ‘ten onty one ofthe outputs of the flop ie used (uaully Q), This ‘makes fora unique Kind af “gate” sina th Gulu state responds fo the ‘wo inputs on an inddual base. A singe two input NaN gets, for you tke logle ciagrams, youve probably sready followed a couple of Os'and ts trough the clocked fip-lop ta see how it works, Goods ta nice to know what's going on hide aCocked tip-op (terete several ‘ypes) because i's th clmplst synchronous sequential ogie eco, Even if You dont want ofollew some Os and 1s tough the circuit's ‘bvlous that no bits are going get othe two NANB gates (he fos Bar ofthe circuit) unless logical 1 i atthe clack inpul Otreros {ose two NAND gates up trot il block ary signal ntoned forthe st or rest inputs of he fipson. \nen a clock pul i dolvered to the clock input the ope tte at Fand § inputs are immediately delivered tothe NAND gate tipefop. Ths makes the lock input sort of stop and go alte sigtal which il ts fipsiop when ican rocolve naw information. Ts eapabiy le very Ine portant since it allows dozona or even nundrosa of tip-tope fo operate In pertect synchronization when each ie contolisd by the sams close ‘a wel soon soe, chaing of synchanized pope ean cout. Slids fn peor omer sett operations cnecxpomr 1. A clocked RS flop ignores incoming binary signals at its RS Inputs when tne slack input los ca 2 Can a clocked RS f-igp be made rom NOR getee? 5 fea clocked Tlpop a sbrage cevice? ANSWERS: 10. 2 Ot course! 3 Yes. ‘THE D FLIP-FLOP: ‘Ale cousin ofthe RS fp-p Is the D fon Five NAND getes can Be connected Together to make clocked © tip top
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