A MANUAL

OF

ENGINEERING DRAWING
FOR

STUDENTS AND DKAFTSMEN;

BY

THOMAS E. FRENCH, M. E.
PROFESSOR OP ENGINEERING DRAWING, THE OHIO STATE UNIVERSITY

NEW YORK
McGRAW-HILL BOOK COMPANY
239 WEST 39TH STREET, NEW YORK
1911
 COPYRIGHT, 1911
BY THE
MCGRAW-HILL BOOK COMPANY

Printed and Electrotyped

by The Maple Press
York, Pa.
 PEEFACE

There is method in the teaching of engineer-

a wide diversity of
ing drawing, and perhaps less uniformity in the courses in differ-
ent schools than would be found in most subjects taught in
technical schools and colleges. In some well-known instances
the attempt is made to teach the subject by giving a series of

plates to be copied by the student. Some give all the time to

laboratory work, others depend principally upon recitations and
home work. Some begin immediately on the theory of descrip-
tive geometry, working in all the angles, others discard theory
and commence with a course in machine detailing. Some
advocate the extensive use of models, some condemn their use
entirely.
Different courses have been designed for different purposes,
and criticism is not intended, but it would seem that better unity
of method might result if there were a better recognition of the
conception that drawing is a real language, to be studied and
taught in the same way as any other language. With this
conception it may be seen that except for the practice in the
handling and use of instruments, and for showing certain stand-
ards of execution, copying drawings does little more in the study
as an art of expression of thought than copying paragraphs from
a German book would do in beginning the study of the German
language.
And it would appear equally true that good pedagogy would
not advise taking up composition in a new language before the
simple structure of the sentence is understood and appreciated;
"
that is, working drawings" would not be considered until after
the theory of projection has been explained.
After a knowledge of the technic of expression, the "pen-
manship and orthography/' the whole energy should be directed
toward training in constructive imagination, the perceptive
ability which enables one to think in three dimensions, to visual-
v

222476
vi PREFACE

ize quickly and accurately, to build up a clear mental image, a

requirement absolutely necessary for the designer who is to
represent his thoughts on paper. That this may be accomplished
more readily by taking up solids before points and lines has been
demonstrated beyond dispute.
It is then upon this plan, regarding drawing as a language, the
universal graphical language of the industrial world, with its
varied forms of expression, its grammar and its style, that this
book has been built. It is not a "course in drawing," but a
text-book, with exercises and problems in some variety from
which selections may be made.
Machine parts furnish the best illustrations of principles, and
have been used freely, but the book is intended for all engineering
students. Chapters on architectural drawing and map drawing
have been added, as in the interrelation of the professions every
engineer should be able to read and work from such drawings.
In teaching the subject, part of the time, at least one hour per
week, may profitably be scheduled for class lectures, recitations,
and blackboard work, at which time there may be distributed
"study sheets" or home plates, of problems on the assigned
lesson, to be drawn in pencil and returned at the next correspond-
ing period. In the drawing-room period, specifications for plates,
to be approved in pencil and some finished by inking or tracing,
should be assigned, all to be done under the careful supervision
of the instructor.
The judicious use of models is of great aid, both in technical
sketching and, particularly, in drawing to scale, in aiding the
student to feel the sense of proportion between the drawing and
the structure, so that in reading a drawing he may have the
ability to visualize not only the shape, but the size of the object
represented.
In beginning drawing it is not advisable to use large plates.
One set of commercial drafting-room sizes is based on the division
of a 36"x48" sheet into 24"x36", 18"x24", 12"xl8" and 9"xl2".
The size 12"xl8" is sufficiently large for first year work, while
9"xl2" is not too small for earlier plates.

Grateful acknowledgement is made of the assistance of Messrs.

Robert Meiklejohn, O. E. Williams, A. C. Harper, Cree Sheets,
F. W. Ives, W. D. Turnbull, and W. J. Norris of the staff of the
Department of Engineering Drawing, Ohio State University, not
 PREFACE vii

only in the preparation of the drawings, but in advice and

suggestion on the text. Other members of the faculty of this
University have aided by helpful criticism.
The aim has been to conform to modern engineering practice,
and it is hoped that the practical consideration of the draftsman's
needs will give the book permanent value as a reference book in
the student's library.
The author will be glad to co-operate with teachers using it as
a text-book.
COLUMBUS, OHIO.
May 6, 1911.
 CONTENTS
PAGE
PREFACE v
CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTORY 1

Engineering drawing as a language Its division into mechanical

drawing and technical sketching Requirements in its study. -

CHAPTER II. THE SELECTION OF INSTRUMENTS 4

Quality List of instruments and materials for linedrawing The
pivot joint Points to observe in selecting instruments Com-
passes Dividers Ruling pens Bow instruments Drawing
boards T-squares Triangles Scales Inks Pens Curves
Drawing papers etc. Description of special instruments and
devices Railroad pen Curve pen Lettering pens Proportional
dividers Beam compass Drop pen Protractor Section liners
Drafting machines Vertical drawing boards Other instru-
ments and appliances.

CHAPTER III. THE USE OF INSTRUMENTS 23

Good form drawing Preparation for drawing The pencil The
in

T-square Laying out the drawing Use of dividers To divide a

line by trial Use of the triangles Use of the compasses Use
of the scale Inking Faulty lines The alphabet of lines Use of
the French curve Exercises A page of cautions.

CHAPTER IV. APPLIED GEOMETRY 47

Applications of the principles of geometry in mechanical drawing
To divide a line into any number of parts To transfer a given
polygon to a new base To inscribe a regular octagon in a square
To draw a circular arc through three points To draw an arc tan-
gent to two lines To draw an ogee curve To rectify an arc The
conic sections Methods of drawing the ellipse Approximate ellip-
ses The parabola The rectangular hyperbola The cycloid
The epicycloid The hypocycloid Involutes The spiral of
Archimedes.

CHAPTER V. LETTERING 58

Importance Should be done freehand Pens for lettering

Single-stroke vertical caps Single-stroke inclined caps The
Reinhardt letter Spacing and composition Titles.

ix
x CONTENTS

CHAPTER VI. ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTION 65

Definition The planes of projection Writing the lan-
Principles
guage and reading the language Auxiliary views Sectional views
Section lining Revolution The true length of a line Shade
lines Problems, in seven groups.

CHAPTER VII.^ DEVELOPED SURFACES AND INTERSECTIONS . . . 100

Classification of surfaces, ruled surfaces, double curved surfaces
Developments Practical considerations To develop the hexag-
onal prism The cylinder The hexagonal pyramid The rectan-
gular pyramid The truncated cone Double curved surfaces
Triangulation Development of the oblique cone Transition
pieces The intersection of surfaces Two cylinders Cylinder
and cone Cutting spheres Two cones Problems, in ten groups.

CHAPTER VIII. PICTORIAL REPRESENTATION 122

Use of conventional picture methods, their advantages, disad-
vantages, and limitations Isometric drawing The isometric
section Oblique projection Rules for placing the object The
offset method Cabinet drawing The principle of axonometric
projection Dimetric system Clinographic projection and its use
in crystallography Problems Reading exercises, orthographic
sketches to be translated into pictorial sketches.

CHAPTER IX. WORKING DRAWINGS 145

Definitions Classes of working drawings "Style" in drawing
Order of penciling Order of inking Dimensioning, General
rules for dimensioning Finish mark Notes and specifications
Bill of material Contents of title Requirements in com-
Title
mercial Fastenings Helix Screw threads Forms of
drafting
threads Conventional threads Bolts and nuts Lock nuts
Cap screws Studs Set screws Machine screws, etc. Pipe
threads and fittings Gears Method of representation Con-
ventional symbols and their use Commercial sizes Checking
Structural drawing Rivets, Examples of structural drawing,
Differences in practice Problems.

CHAPTER X. TECHNICAL SKETCHING 201

Its necessity to the engineer Sketching in orthographic pro-
jection Dimensioning Cross-section paper Sketching by pic-
torial methods, Axonometric, Oblique, Perspective Principles of
perspective Exercises.

CHAPTER XI... THE ELEMENTS OF ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING . . 214

Characteristics of drawing Kinds of drawings
architectural
Display and competitive drawings Rendering Poohe* and
Mosaic Preliminary sketching Use of tracing paper Working
drawings Plans Elevations Sections Details Dimensioning
Lettering Titles.
 CONTENTS xi

CHAPTER XII. MAP AND TOPOGRAPHICAL DRAWING 229

Classification of Maps Plats, A farm survey, Plats of subdivisions,
City plats Topographical drawing, Contours, Hill shading, Water
lining Topographic symbols, Culture,' Relief, Water features,
Vegetation, Common faults Lettering Government Maps
Profiles.

CHAPTER XIII. DUPLICATION, AND DRAWING FOR REPRODUCTION. 248

Tracing Tracing cloth Blue printing, Methods, Formulae Van
Dyke prints Transparentizing Various suggestions Prepara-
tion of drawings for reproduction Zinc etching Half tones
Retouching The wax process Lithography.

CHAPTER XIV. NOTES ON COMMERCIAL PRACTICE 257

Suggestions and miscellaneous information To sharpen a pen

To make a lettering pen Line shading, use, and methods Patent
office drawings, rules, and suggestions Stretching paper and
tinting Mounting tracing paper Mounting on cloth Methods of
copying drawings Pricking Transfer by rubbing A transpar-
ent drawing board The pantograph Proportional squares
About tracings Preserving drawings Filing drawings Misel-
laneous hints.

CHAPTER XV. BIBLIOGRAPHY OF ALLIED SUBJECTS 274

A short classified list of books on allied subjects, Architectural
drawing Gears and gearing Handbooks
Descriptive geometry
LetteringMachine drawing and design Perspective Render-
ing Shades and shadows Sheet metal Stereotomy Structural
drawing Surveying Technic and standards Topographical
drawing Miscellaneous.

INDEX. 281
ENGINEERING DRAWING
 ENGINEERING DRAWING

CHAPTER I.

INTRODUCTORY.

By the term Engineering Drawingis meant drawing as used

in the industrial world by engineers and designers, as the lan-

guage in which is expressed and recorded the ideas and informa-
tion necessary for the building of machines and structures; as
distinguished from drawing as a fine art, as practised by artists
in pictorial representation.
The artist strives to produce, either from the model or land-
scape before him, or through his creative imagination, a picture
which will impart to the observer something as nearly as may be
of the same mental impression as that produced by the object

itself, or as that in the artist's mind. As there are no lines in

nature, if he is limited in his medium to lines instead of color
and light and shade, he is able only to suggest his meaning, and
must depend upon the observer's imagination to supply the lack.
The engineering draftsman has a greater task. Limited to
outline alone, he may not simply suggest his meaning, but must
give exact and positive information regarding every detail of the
machine or structure existing in his imagination. Thus drawing
to him is more than pictorial representation; it is a complete
graphical language, by whose aid he may describe minutely every
operation necessary, and may keep a complete record of the work
for duplication or repairs.
In the artist's case the result can be understood, in greater or
less degree, by any one. The draftsman's result does not show
the object as it would appear to the eye when finished, conse-
quently his drawing can be read and understood only by one
trained in the language.
1
2 ENGINEERING DRAWING

Thus as the foundation upon which all designing is based,

engineering drawing becomes, with perhaps the exception of
mathematics, the most important single branch of study in a
technical school.
When this language is written exactly and accurately, it is
done with the aid of mathematical instruments, and is called
mechanical drawing.* When done with the unaided hand,
without the assistance of instruments or appliances, it is known
as freehand drawing, or technical sketching. Training in both
these methods is necessary for the engineer, the first to develop
accuracy of measurement and manual dexterity, the second
to train in comprehensive observation, and to give control and
mastery of form and proportion.
Our object then is to study this language so that we may write
it, express ourselves clearly to one familiar with it, and may
read it readily when written by another. To do this wemust
know the alphabet, the grammar and the composition, and be
familiar with the idioms, the accepted conventions and the
abbreviations.
This new language is entirely a graphical or written one. It
cannot be read aloud, but is interpreted by forming a mental
picture of the subject represented; and the student's success in
it willbe indicated not alone by his skill in execution, but by
his ability to interpret his impressions, to visualize clearly in

space.
It is not a language to be learned only by a comparatively
few draftsmen, who will be professional writers of it, but should
be understood by all connected with or interested in technical
industries, and the training its study gives in quick, accurate
observation, and the power of reading description from lines, is
of a value quite unappreciated by those not familiar with it.
In this study we must
first of all become familiar with the

technic of expression, and as instruments are used for accurate

work, the first requirement is the ability to use these instruments
correctly. With continued practice will come a facility in their
use which will free the mind from any thought of the means of
expression.

* The term "Mechanical Drawing" constructive

is often applied to all
graphics, and, although an unfortunate misnomer, has the sanction of long
usage.
 INTRODUCTORY 3

A knowledge of geometry is desirable as there will be frequent

applications of geometrical principles.
We
recommend therefore, as preliminary, the drawing of one
or two practice plates, and a few of the geometrical figures of
Chapter IV which are often referred to, before the mind is
" "
occupied with the real principles or grammar of the language.
 CHAPTER II.

THE SELECTION OF INSTRUMENTS.

In the selection of instruments and material for drawing the
only general advice that can be given is to secure the best that
can be afforded. For one who expects to do work of professional

grade it is a great mistake to

buy Some-
inferior instruments.
times a beginner is tempted by the suggestion to get cheap
instruments for learning, with the expectation of getting better
ones later. With reasonable care a set of good instruments will
last a lifetime, while poor ones will be an annoyance from the

start,and will be worthless after short usage. As good and poor

instruments look so much alike that an amateur is unable to
distinguish them it is well to have the advice of a competent
judge, or to buy only from a trustworthy and experienced dealer.
This chapter will be devoted to a short description of the instru-
ments usually necessary for drawing, and mention of some not
in every-day use, but which are of convenience for special work.
In this connection, valuable suggestions may be found in the
catalogues of the large instrument houses, notably Theo. Alteneder
& Sons, Philadelphia; the Keuffel & Esser Co., New York, and
the Eugene Dietzgen Co., Chicago. With the exception of the
Alteneder instruments, all drawing instruments are made abroad,
principally in Germany. Scales, T-squares, surveying instru-
ments, etc., are, however, made in this country.
The following list includes the necessary instruments and

materials for ordinary line drawing. The items are numbered

for convenience in reference and assignment.

List of Instruments and Materials.

1. Set instruments, in case or chamois roll, including at
of, drawing
least: 5 1/2 in. compass, with fixed needle-point leg, pencil,
pen, and lengthening bar.
5-in. hairspring dividers.
Two ruling pens.
Three bow instruments.
Box of hard leads.
4
 THE SELECTION OF INSTRUMENTS 5

y2. Drawing board.

' 3.
T-square.
/4. 45 and 30-60 triangles.
*r 5. 12-in. architects' scale (two flat or one triangular).
x 6. One doz. thumb tacks.
*
7. One 6 H and one 2 H drawing pencil.
^
8. Pencil pointer.
y 9. Bottle of drawing ink.
10. Penholder, assorted writing pens, and penwiper.
French curves.
-^ 11.

^12. Pencil eraser.

^ 13. Drawing paper, to suit.

To these may added:

14. Cleaning rubber.
15. Hard Arkansas oil stone.
16. Protractor.
17. Bottle holder.
18. Piece of soapstone.
19. 2-ft. or 4-ft. rule..
20. Sketch book.
21. Erasing shield.
22. Dusting cloth.
23. Lettering triangle.
The student should mark all his instruments and materials plainly

with initials or name, as soon as purchased and approved.

(1) modern high-grade instruments are made with some

All
l
form 'pivot joint," originally invented by Theodore Alteneder
of
in 1850 and again patented in 1871. Before this time, and by

FIG. 1. Tongue joint. FIG. 2. Pivot joint (Alteneder).

other makers during thelife of the patent, the heads of compasses

and dividers were made with tongue joints, as illustrated in

Fig. 1, and many of these old instruments are still in existence.
 ENGINEERING DRAWING

A modified form of this pin joint is still used for some of the
cheap grades of instruments. The objection which led to the
abandonment of this form was that the wear of the tongue on
the pin gave a lost motion, which may be detected by holding a
leg in each hand and moving them slowly back and forth. This

A. B
FIG. 3.
Co
Sections of pivot joints.

jump or lost motion after a time increases to such an extent as

to render the instrument unfit for use. The pivot joint, Fig. 2,
overcomes this objection by putting the wear on the conical
points instead of the through pin.
Since the expiration of the patent all instrument makers have
adopted this type of head, and several modifications of the

FIG. 4. The three patterns.

original have been introduced. Sectional views of the different

pivot joints are shown in Fig. 3.
The handle attached to the yoke while not essential to the
working Not all instruments
of the joint is of great convenience.
with handles, however, are pivot-joint instruments. Several
 THE SELECTION OF INSTRUMENTS 7

straightener devices for keeping the handle erect have been

devised, but as they interfere somewhat with the smooth work-
ing of the joint, they are not regarded with favor by experienced
draftsmen.
There are three different patterns or shapes in which modern
compasses are made; the regular, the cylindrical and the Richter,
Fig. 4. The choice of shapes is entirely a matter of personal
preference. After one has^'become accustomed to the balance

FIG. 5. Test for alignment.

and feel of a certain instrument he will not wish to exchange it

for another shape.
A favorite instrument with draftsmen, not included in the
usual college assortment, is the 3 1/2-inch compass with fixed
pencil point, and its companion with fixed pen point.
Compasses may be tested for accuracy by bending the knuckle
joints and bringing the points together as illustrated in Fig. 5.
If out of alignment they should not be accepted,
" "
-dividers are made either as those in
plain, or "hair- Fig. 4,
"
spring, shown in Fig. 6. The latter form, which has one leg
with screw adjustment, is occasionally of great convenience and

FIG. 6. Hairspring dividers.

should be preferred. Compasses may be had also with hair-

spring attachment on the needle-point leg.
Ruling pens (sometimes called right line pens) are made in a
variety of forms. An old type has the upper blade hinged for
convenience in cleaning. It is open to the serious objection
that wear in the joint will throw the nib out of position, and the
only remedy will be to solder the joint fast. The improved form
8 ENGINEERING DRAWING

has a spring blade opening sufficiently wide to allow of cleaning,

Fig. 7. A number are made for resetting after cleaning. Several
of these are illustrated in Fig. 8. The form shown at (e) is
known as a detail pen or Swede pen. For large work this is a
very desirable instrument. Ivory or bone handles break easily
and on this account should not be purchased. The nibs of the

D
FIG. 7. Ruling pen, with spring blade.

pen should be shaped as shown in Fig. 434. Cheap pens often

come from the factory with points too sharp for use, and must be
dressed, as described on page 257, before they can be used.
The set of three spring bow instruments includes bow points
or spacers, bow pencil, and bow pen. There are two designs and
several sizes. The standard shape is illustrated in Fig. 9, the

FIG. 8. Various pens.

hook spring bow in Fig. 10. Both these styles are made with
a center screw, Fig. 11, but this form has not become popular
among draftsmen. The springs of the side screw bows should
be strong enough to open to the length of the screw, but not so
stiff as to be difficult to
pinch together. The hook spring bow
has a softer spring than the regular.
 THE SELECTION OF INSTRUMENTS 9

(2) Drawing boards are made of clear white pine (bass wood
has been used as a substitute) cleated to prevent warping.
Care should be taken in their selection. In drafting-rooms

FIG. 9. Spring bow instruments.

FIG. 10. Hook-spring bow instruments. FIG. 11. Center screw bow.

drawing tables with pine tops are generally used instead of loose
boards.
(3) The T-square with head, Fig. 12, is used for all
fixed

ordinary work. It should be of hard wood, the blade perfectly

straight, although it is not necessary that the head be absolutely
10 ENGINEERING DRAWING

square with the blade. In a long square it is preferable to have

the head shaped as at B. Fig. 13 is the English type, which is
objectionable in that the lower edge is apt to disturb the eyes'
sense of perpendicularity. In an office equipment there should
always be one or more adjustable head squares, Fig. 14. The

A
M
J\

FIG. 12. Fixed head T-squares.

T-square blade may be tested for straightness by drawing a sharp

linewith it, then reversing the square.
(4) Triangles (sometimes called set squares) are made of pear
wood or cherry, mahogany with ebony edges> hard rubber, and
transparent celluloid. The latter are much to be preferred for

FIG. 13. English T-square.

a variety of reasons, although they have a tendency to warp.

Wooden triangles cannot be depended upon for accuracy, and
hard rubber should not be tolerated. For ordinary work a
6"- or 8"-45 degree and a 10"-60 degree are good sizes. A small
triangle, 67 1/2 degrees to 70 degrees, will be of value for drawing
 THE SELECTION OF INSTRUMENTS 11

guide lines in slant lettering. Triangles may be tested for

accuracy by drawing perpendicular lines as shown in Fig. 15.
The angles may be- proven by constructing 45- and 60-degree
angles geometrically.

FIG. 14. Adjustable head T-squares.

FIG. 15. To test a triangle.

(5) Scales.
There are two kinds of modern scales, the "engineers' scale"
of decimal parts, Fig. 16, and the "architects' scale" of propor-
tional feet and inches, Fig. 17. The former is used for plotting
12 ENGINEERING DRAWING

and map drawing, and in the graphic solution of problems, the

latter for all machine and structural drawings. Scales are

usually made of boxwood, sometimes of metal or paper, and of

shapes shown in section in Fig. 18. The triangular form (a) is
perhaps the commonest. Its only advantage is that it has more

\\u\\\\\\y \\\\\ \u\\\\\\\\\\\\ \u\\\\\ y\\\\\\ \\y\\\\\\\ v\v

\ 09 os M vs zs oc ev 9V W zv ov- Bg ye V M
^ XAAAAM^^^
FIG. 16. Engineers' scale.

scales on one stick than the others, but this is offset by the delay
in finding the scale wanted. Flat scales are much more con-
venient, and should be chosen on this account. Three flat scales
"
are the equivalent of one triangular scale. The opposite bevel"
scale (e) is easier to pick up than the regular form (d). Many

V~V
v^Yvvv^vyvyvv^^
] * 3 4 W-W " ^T
o\ \\ V
x ? x
\ \ \ *\ \ u
FIG. 17. Architects' scale.

professional draftsmen use a set of 6 or 8 scales, each graduated

in one division only, as Fig. 19.
For the student two 12" flat scales, one graduated in inches
and sixteenths, and 3" and 1 1/2", the other 1", 1/2", 1/4", 1/8",
will serve for all ordinary work. The usual triangular scale

contains in addition to these, 3/4", 3/8", 3/16" and 3/32", and

third flat scale with these divisions may be added when needed.
(6) The best thumb tacks are made with thin German silver
head and steel point screwed into it (a) Fig. 20, and cost as high
as seventy-five cents a dozen. The ordinary stamped tacks (b)
 THE SELECTION OF INSTRUMENTS 13

thirty cents ahundred answer every purpose. Tacks with com-

paratively short, tapering pins should be chosen. Instead of
thumb tacks many draftsmen prefer 1/2- or 1-oz. copper tacks,
but they are not recommended for students' use.
(7) Drawing pencils are graded by letters from 6B (very soft
and black) 5B, 4B, 3B, 2B, B, HB, F, H, 2H, 3H, 4H, 5H, 6H,
to 8H (extremely hard). For line work 6H is generally used.
A softer pencil (2H) should be used for lettering, sketching and

FIG. 19. Single scale from a set.

penciling not to be inked. Koh-i-noor or Faber are recom-

mended. Many prefer a holder known as an "artists' pencil."
(8) A
sandpaper pencil pointer or flat file should always be at
hand for sharpening the leads.

(9) Drawing ink is finely ground carbon in suspension, with

shellac added to render it waterproof. The non-waterproof ink
flows more freely, but smudges very easily.
Formerly all good drawings were made with stick ink, rubbed
up for use with water in a slate slab, and for very fine line work
this is still preferred as being superior to liquid ink. When

FIG. 20.

used in warm weather a few drops of acetic acid or oxgall should

be added to prevent flies from eating it. A fly can eat up a line
made of good Chinese ink as fast as it leaves the pen.
(10) The penholder should have a cork grip small enough to
enter the mouth of ink bottle. An assortment of pens for letter-
ing, grading from coarse to fine may be chosen from the following:
(Coarse) Leonardos ball points 506 F, 516 F, 516 EF, or Gillott
1032, 1087, Spencerian No. 21, Esterbrook 788, 802, 805.
14 ENGINEERING DRAWING

(Medium) Spencerian No. 1, Gillott 604, 1050.

(Fine) Gillott No. 1, 303, 170.
(Very fine) For mapping and similar work, Gillott 431, 290,
291 and tit quill.
A penwiper of lintless cloth or thin chamois skin should always
be at hand for both writing and ruling pens.

FIG. 21. Curve.

(11) Curved rulers, called irregular curves, or French curves,

are used for curved lines other than circle arcs. Celluloid is the

only material to be considered. The patterns for these curves

are laid out in parts of ellipses and spirals or other mathematical
curves in combinations which will give the closest approximation
to curves likely to be met with in practice. For the student, one
ellipse curve, of the general shape of Fig. 21, and one spiral,

PIG. 22. Logarithmic spiral curve.

either a log. spiral, Fig. 22, or one similar to the one used in Fig.
65, will be sufficient. It has been found by experiments that
the curve of the logarithmic spiral is a closer approximation to
the cycloid and other mathematical curves than any other simple
curve.
Sometimes it is advisable for the draftsman to make his own
 THE SELECTION OF INSTRUMENTS 15

templet for special or recurring curves. These may be cut out

of thin holly or bass wood, sheet lead, celluloid, or even card-
board or pressboard.
Flexible curved rulers of different kinds are sold. A copper
wire or piece of wire solder has been used as a home-made
substitute.
The curve illustrated in Fig. 23 has been found particularly
useful for engineering diagrams, steam curves, etc. It is plotted
on the polar equation r cos =A
+ K, in which may be A
about 5 I/ 2" and K 8".
(12) The ruby pencil eraser is the favorite at present. One
of large size, with beveled end is preferred. This eraser is much

FIG. 23.

better for ink than a so-called ink eraser, as it will remove the
ink perfectly without destroying the surface of paper or cloth.
H
A piece of soft " " rubber, or sponge rubber is useful f Or cleaning
paper.
(13) Drawing paper is made in a variety of qualities, white for
finished drawings and cream or buff tint for detail drawings.
It may be had either in sheets or rolls. In general, paper should
have "
sufficient grain to tooth" to take the pencil, be agreeable
to the eye, and have good erasing qualities. In white paper the
brands known as "Normal" and "Napoleon" have these
qualities. For wash drawings Whatman's paper should be used,
and for fine line work for reproduction Reynold's Bristol board.
These are both English papers in sheets, whose sizes may be
found listed in any dealer's catalogue. Whatman's is a hand-
made paper in three finishes, H, C.P., and R, or hot pressed,
cold pressed, and rough; the first for fine line drawings, the second
for either ink or color, and the third for water color sketches.
The paper in the larger sheets is heavier than in the smaller sizes,
hence it is better to buy large sheets and cut them up. Bristol
board is a very smooth paper, made in different thicknesses,
16 ENGINEERING DRAWING

2-ply, 3-ply, 4-ply, etc.; 3-ply is generally used. For working

drawings the cream or buff detail papers are much easier on the
eyes than white papers. The cheap manilla papers should be
avoided. A few cents more per yard is well spent in the increased
comfort gained from working on good paper. In buying in
quantity it is cheaper to buy roll paper by the pound. For maps

FIG. 24. Railroad pen. FIG. 25. Double pen. FIG. 26. Curve pen.

or other drawings which are to withstand hard usage, mounted

papers, with cloth backing are used. Drawings to be duplicated
by blue printing are made on bond or ledger papers, or traced on
tracing paper or tracing cloth. Tracing and the duplicating
processes are described in Chapter XIII.
The foregoing instruments and materials are all that are needed
in ordinary practice, and are as a rule, with the exception of
paper, pencils, ink, erasers, etc., classed as supplies, what a
 THE SELECTION OF INSTRUMENTS 17

draftsman is expected to take with him into a commercial

drafting room.
There are many other special instruments and devices not
necessary in ordinary work. With some of these the draftsman

FIG. 27. Lettering pens.

should be familiar, as they may be very convenient in some

special cases, and are often found as part of a drafting room

equipment.
The railroad pen is used for double lines. In selecting this

FIG. 28. Proportional dividers.

pen notice that the pens are turned as illustrated in Fig. 24.
Most forms have the pens in opposite directions. A much better
pen for double lines up to 1/4" apart is the border pen, Fig. 25,
as it can be held down to the paper more satisfactorily. It may

FIG. 29. Beam compass.

be used for very wide solid lines by inking the middle space as
well as the two pens.
The curve pen, Fig. 26, made with a swivel, for freehand curves,
contours, etc., is of occasional value.
2
18 ENGINEERING DRAWING

Fig. 27A, for large single stroke lettering

save a
Payzant pens,
great deal of time. They are made in sizes from \ to 6. Fig.
27 B is the Shepard pen, made for the same purpose.
in any propor-
Proportional dividers, for enlarging or reducing

FIG. 30. Drop pen.

tion, Fig. 28, are used in map work, patent office drawings, etc.
The divisions marked "lines" are linear proportions, those
marked "circles" give the setting for dividing a circle whose
diameter is measured by the large end into the desired number
of equal parts.

FIG. 31. Protractor.

The beam compass is used for circles larger than the capacity
of the compass and lengthening bar. A good form is illustrated
in Fig. 29. The bar with shoulder prevents the parts from
turning or falling off.
 THE SELECTION OF INSTRUMENTS 19

With the " drop pen " or rivet pen smaller circles can be made,
and made much faster than with the bow pen. It is held as
shown in Fig. 30, the needle point stationary and the pen revolving
around it. It is of particular convenience in bridge and structural
work, and in topographical drawing.

FIG. 32. Section liner.

A protractor is a necessity in map and topographical work.

A semicircular brass or German silver one, 6" diameter, such as
Fig. 31, will read to half degrees. They may be had with an arm
and vernier reading to minutest

D D

FIG. 33. Section lining devices.

Section lining or "

cross hatching" is a difficult operation for
the beginner, but is done almost automatically by the experienced
draftsman. Several instruments for mechanical spacing have
been devised. For ordinary work they are not worth the trouble
20 ENGINEERING DRAWING

of setting up,and a draftsman should never become dependent

for
upon them, but they are of limited value for careful drawing
reproduction. One form is shown in Fig. 32.
A home-made device may be made of a piece of thin wood or

FIG. 34. Universal drafting machine.

one of the shapes shown in Fig. 33, and used by

celluloid cut in

slipping the block and holding the triangle, then holding the
block and moving the triangle.
There are several machines on the market designed to save time

FIG. 35. Dotting pen.

and trouble in drawing. The best known is the Universal

Drafting Machine illustrated in Fig. 34. This machine, which
combines the functions of T-square, triangle, scale and protractor,
has had the test of ten years' use, and is used extensively in large
 THE SELECTION OF INSTRUMENTS 21

drafting rooms, and by practising engineers and architects. It

has been estimated that 25% of time in machine drawing and
over 50 % in civil engineering work is saved by its use.
Vertical drawing boards with sliding parallel straight edges
.are preferred by some for large work.

FIG. 36. FIG. 37.

Several kinds of dotting pens have been introduced. The

one illustrated in Fig. 35 is perhaps the best. When carefully
handled it works successfully, and will make five different kinds
<of dotted and dashed lines. The length of the short dots may

FIG. 38. FIG. 39.

be varied by a slight inclination of the handle. For special work

requiring a great many dotted lines it might prove to be a good
investment.
A number of different forms of patented combination "tri-
22 ENGINEERING DRAWING

angles" have been devised. Of these the best known are the
Kelsey, Fig. 36, the Rondinella, Fig. 37, and the Zange, Fig. 38.
Bottle holders prevent the possibility of ruining the drawing,
table or floor by the upsetting of the ink bottle. Fig. 39 is a

FIG. 40.

usual form, Fig. 40 a novelty by the Alteneder Co. by whose aid

the pen may be filled with one hand and time saved thereby.
Erasing shields of metal or celluloid, meant to protect the
drawing while an erasure is being made, are sold. Slots for the
purpose may be cut as needed from sheet celluloid or tough paper.
 CHAPTER III.

THE USE OF INSTRUMENTS.

In beginning the use of drawing instruments particular atten-

tion should be paid to correct method in their handling. There
are many instructions and cautions, whose reading may seem
tiresome, and some of which may appear trivial, but the strict
observance of all these details is really necessary, if one would

become proficient in the art.

Facility will come with continued practice, but from the outset
good form must be insisted upon. One might learn to write
fairly,holding the pen between the fingers or gripped in the closed
hand, but it would be poor form. It is just as bad to draw in
poor form as to write in poor form. Bad form in drawing is
distressingly common, and may be traced in every instance to
lack of care or knowledge at the beginning, and the consequent
formation of bad habits. These habits when once formed are
most difficult to overcome.
All the mechanical drawing we do serves incidentally for
practice in the use of instruments, but it is best for the beginner
to learn the functions and become familiar with the handling and
feel of each of his instruments by drawing two or three plates
designed solely for that purpose, so that when real drawing
problems are assigned the use of the instruments will be easy and
natural, and there need be no distraction nor loss of time on
account of correction for faulty manipulation.
Thus while the drawings are worth nothing when finished
except to show the student's proficiency and skill, some such
figures as those on pages 42 and 45 should be practised until he
feelsa degree of ability and assurance, and is no^ afraid of his
instruments.
As these figures are for discipline and drill, the instructor should
not accept a plate with the least inaccuracy, blot, blemish, or
indication of ink erasure. It is a mistaken kindness to the

beginner to accept faulty or careless work. The standard set at

this time will be carried through his professional life, and he
23
24 ENGINEERING DRAWING

should learn that a good drawing can be made just as quickly

as a poor one. Erasing is expensive and mostly preventable,
and the student allowed to continue in a careless way will grow
to regard his eraser and jack knife as the most important tools
in his kit. The draftsman of course erases an occasional mistake,
and instructions in making corrections may be given later in
the course, but these first plates must not be erased.

Preparation for Drawing.

The drawing table should be set so that the light comes from
the left, and adjusted to a convenient height for standing, that

is,from 36 to 40 inches, with the board inclined at a slope of

about 1 to 8. One may draw with more freedom standing than
sitting.

The Pencil.
The must be selected with reference to the kind of paper
pencil
used. For line drawing on paper of such texture as " Normal "
a pencil as hard as 6H may be used, while on Bristol, for example,
a softer one would be preferred. Sharpen it to a long point as
in Fig. 41 removing the wood with the penknife and sharpening
the lead by rubbing it on the sand paper pad. A flat or wedge

FIG. 41. A wedge point.

point will not wear away in use as fast as a conical point, and on
that account is preferred for straight line work by most drafts-
men. By oscillating the pencil slightly while rubbing the lead
on two opposite sides, an elliptical section is obtained. A softer
pencil (2H) should be at hand, sharpened to a long conical point
for sketching and lettering. Have the sand paper pad within
reach and keep the pencils sharp. Pencil lines should be made
lightly,but sufficiently firm and sharp to be seen distinctly
without eye strain, for inking or tracing. The beginner's usual
mistake in using a hard pencil is to cut tracks in the paper. Too
 THE USE OF INSTRUMENTS 25

much emphasis cannot be given to the importance of clean,

careful, accurate penciling. Never permit the thought that poor
penciling may be corrected in inking.

The T-Square.
The T-square is used only on the left edge of the drawing

board (an exception to this is made in the case of a left-handed

person, whose table should be arranged with the light coming
from the right and the T-square used on the right edge).
Since the T-square blade is more rigid near the head than
toward the outer end, the paper, if much smaller than the size
of the board, should be placed close to the left edge of the board
(within an inch or so) with its lower edge several inches from the
bottom. With the T-square against the left edge of the board,

FIG. 42.

square the top of the paper approximately, hold in this position,

slipping the T-square down from the edge, and put a thumb tack
in each upper corner, pushing it in up to the head; move the

T-square down over the paper to smooth out possible wrinkles

and put thumb tacks in the other two corners.
The T-square is used manifestly for drawing parallel horizontal
lines. These lines should always be drawn from left to right,
consequently points for their location should be marked on the
left side; vertical lines are drawn with the triangle set against

the T-square, always with the perpendicular edge nearest the

26 ENGINEERING DRAWING

head of the square and toward the light. These lines are always
drawn up from bottom to top, consequently their location points
should be made at the bottom.
In drawing lines great care must be exercised in keeping them
accurately parallel to the T-square or triangle, holding the pencil
point lightly, but close against the edge, and not varying the
angle during the progress of the line.

The T-square is adjusted by holding it in the position either

of Fig. 42 the thumb up, and fingers touching the board under

FIG. 43.

the head, or of Fig. 43, the fingers on the blade and the thumb on
the board. In drawing vertical lines the T-square is held in
position against the left edge of the board, the thumb on the
blade, while the fingers of the left hand adjust the triangle, as
illustrated in Fig. 44. One may be sure the T-square is in contact
with the board by hearing the little double click as it comes
against it.

Laying off the Drawing.

The paper is usually cut somewhat
larger than the desired
size of the drawing, and is trimmed to size after the work is
finished. Suppose the plate is to be 9" x 12" with a half-inch
 THE USE OF INSTRUMENTS 27

border. Near the lower edge of the paper draw a horizontal line,
and near the left edge a vertical line. If the lower left-hand
corner of the board is known to be square these long vertical

lines may be drawn with the T-square thrown around against

the lower edge. With the scale flat on the paper mark off on
these lines the length and width of the finished plate, and points

FIG. 44.

for the border 1/2" inside these marks. Draw lines through these
points giving the trimming line and the border line. These
" "
points should not be dots, or holes bored with the pencil, but
short, light dashes.

Use of Dividers.

Suppose the space inside the border is to be divided into six

equal parts by bisecting the left border line and dividing the
lower border line into three parts. These divisions are made not
with the scale but with the dividers. Facility in the use of this
28 ENGINEERING DRAWING

instrument ismost essential, and quick and absolute control of

its manipulation must be gained. It should be opened with one
hand by pinching in the chamfer with the thumb and second
finger. This will throw it into correct position with the thumb
and forefinger on the outside of the legs and the second and third
finger on the inside, with the head resting just above the
second
joint of the forefinger, Fig. 45. It is thus under perfect control,

FIG. 45.

with the thumb and forefinger to close it and the other two to
open it. This motion should be practised until an adjustment
to the smallest fraction can be made. In coming down to small
divisions the second and third fingers must be gradually slipped
out from between the legs while they are closed down upon them.

To Divide a Line, by Trial.

In bisecting a line the dividers are opened roughly at a guess
to one-half the length. This distance is stepped off on the line,
holding the instrument by the handle with the thumb and fore-
finger. If the division be short the leg should be thrown out to
one-half the remainder, estimated by the eye, without removing
the other leg from its position on the paper, and the line spaced
again with this setting, Fig. 46. If this should not come out
exactly the operation may be repeated. With a little experience
a line may be divided in this way very rapidly. Similarly a line
may be divided into any number of equal parts, say five, by
estimating the first division, stepping this lightly along the
line,with the dividers held vertically by the handle, turning the
instrument first in one direction and then in the other. If the
last division fall short, one-fifth of the remainder should be added
 THE USE OF INSTRUMENTS 29

by opening the dividers, keeping the one point on the paper.

If the last division be over, one fifth of the excess should be taken
off and the line respaced. If it is found difficult to make this
small adjustment accurately with the fingers, the hairspring
may be used. It will be found more convenient to use the bow

FIG. 46. Bisecting a line.

spacers instead of the dividers for small or numerous divisions.

Avoid pricking unsightly holes in the paper. The position of a
small prick point may be preserved if necessary by drawing a
little ring around it with the pencil.

Use of the Triangles.

We have seen that vertical lines are drawn with the triangle
set against the T-square, Fig. 44. Usually the 60-degree triangle
is used, as it has the longer perpendicular. In both penciling and
inking, the triangles should always be used in contact with a
guiding straight-edge.
With the T-square against the edge of the board, lines at 30
degrees, 45 degrees and 60 degrees may be drawn as shown in
Fig. 47, the arrows showing the direction of motion. The two
triangles may be used in combination for angles of 15, 75, 105
30 ENGINEERING DRAWING

degrees, etc., Fig. 48. Thus any multiple of 15 degrees may be

drawn directly, and a circle may be divided with the 45-degree

FIG. 47.

triangle into 4 or 8 parts, with the 60-degree triangle into 6 or

12 parts, and with both into 24 parts.
To draw a parallel to any line, Fig. 49, adjust to it a triangle

FIG. 48.

held against the T-square or other triangle, hold the guiding edge
in positionand slip the first triangle on it to the required position.
To draw a perpendicular to any line, Fig. 50, fit the hypothenuse
 THE USE OF INSTRUMENTS 31

of a triangle to it, with one edge against the T-square or other

triangle, hold the T-square in position and turn the triangle until
its other side is against the edge, the hypothenuse will then be

perpendicular to the line. Move it to the required position.

FIG. 49. To draw parallel lines.

Never attempt to draw a perpendicular to a line by merely

placing one leg of the triangle against it. Never work to the
extreme corner of a triangle, but keep the T-square away from
the line.

Fi G. 50. To draw perpendicular lines.

Use of the Compasses.

The compass has the same general shape as the dividers and
is manipulated in a similar way. Its needle point should first

of all be adjusted by turning it with the shoulder point out,

32 ENGINEERING DRAWING

inserting the pen in the place of the pencil leg and setting the
needle a longer than the pen. The needle point should be
trifle

kept in this position so as to be always ready for the pen, and the
lead adjusted to it. The lead should be sharpened on the sand

FIG. 51.

paper to a fine wedge or long bevel point. Radii should be

pricked off or marked on the paper and the pencil leg adjusted to
the points. The needle point may be guided to the center with
the little finger of the left hand, Fig. 51. When the lead is

FIG. 52. FIG. 53.

adjusted to pass exactly through the mark the right hand should
be raised to the handle and the circle drawn (clockwise) in one
sweep by turning the compass, rolling the handle with the thumb
and forefinger, inclining it
slightly in the direction of the line,
 THE USE OF INSTRUMENTS 33

Fig. 52. The position of the fingers after the revolution is illus-
trated in Fig. 53. Circles up to perhaps three inches in
diameter may be drawn with the legs straight but for larger
-

sizes both the needle-point leg and the pencil leg should be turned

FIG. 54.

at the knuckle joints so as to be perpendicular to the paper,

Fig. 54. The 5 1/2-inch compass may be used in this way for
up to perhaps ten inches in diameter; larger circles
circles are
made by using the lengthening bar, as illustrated in Fig. 55. In

FIG. 55. Use of lengthening bar.

drawing concentric circles the smallest should always be drawn

first.

The bow instruments are us^L for small circles, particularly

when a number are to be macto^Mhe same diameter. In chang-
3 -*4fl[
34 ENGINEERING DRAWING
of the thread,
ing the setting, to avoid wear and final stripping
the pressure of the spring against the nut should be relieved by
the nut in or out
holding the points in the left hand and spinning
with the ringer. Small adjustments should be made with one
56.
hand, with the needle point in position on the paper, Fig.

FIG. 56.

Use of the Scale.

In representing objects which are larger than can be drawn to

their natural or full size it is necessary to reduce the dimensions

on the drawing proportionately, and for this purpose the archi-

tects' scale is used. The first reduction is to what is commonly
called half size or correctly speaking, to the scale of 6" = 1'; that
is, each dimension is reduced one-half. This scale is used in
working drawings even if the object be only slightly larger than
could be drawn full size, and is generally worked with the full-
size scale, halving the dimensions mentally. If this scale is too

-*--74'.

FIG. 57.

large for the paper the drawing is made to the scale of three
inches to the foot, often called "quarter size," that is, three inches
measured on the drawing is equal to one foot on the object.
This is the first scale of the usual commercial set, on it the
is divided into twelve equal parts and
distance of three inches
each of these subdivided into eighths. This distance should
 THE USE OF INSTRUMENTS 35

be thought of not as three inches but as a foot divided into inches

and eighths of inches. It is noticed that this foot is divided with
the zero on the inside, the inches running to the left and the feet
to the right, so that dimensions given in feet and inches may be
read directly, as 2 ft. 7 1/8", Fig. 57. On the other end will be
found the scale of 11/2 inches equals one foot, or eighth size,
with the distance of one and one-half inches divided on the right
of the zero into twelve parts and subdivided into quarter inches,
and the foot divisions to the left of the zero, coinciding with the
marks of the 3" scale.
, If the 1/2" scale is too large for the object, the next commer-
1

cial size is to the scale of one inch equals one foot, and so on
down as shown in the following table.

Full size 3/4" = 1'

Scale 6" =1' 1/2" = 1'
4" =1' (rarely used) 3/8"=!'
3" = 1' 1/4" =1'
2" =1' (rarely used) 3/16" -I/
11 /2" = 1' 1/8" =1'
1" =1' 3/32"- 1'

The scale 1/4" equals 1 ft. is the usual one for ordinary house
plans and is often called by architects the "quarter scale."
This term should not be confused with the term "quarter size,"
as the former means 1/4" to 1 ft. and the latter 1/4" to 1 inch.
A circle is generally given in terms of its diameter. To draw
it the radius is necessary. In drawing to half size it is thus often
convenient to lay off the amount of the diameter with a 3-in.
scale and to use this distance as the radius.
As far as possible successive measurements on the same line
should be made without
shifting the scale.
For plotting and map drawing the " engineers' scale " of deci-
mal parts 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 80, 100 to the inch, is used.
This scale should never be used for machine or structural work.
Inking.
After being penciled, drawings are finished either by inking
on the paper, or in the great majority of work, by tracing in ink
on tracing cloth. The beginner should become proficient in
inking both on paper and cloth.
The ruling pen is never used freehand, but always in connec-
36 ENGINEERING DRAWING

tion with a guiding edge, either T-square, triangle, straight-edge

or curve. The T-square and triangle should be held in the same
positions as for penciling. It is bad practice to ink with the

triangle alone.
To fill the pen take it to the bottle and touch the quill filler
between the nibs, being careful not to get any ink on the outside
of the blades. Not more than three-sixteenths of an inch should
be put in or the weight of the ink will cause it to drop out in a
blot. The pen should be held as illustrated in Fig. 58, with the
thumb and second finger in such position that they may be used
in turning the adjusting screw, and the handle resting on the

FIG. 58. Holding the pen.

forefinger. This position should be observed carefully, as the

tendency willbe to bend the second finger to the position in
which a pencil or writing pen is held, which is obviously conveni-

ent in writing to give the up stroke, but as this motion is not

required with the ruling pen the position illustrated is preferable.
For full lines the screw should be adjusted to give a strong line,
of the size of the first line of Fig. 62. A fine drawing does not
mean a drawing made with fine lines, but with uniform lines,
and accurate joints and tangents.
The pen should be held against the straight edge with the
blades parallel to it, the handle inclined slightly to the right and
always kept in a plane through the line perpendicular to the
paper. The pen is thus guided by the upper edge of the ruler,
whose distance from the pencil line will therefore vary with its
 THE USE OF INSTRUMENTS 37

thickness, and with the shape of the under blade of the pen, as
illustrated in enlarged scale in Fig. 59. If the pen is thrown out
from the perpendicular as at B
it will run on one blade and a line

ragged on one side will result. If turned in from the perpendicu-

lar as at C the ink is very apt to run under the edge and cause a
blot.
A line is drawn with a whole arm movement, the hand resting

on the tips of the third and fourth fingers, keeping the angle of
inclination constant. Just before reaching the end of the line
the two guiding fingers on the straight edge should be stopped,

FIG. 59. Correct position at A.

and, without stopping the motion of the pen, the line finished
with a finger movement. Short lines are drawn with this finger
movement alone. When the end of the line is reached lift the
pen quickly and move the straight edge away from the line.
The pressure on the paper should be light, but sufficient to give
a clean cut line, and will vary with the kind of paper and the
sharpness of the pen, but the pressure against the T-square should
be only enough to guide the direction.
If the ink refuses to flow it is because it has dried and clogged
in the extreme point of the pen. This clot or obstruction may
be removed by touching the pen on the finger, or by pinching the
blade slightly, breaking it up. If it still refuses to start it should
be wiped out and fresh ink added. The pens must be wiped clean
after using or the ink will corrode the steel and finally destroy
them.
38 ENGINEERING DRAWING

Instructions in regard to the ruling pen apply also to the com-

pass pen. It should be kept perpendicular by using the knuckle

joint,and the compass inclined slightly in the direction of the

line. In adjusting the compass for an arc which is to connect
other lines the pen point should be brought down very close to
the paper without touching it to be sure that the setting is exactly
right.
It is a universal rule in inking that circles and circle arcs must
be drawn first. It is much easier to connect a straight line to a
curve than a curve to a straight line.

FIG. 60.

It should be noted particularly that two lines are tangent to

each other when their centers are tangent, and not when the
lines simply touch each other, thus at the
point of tangency the
width will be equal to the width of a single line, Fig. 60 A.
After reading these paragraphs the beginner had best take a
blank sheet of paper and cover it with ink lines of varying lengths
and weights, practising starting and stopping on penciled limits,
until he feels acquainted with the pens. If in his set there are
two pens of different sizes the larger one should be used, as it fits
the hand of the average man better than the smaller one, holds
more ink, and will do just as fine work.

Faulty Lines.
If inked lines appear
imperfect in any way the reason should
be ascertained immediately. It may be the fault of the
pen, the
ink, the paper, or the draftsman, but with the probabilities
greatly in favor of the last. Fig. 61 illustrates the characteristic
appearance of several kinds of faulty lines. The correction in
each case will suggest itself.
 THE USE OF INSTRUMENTS 39

High-grade pens usually come from the makers well sharpened.

Cheaper ones often need dressing before they can be used satis-
factorily. If the pen is not working properly it must be sharp-

ened as described in Chapter XIV, page 257.

. ... i . . .,..,.,,. Pesifoo

faraway frv/7? edge ofTsgva/e

- * !-^ -gnaBBHWB^i^HHB^^^B^* ^en ^ C/OS ^ e^e ^ raf? ^er

(/ff(

^^mtf*m^mmm-m^ m^mBmmmmn^^~^i**~ fak on oufe/de 0f6/ade, nyr? i/fider

___ _ -~
Penb/ades nof kepfpara//e/ fo T*?.

^rrr,
*"' i n "i^"'
WJK\ m
~ iPPi^pPiPii
i Wl
Tsgvasif
T" s///petf//7fo tref///?e

-
/4^?/
enough //?/ ^ //y?/>^ ^ />7tf

FIG. 61. Faulty lines.

The Alphabet of Lines.

As the basis of the drawing is the line, a set of conventional
symbols covering all the lines needed for different purposes may
properly be called an alphabet of lines. There is as yet no
universally adopted standard, but the following set is adequate,
and represents the practice of a majority of the larger concerns
of this country.

( 1) Visible outline .

(2) Invisible outline.

(3) Center line.

(3a) Center line, in pencil.

(4) Dimension line.

(5) Extension line.

(6) Alternate position.

(7) Line of motion.

(8) Cutting plane.

(9) "Ditto" or repeat line.

(10) Broken material.

(11) Limiting break.

(12) Cross-hatching line.

FIG. 62. The alphabet of lines.
 40 ENGINEERING DRAWING

It is of course not possible to set an absolute standard of weight

for lines, as the proper size to use will vary with different kinds

FIG. 63. The alphabet illustrated.

and sizes of drawings, but it is possible to maintain a

given
proportion.
Visible outlines should be strong full lines, at least
one-sixty-
fourth of an inch on paper drawings, and even as wide as one-

FIG. 64. The alphabet illustrated.

thirty-second of an inch on tracings. The other lines should

contrast with this line in about the
proportion of Fig. 62.
Dash lines, as (2) and (7), should always have the
space between
 THE USE OF INSTRUMENTS 41

dashes much shorter than the length of the dash. Figs. 63 and
64 illustrate the use of the alphabet of lines.

The Use of the French Curve.

The French curve, as has been stated on page 14, is a ruler for
non-circular curves. When sufficient points have been deter-
mined it is best to sketch in the line lightly in pencil freehand,
without losing the points, until it is clean, smooth, continuous,
and satisfactory to the eye. The curve should then be applied
to it, selecting a part that will fit a portion of the line most nearly,
and noting particularly that the curve is so laid that the direction
of its increase in curvature is in the direction of increasing curv-
ature of the line, Fig. 65. In drawing the part of the line matched

FIG. 65. Use of the curve.

by the curve, always stop a little short of the distance that seems
to coincide. After drawing this portion the curve is shifted to
find another part that will coincide with the continuation of the
line. In shifting the curve care should be taken to preserve the
smoothness and continuity and to avoid breaks or cusps. This
may be done if in its successive positions the curve is always
adjusted so that it conincides for a little distance with the part
already drawn. Thus at each joint the tangents must coincide.
If the curved line is symmetrical about an axis, after it has
been matched accurately on one side, marks locating the axes
may be made in pencil on the curve and the curve reversed. In
such a case exceptional care must be taken to avoid a "hump " at
the joint. It is often better to stop a line short of the axis on
each side and to close the gap afterwards with another setting of
the curve.
42 ENGINEERING DRAWING

When inking with the curve the pen should be held perpen-
dicularly and the blades kept parallel to the edge. Inking curves
will be found to be excellent practice.

Sometimes, particularly at sharp turns, a combination of

circle arcs and curve be used, as for example in inking an
may
eccentric ellipse, may be inked by selecting a
the sharp curves
center on the major axis by trial, and drawing as much of an arc
as will practically coincide \vith the ends of the ellipse, then
finishing the ellipse with the curve.
The experienced draftsman will sometimes ink a curve that
cannot be matched accurately, by varying the distance of the
pen point from the ruling edge as the line progresses, but the
beginner should not attempt it.

Exercises in the Use of Instruments.

The twelve following figures are given simply as a typical set
of progressive exercises for practice in the use of the instruments.
More or fewer may be used according to the student's evidence
of ability. The geometrical figures of Chapter IV may be used
for the same purpose.

FIG. 66. FIG. 67. FIG. 68.

Lay off a 9" x 12" plate, with 1/2" border. Divide the space
inside the border into six equal parts, with the dividers. Locate
the center of each space by drawing short intersecting portions
of its diagonals.

Fig. 66. An
Exercise for the T-square, Triangle and Scale.
Through the center of the space draw a horizontal and a
vertical line, measuring on these lines as diameters lay off
a three-inch square. Along the lower side and the upper
half of the left side measure 3 / 8" spaces with the scale. Draw
 THE USE OF INSTRUMENTS 43

all horizontal lines with the T-square and all vertical lines
with the T-square and triangle.
Fig. 67. A "Swastika." For T-square, triangle and dividers.
Draw three-inch square. Divide left side and lower side
into five equal parts with the dividers. Draw horizontal
and vertical lines across the square through these points.
Erase the parts not needed.
Fig. 68. Converging Lines. Draw three-inch square. Draw
lines AB, BC, DE
and EF
at 30 degrees. Divide lower side
into seven equal parts, with the dividers. Draw the vertical
lines, and mark divisions on AC
with the pencil as each line

FIG. 70. FIG. 71.

isdrawn. Through the division points on top and bottom

draw the converging lines using the triangle alone as a
straight-edge.
Fig. 69. A
Hexagonal Figure. For 30-60 triangle and bow
points (spacers).
Through the center of the space draw the three construction
lines, AB vertical, DE and FG Measure CA
at 30 degrees.
and CB 1 1/2" long. Draw AE, AF, DB, and BG at 30
degrees. Complete hexagon by drawing DF and GE
vertical. Set spacers to 3/32". Step off 3/32" on each side
of the center lines, and 3/16" from each side of hexagon.

Complete figure as shown, with triangle against T-square.

Fig. 70. A Street Paving Intersection. For 45-degree triangle and
scale.
An exercise in starting and stopping short lines. Draw
three-inch square. Draw diagonals with 45-degree triangle.
With scale lay off 3/8" spaces along the diagonals, from
44 ENGINEERING DRAWING

their intersection. With 45-degree triangle complete figure,

finishing one-quarter at a time.
and both
Fig. 71. A Maltese Cross.
For T-square, spacers,

triangles.
Draw three-inch square and one-inch square. From the
corners of inner square draw lines to outer square at 15
in combina-
degrees and 75 degrees, with the two triangles
tion. Mark points with spacers 3/16" inside of each line of
this outside cross, and complete figure
with triangles in
combination.

FIG. 72. FIG. 73. FIG. 74.

Fig. 72. Concentric Circles. For compass (legs straight) and

scale.
Draw horizontal line through center of space. On it mark
off radii for sixconcentric circles 1/4" apart. In drawing
concentric circles always draw the smallest first. The
dotted circles are drawn in pencil with long dashes, and
inked as shown.
Fig. 73. Concentric Arcs. For compass (knuckle joints bent).
On horizontal center line mark off eleven points I'/ 4" apart,
beginning at left side of space. Draw horizontal limiting
lines (in pencil only) 1 1/2" above and below center line.
Fig. 74. Concentric Arcs. For compass and lengthening bar.
On horizontal center line mark off eight points 3/8" apart,
beginning at right side of space Center of arcs is center of
Fig. 72.
Fig. 75. Tangent Arcs. For accuracy with compass and dividers.
Draw a circle three inches in diameter. Divide the circum-
ference into five equal parts by trial with dividers. From
these points draw radial lines and divide each into four
 THE USE OF INSTRUMENTS 45

equal parts with spacers. With these points as centers

draw the semicircles as shown. The radial lines are not to
be inked.
Fig. 76. Tangent Circles and Lines. For accuracy with compass
and triangles.
On base A B, 31/2"
long construct an equilateral tri-
angle, using the 60-degree triangle. Bisect the angles
with the 30-degree angle, extending the bisectors to the
opposite sides. With these middle points of the sides as
centers and radius equal to 1/2 the side, draw arcs cutting
the bisectors. These intersections will be centers for the

FIG. 75. FIG. 76. FIG. 77.

inscribed circles. With centers on the intersection of

these circles and the bisectors, round off the points of the
triangle as shown.
Remember the rule that circles are inked before straight
lines. Construction lines are not to be inked.
Fig. 77. Tangents to Circle Arcs. For bow compasses.
Draw one and one-half inch square about center of space.
Divide AE into four 3/16" spaces, with scale. With bow
pencil and centers A, B, C, D draw four semicircles with
3/8" radius and so on. Complete figure by drawing the
horizontal and vertical tangents as shown.
46 ENGINEERING DRAWING

A PAGE OF CAUTIONS.
Never use the scale as a ruler.
Never draw with the lower edge of the T-square.
Never cut paper with a knife and the edge of the T-square as a
guide.
Never use the T-square as a hammer.
Never put either end of a pencil in the mouth.
Never jab the dividers into the drawing board.
Never oil the Joints of compasses.
Never use the dividers as reamers or pincers or picks.
Never take dimensions by setting the dividers on the scale.
Never lay a weight on the T-square to hold it in position.
Never use a blotter on inked lines.
Never screw the nibs of the pen too tight.
Never run backward over a line either with pencil or pen.
Never leave the ink bottle uncorked.
Never hold the pen over the drawing while filling.
Never dilute ink with water. If too thick throw it away. (Ink
once frozen is worthless afterward.)
Never try to use the same thumb tack holes when putting paper
down a second time.
Never scrub a drawing all over with the eraser after finishing.
It takes the life out of the inked lines.
Never begin work without wiping off table and instruments.
Never put instruments away without cleaning. This applies
with particular force to pens.
Never put bow instruments away without opening to relieve the
spring.
Never fold a drawing '6r tracing.
Never use cheap materials of any kind.
 CHAPTER IV.

APPLIED GEOMETRY.

With the aid of a straight-edge and compass all

pure geo-
metrical problems may be solved. The principles of geometry
are constantly used in mechanical drawing, but as the geometrical
solution of problems and construction of figures differs in ma-ny
cases from the draftsman's method, equipped as he is with
instruments for gaining time and accuracy, such problems are
not included here. For example, there are several geometrical
methods of erecting a perpendicular to a given line, in his ordinary
practice the draftsman equipped with T-square and triangles
uses none of them. The application of these geometrical methods
might be necessary occasionally in work where the usual drafting
instruments could not be used, as for example in laying out full
size sheet metal patterns on the floor. It is assumed that
students using this book are familiar with the elements of plane
geometry and will be able to apply their knowledge. If a par-
ticular problem is not remembered, it may readily be referred to

in any of the standard hand-books. There are some construc-

tions however with which the draftsman should be familiar as
they will occur more or less frequently in his work. The few
problems in this chapter are given on this account, and for the
excellent practice they afford in the accurate use of instruments
as well.
The "trial method" of dividing a line was explained in the

previous chapter. A convenient geometrical method is illus-

trated in Fig. 78. To divide the line AB into (say) five equal
47
48 ENGINEERING DRAWING

parts, draw any line AC

indefinitely, 6n it step off five divisions
of convenient length, connect the last point with B, draw lines

through the points parallel to CB intersecting A B, using triangle

and straight-edge.
To transfer a given polygon ABCD to a new base A'B', Fig. 79.
With radii AC and BC describe intersecting arcs from centers
A'B', locating the point C' Similarly with radii AD and BD
'.

FIG. 79.

locate the point D'. Connect BC and CD, and continue the
operation.
To inscribe a regular octagon in a given square, Fig. 80. Draw
the diagonals of the square. With the corners of the square as
centers and radius of half the diagonal draw arcs intersecting
the sides of the square and connect these points.
To draw a circular arc through three given points A, B, and C,

FIG. ,80.

Fig 81. Join AB and BC, bisect AB and BC by perpendiculars.

Their intersection will be the center of the required circle.
arc of a given radius R tangent to two given lines
To draw an
AB and CD, Fig. 82. Draw lines parallel to AB and CD at
distance R from them. The intersection of these lines will be
the center of the required arc.
To draw a reverse or "ogee" curve connecting two parallel
lines AB and CD, Fig. 83. Erect perpendiculars at B and C.
 '
APPLIED GEOMETRY 49

Any arcs tangent to the lines must have their centers on these
perpendiculars. Join B and C by a straight line. Assume point
E on this line through which the curve is desired to pass, and
bisect BE and EC by perpendiculars. Any arc to pass through
B and E must have its center on a perpendicular at the middle
point. The intersection therefore of these perpendiculars with
the two first perpendiculars will be the centers for arcs and BE

FIG. 83.

EC. This line might be the center line for a curved road or pipe.
To lay off on a straight line the approximate length of a circle -
arc, Fig. 84. Let AB be the given arc. At A draw the tangent
AD and chord AB produced. Lay off AC equal to half the chord
AB. With center C and radius CB draw an arc intersecting A%
at E, then AE will be equal in length be to the arc AB (very

FIG. 84.

nearly). If the given arc is greater than 60 degrees it should be

subdivided.*
In ordinary work the usual way of rectifying an arc is to step
around it with the dividers, in spaces small enough as practically
to coincide with the arc, and to step off the same number on the
right line, as in Fig. 85.
* In this
(Professor Rankine's) solution, the error varies as the fourth
power of the subtended angle. At 60 degrees the line will be 1/900 part
short.
4
50 ENGINEERING DRAWING

In cutting a right circular cone by planes at different angles

four curves called the conic sections are obtained, Fig. 86. These
are the circle, cut by a plane perpendicular to the axis; the ellipse,
cut by a plane making a greater angle with the axis than the
elements do; the parabola, cut by a plane making the same angle
with the axis as the elements do; the hyperbola, cut by a plane

FIG. 86. The conic sections.

making a smaller angle than the elements do. These curves are
studied mathematically in analytic geometry but may be drawn
without a knowledge of their equations by knowing something of
their characteristics.
As an ellipse is the projection of a circle viewed obliquely it
is met with in practice oftener than the other conies, aside from
the circle, and draftsmen should be able to construct it readily,
hence several methods are given for its construction, both as a
true ellipse and as an approximate curve made by circle-arcs.
In the great majority of cases when this curve is required its
long and short diameters, i.e., its major and minor axes are known.

Ellipse First Method.

The most accurate method for determining points on the
curve is shown in Fig. 87. With C as center describe circles on
the two diameters. From a number of points on the outer circle
as P and Q draw radii CP, CQ, etc., intersecting the inner circle
at P Q etc. From P and Q draw lines parallel to CD, and from
f f
, ,

P' and Q' lines parallel to CB. The intersection of the lines
through P and P gives one point on the ellipse. The intersection
f

of the lines through Q and Q' another

point, and so on. For
accuracy the points should be taken closer together toward the
major axis. The process may be repeated in the four quadrants
and the curve sketched in lightly freehand, or one quadrant only
 APPLIED GEOMETRY 51

may be constructed and the remaining three repeated by marking

the French curve. A tangent at any point H
may be drawn by
projecting the point to the outer circle at K
and drawing the
auxiliary tangent KL
cutting the major axis at L. From L
draw the required tangent LH.

FIG. 88.

Ellipse Trammel Method. Fig. 88.

On the straight edge of a strip of paper, thin cardboard or
sheet celluloid mark the distance PQ equal to one-half the major
axis and PR equal to one-half the minor axis. If the strip be
moved keeping Q on the minor axis and R on the major axis, P

FIG. 89. An Ellipsograph.

will give points on the ellipse. This method will be found very
convenient, as no construction is required, but for accurate
results great care should be taken to keep the points P and Q

exactly on the axes. The ellipsograph, Fig. 89, is constructed

on the principle of this method.
52 ENGINEERING DRAWING

Ellipse Pin and String Method. Fig. 90.

This well-known method sometimes called the "gardener's
ellipse" is often used for large work, and is based on the mathe-
matical principle of the ellipse that the sum of the distances
from any point on the curve to two fixed points called the foci
is a constant, and is equal to the major axis. The foci may thus
be determined by making DF and DF' equal to AC. Drive pins

FIG. 90.

at the points D, F, and F f

and tie an inelastic thread or cord
tightly around the three pins. If the pin D
be removed and a
marking point moved in the loop, keeping the cord taut, it will
describe a true ellipse. The bisector of the angle between the
focal lines will be normal to the curve, hence a tangent at any
point L may be drawn by bisecting the exterior angle MLF.

FIG. 91.

Ellipse Parallelogram Method. Fig. 91.

This method may be used with either the major -and minor
axes or with any pair of conjugate diameters. On 'the diameters
construct the parallelogram ABDE. Divide AC into any number
of equal parts and AG into the same number of equal
parts,
numbering the points from A. Through these points draw lines
from D and E as shown. Their intersections will be points on
the curve.
 APPLIED GEOMETRY 53

To determine the major and minor axes of an ellipse, the conjugate

axes being given. The property of conjugate diameters is that
each is parallel to the tangent to the curve at the extremities of
the other. At C draw a semicircle with radius CE. Connect
the point of inte*rsection P of this circle and the ellipse with D
and E. The major and minor axes will be parallel to the chords
DP and EP.

Approximate Ellipse with Four Centers. Fig. 92.

Join A and D. Lay off DF equal to AC -DC. Bisect AF by
a perpendicular crossing AC at G and intersecting DE produced,
at H. Make CG' equal to CG and CH' equal to CE. Then Q,

FIG. 93.

G', H, and H' will be centers for four arcs approximating the
ellipse. The half of this ellipse when used in masonry construc-
tion is known as the three-centered arch.
When a closer approximation is desired, the five-centered arch
(eight-centered ellipse) may be constructed as in Fig. 93. Draw
the rectangle AFDC, connect AD and draw FH perpendicular
to it. Make CM equal to DL. With center H and radius HM
draw the arc MN. With A as center and radius CL intersect
AB at 0. With P as center, and radius PO intersect the arc
MN at N, then P, N and H are centers for one-half of the
" based on
semi-ellipse or five centered oval." This method is

the principle that the radius of curvature at the end of the minor
axis is the third proportional to the semi-minor and semi-major
axes, and similarly at the end of the major axis is the third
proportional to the semi-major and semi-minor axes. The
intermediate radius found is the mean proportional between
these two radii.
54 ENGINEERING DRAWING

Approximate Ellipse. Fig. 94.

When the minor axis is at least two-thirds the major, the

following method may be used:

Make CF and CG equal to AB-DE.
Make CH and CI equal to 3/4 CF.
F, G, H, I will be centers for arcs E
} D, A,
and B.

FIG. 95. Curve inked with circle arcs.

It should be noted that an ellipse is changing its radius of

curvature at every point, and that these approximations are
not ellipses but simply curves of the same general shape.
Any non-circular curve may be approxiamted by tangent
a center by trial, drawing as much of an arc
circle arcs, selecting
as will practically coincide with the curve, then changing the
center and radius for the next portion, remembering always that

FIG. 96. Parabola. FIG. 97. Hyperbola.

ifarcs are to be tangent, their centers must lie on the common

normal at the point of tangency. Many draftsmen prefer to ink
curves in this way rather than to use irregular curves.
Fig. 95
illustrates the construction.
A parabola may be drawn in a manner analogous to the paral-
lelogram method of the ellipse, as shown in Fig. 96.
 APPLIED GEOMETRY 55

One of the commercial uses of the parabola is in parabolic

reflectors and search lights.
The only case of the hyperbola of practical interest to us is

the equilateral or rectangular hyperbola on its asymptotes, as

representing the. relation between the pressure and volume of
steam or gas expanding under the law pv equals c.

FIG. 98. Cycloid.

To draw the rectangular hyperbola. Fig. 97.

Let OA and OB be the asymptotes and P a point on the curve
(thismight be the point of cut off on an indicator diagram).
Draw PC and PD. Mark any points on PC; through these points
draw ordinates parallel to OA and through the same points lines
to 0. At the intersection of these lines with PD draw abscissae.
The intersections of these abscissae with the ordinates give points
on the curve.

FIG. 99. Epicycloid and hypocycloid.

A cycloid is the curve generated by the motion of a point on

the circumference of a circle rolled along a straight line. If the
circle be rolled on the outside of another circle the curve is called
an epicycloid; when rolled inside it is called a hypocycloid. These -

curves are used in drawing gear teeth. To draw a cycloid, Fig.

98, divide the rolling circle into a convenient number of parts
(say 12), lay off the rectified length of the circumference with
these divisions on the tangent AB. Draw through C the line of
56 ENGINEERING DRAWING

centers CD
and project the division points up to this line by
perpendiculars. On these points as centers draw circles repre-
senting different positions of the rolling circle, and project across
on these circles in order, the division points of the original circle.

FIG. 100. Involute of a pentagon. FIG. 101. Involute of a circle.

These intersections be points on the curve. The epicycloid

will
incl .vj> -'..ycloid be drawn similarly as illustrated in Fig. 99.
may
"v :e is a curve generated by unwrapping an inflexible
froiu around a polygon. Thus the involute of any polygon
may be drawn by extending its sides, as in Fig. 100, and with the

FIG. 102. FIG. 103.

corners of the polygon as successive centers

drawing the tangent
arcs.
A circle may be conceived as a polygon of an infinite number of
sides. Thus to draw the involute of a circle, Fig. 101, divide it
into a convenient number of parts, draw tangents at these points,
 APPLIED GEOMETRY 57

lay off on these tangents the rectified lengths of the arcs from the
point of tangency to the starting point, and connect the points
by a smooth curve. It is evident that the involute of a circle
isthe limiting case of the epicycloid, the rolling circle becoming
of infinite diameter. It is the basis for the involute system of

gearing.
To Draw the Spiral of Archimedes making one turn in a given

circle, Fig. 102.

Divide the circumference into a number of equal parts, drawing
the radii and numbering the points. Divide the radius N9- 1
into the same number of equal parts, numbering from the center.
With C as center draw concentric arcs intersecting the radii of
corresponding numbers, and draw a smooth curve through these
intersections. This is the curve of 'the heart cam, Fig. 103, for
converting uniform rotary motion into uniform reciprocal
motion
 CHAPTER V.

LETTERING.

To give all the information necessary for the complete con-

struction of a machine or structure, there must be added to the
"graphical language" of lines describing its shape, the figured
dimensions, notes on materials and finish, and a descriptive title,
all of which must be lettered, freehand, in a style that is perfectly

legible, uniform, and capable of rapid execution. So far as its

appearance is concerned there is no part of a drawing so impor-
tant as the lettering. A good drawing may be ruined in appear-
ance by lettering done ignorantly or carelessly.
Lettering is not mechanical drawing. The persistent use by
some draftsmen of kinds of mechanical caricatures known as
geometrical letters, block letters, etc., made up of straight lines
and ruled in with T-square and triangles, is to be condemned
entirely. Lettering should be done freehand, in a style suited
to the class of the drawing.* On working drawings the lettering
is done
in a rapid single-stroke letter, either vertical or inclined,
the inclined form being preferred. The ability to letter well in
this style can be acquired only by continued and careful practice,
but can be acquired by any one with normal muscular control
it

of his fingers, who will take the trouble to observe carefully the

shapes of the letters, the sequence of strokes composing them,

and the rules for composition; and will practice faithfully and
intelligently. It is not a matter of artistic talent, nor even of

dexterity in handwriting. Many draftsmen letter well who

write very poorly.
The term " single-stroke " or " one-stroke " does not mean that
the entire letter is made without lifting the pen, but that the
width of the stroke of the pen is the width of the stem of the
letter. For the desired height, therefore, a pen must be selected
* A more complete study
of the subject of lettering than is given in this
chapter necessary for draftsmen who will have any variety of work,
is

especially civil engineers and architects, who should give particular atten-
tion to the different forms of Roman letter. Several books on the subject
are mentioned in Chapter XV.
58
 LETTERING 59

which will give the necessary width, and for what are known as
"gothic" letters one which will make the same width of line
when drawn horizontally, obliquely, or vertically.
The coarse pens mentioned on page 13 are particularly
adapted to this purpose. Leonardt's ball point 506 F will make
a line of sufficient width for letters 1/4" high, which is as large as
would be used on any ordinary working drawing. 516 EF or
Gillott's 1032 might be used for letters 3/16" high For small
letters Hunt's shot point, Gillott's 1050, 604 or Spencerian No. 1
may be used. Some draftsmen prepare a new pen by dropping
it in alcohol, or by holding it in a match flame for two or three
seconds.

Single -stroke Vertical Caps.

"
The upright single-stroke commercial gothic" letter shown
in Fig. 104 is a standard for titles, reference letters, etc. In the
proportion of width to height the general rule is that the smaller
the letters the more extended their width should be. low A
extended letter is more legible than a high compressed one and
at the same time makes a better appearance. This letter is

IHLFETNKMAV
WXYZ4OOCGDUJP
RBS83206957& FIG. 104. Upright single stroke capitals.

seldom used in compressed form. Before commencing the prac-

tice of this alphabet some time should be spent in preliminary

practice to gain control of the pen. It should be held easily, in

the position illustrated in Fig. 105, the strokes drawn with a
steady, even motion and a slight uniform pressure on the paper,
not enough to spread the nibs of the pen.
For the first practice draw in pencil top and bottom guide
lines for. 3/16" letters and with a 516 F or similar pen make

directly in ink a series of vertical lines, drawing the pen down

with a finger movement. This one stroke must be practised
until the beginner can get lines vertical and of equal weight.
Remember this is drawing, not writing, and that all the flourish
60 ENGINEERING DRAWING

movements of the penman must be avoided. It may be found

difficult tokeep the lines vertical; if so, direction lines may be
drawn, as in Fig. 105, an inch or so apart to aid the eye.

FIG. 105. Position for lettering.

It is ruinous to the appearance of upright letters to allow them

to slant forward. A slight backward slant is not so objectionable,
but the aim should be to have them vertical. When this stroke

M 111^
FIG. 106.
///// \\\\\
Practice strokes.
OOP
has been mastered, the succeeding strokes of Fig. 106 should be
taken up. These strokes are the elements of which the single
stroke letters are composed. After sufficient practice with them,

FIG. 107. Order and direction of strokes.

they should be combined into letters in the order of Fig. 107,

penciling in one pattern letter and numbering its strokes, then
drawing directly in ink several beside it. Care must be taken
 LETTERING 61

to keep all angles and intersections clean and sharp. Getting too
much ink on the pen is responsible for appearances of the
kind
shown in Fig. 108.

EHMNWTZ
FIG. 108. Too much ink.

Single -stroke Inclined Caps.

The single stroke inclined letter made to a slope of between
preferred by perhaps a majority
60 and 70 degrees, Fig. 109, is of

draftsmen. The order and direction of strokes for the capitals

of this form will be the same as in the upright form,
but these
letters are usually not extended. If a rectangle containing a

IHLFETNKMAV
WX YZ4 OQCGDUJP
RBS83 2O6957& FIG. 109. Inclined capitals.

flexible O should be inclined the curve would take the form

illustrated in Fig. 110, sharp in the upper right-hand and lower
left-hand corners, and stretched flat in the other two corners.

This characteristic should be observed in all curved letters. A

convenient and pleasing slope for these letters is in the proportion
of 2 to 5, which angle may be made by laying off 2 units on the

horizontal line and 5 units on the vertical line. Triangles of

about this angle are sold by the dealers.
The first requirement is to learn the form and peculiarity of
each of the letters. Too many persons think that lettering is
simply printing in the childish way learned in the primary grades.
(Fig. Ill is from actual examples of men's work.) There is an
individuality in lettering often nearly as marked as in handwrit-
62 ENGINEERING DRAWING

ing, but it must be based on a careful regard for the fundamental

letter forms.
In our practice we must first learn the individual letters, then
compose them into words and groups of words. The inclined
letter is used in capitals for titles and headings, and in capitals

FIG. 111. Inexcusable faults.

and small letters for less important captions, and for notes and
descriptions. In all lettering there should always be drawn
guide lines for both the tops and bottoms. In the inclined style
the 2 to 5 direction lines should be drawn until one has become
very proficient in keeping the lines to a uniform slant. The snap
and swing of professional work is due largely to two things;

FIG. 112. Practice strokes.

keeping the letters full, and close together, and of uniform slope.
The beginner's invariable mistake is to cramp the letters and
space them too far apart.
be noticed that the letters are arranged in family groups
It will
instead of in the usual alphabetical order. After practising a
few preliminary strokes Fig. 112, the letters should be taken up

r/

FIG. 113. Order and direction of strokes.

in the order given in Fig.

113, and each one practised. The rule
of stability requires that such letters as
B, E, K, S, X, Z, with
the figures 3 and 8 be smaller on the top than on the
bottom, and
that the cross lines in E, F, H, be slightly above the middle.
The bridge of the A is up about 1/3 of the height. Particular
 LETTERING 63

care should be given to the accurate formation of numerals,

making them round and full bodied and of the same heightf as
the capitals.

Single -stroke Inclined Lower Case.

The lower case or small letters of this style are drawn with
bodies two-thirds the height of the capitals. This letter is

/////-/// /. / /

7 T~7 T
FIG. 114. Basis of Reinhardt letter.

generally known as the Reinhardt letter, in honor of Mr. Charles

W. Reinhardt, Chief of the Drafting Department of the "En-
gineering News," who has used it so successfully in the illustra-
tions for that periodical, and who published' it as a system in his
"
admirable little book Lettering for Engineers." It is the minu-
scule or lower case letter reduced to its lowest terms, omitting all

unnecessary hooks and appendages. It is very legible and -

'
I I

FIG. 115. Analysis of Reinhardt letter.

effective, after its swing has been mastered can be made very
and
rapidly. This lower case letter should be used in all notes and
statements on drawings, for the two reasons given above, it is
read much more easily than all capitals, as we read words by their
shapes and are familiar with these shapes in the lower case letters ;
and it can be done fast.
64 ENGINEERING DRAWING

All the letters of this alphabet are basedon two strokes, the
straight line, and the partial ellipse whose conjugate axes are
the slope line and the horizontal line, and consequently whose
major axis is about 45, Fig. 114. The general direction of
strokesis always downward or from left to right, and in the

order given in the analyzed letters in Fig. 115.

In the composition of letters into words three general rules
must be remembered. 1, Keep the letters close together; 2,
have the areas of white spaces, the back grounds between the
approximately equal; 3,
letters, keep words well separated, to a
space at least equal to the height of the letter. Paragraphs are
always indented. Fig. 116 is an example of spacing of letters,
words, and lines.
As soon as the letter forms have been mastered all the practice
should be directed to composition, which is fully as important as
the individual shapes. Titles on working drawings are usually
boxed in the lower right hand corner. The question of dimen-
sioning and the contents of the title are fully discussed in Chapter
IX on working drawings.

The spac//70 ef Setters in words, fhe spac/na

of words, and fhe s/?ac//?a 0f//n0s 0se a// des/grt
prop/ems in fhe d/sjt?0s/f/0/? ofwh/fe 0/xf frfacfc.
and /he/r successft// so/vf/0/7 depends or? fhe
artistic perception of fhe draffs/nan more fftar?
on ariyrc'/es which m/ghf be a/Ve/7.
FIG. 116. Composition.
 CHAPTER VI.

ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTION.

The previous chapters have been preparatory to the real sub-

ject of engineering drawing as a language. In Chapter I was
pointed out the difference between the representation of an object
by the artist to convey certain impressions or emotions, and the
representation by the engineer to convey information.
an ordinary object be looked at from some particular station
If

point, one may usually get a good idea of its shape, because (1)
generally more than one side is seen, (2) the light and shadow
on it tell something of its configuration, (3) looked at with both

FIG. 117. Perspective projection.

eyes there is a stereoscopic effect to aid in judging dimensions.

In technical drawing the third point is never considered, but the
object is drawn as if seen with one eye; and only in special cases
isthe effect of light and shadow rendered. In general we have
to do with outline alone.
If a transparent plane P, Fig. 117, be imagined as set up between
the object and the station point S of the observer's eye, the
5 65
66 ENGINEERING DRAWING

intersection with this plane, of the cone of rays formed by lines

from the eye to all points of the object, will give a picture of the
object,which will be practically the same as the picture formed
on the retina of the eye by the intersection of the other end
(nappe) of the cone.
Drawing made on this principle is known as perspective drawing
and is the basis of all the artist's work. In a technical way it is
used chiefly by architects in making preliminary sketches for
their own use in studying problems in design, and for showing
their clients the finished appearance of a proposed building. It is

entirely unsuited for working drawings, as it shows the object as

it appears and not as it really is. In this book we shall take up

FIG. 118. Orthographic projection. FIG. 119. The H plane.

only the general principles of perspective as applied in freehand

sketching, Chapter X. The titles of several books which ex-
plain in detail the methods of perspective are given in Chap-
ter XV.

Orthographic Projection.
The problem in engineering drawing is to represent accurately
on the paper having only two dimensions, length and breadth,
the three dimensions of the structure.*
*
The whole subject of graphic representation of solids on reference
planes comes under the general name of descriptive geometry. That term,
however, has by common acceptance been restricted to a somewhat more
theoretical treatment of the subject as a branch of mathematics. This
book maybe considered as an ample preparation for that fascinating subject,
with whose aid many difficult problem's may be solved graphically.
 ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTION 67

If the station point conceived as moved back theoretically

S be
to an the cone of rays would become a cylinder
infinite distance,
with its elements perpendicular to the picture plane 7, Fig.
118, and its intersection with it will give a picture known as the

FIG. 120. The H plane revolved.

orthographic projection. If we then discard the part of the cylin-

der between the picture plane and the eye we may say that the
orthographic projection of an object on a plane would be found
by dropping perpendiculars from the object to the plane.

FIG. 121.

Evidently, then, a line or surface of the object parallel to the

plane would be shown in its true size (abed), a line perpendicular
would be projected as a point (ce) and a plane surface perpen-
7

dicular to the picture plane would be projected as a line

68 ENGINEERING DRAWING

(beef).Thus the height and width of the object would be

shown on the projection in their true size.
If plane be placed horizontally above the object
now another
and perpendicular to the first plane, Fig. 119, the projection on
appearance as if viewed from directly
this plane will give its

above, showing its width and thickness. If this plane be re-

volved about its intersection with the first plane until they

FIG. 122. "The transparent box."

coincide, Fig. 120, they will represent the plane of the paper
and the two views together will show exactly the three dimensions
of the object. Similarly any other side may be represented by
imagining it to be projected to a plane and the plane afterward
revolved away from the object into the plane of the paper.
Thus the object, Fig. 121, may be thought of as surrounded by a
box with transparent sides, Fig. 122. The projections on these
sides would be practically what would be seen by looking straight
at the object from positions directly in front,
above, and at both
sides. These " planes of projection" when revolved into one
plane, Fig. 123, and represented on the paper as in Fig. 124 give
what are known as the different ''views" of the object. The
projection on the front or vertical plane is known as the front
ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTION 69

FIG. 123. The box opened.

FIG. 124. The three projections.

70 ENGINEERING DRAWING

view, vertical projection, or front elevation; that on the horizontal

plane as the top view, horizontal projection, or plan; that on
the side or profile plane as the side view, profile projection, or
side elevation. When necessary the bottom view and back
view may be made in a similar way, by projecting to their planes
and opening them up to coincide with the vertical plane.
Three principles are evident, first, the top view is directly over
the front view, second, the side views are in the same horizontal
line as the front view, third, the width of the side views are ex-

actly the same as the width of the top view. For brevity we
shall call the vertical plane V, the horizontal plane and the H
profile plane P. The intersection of and H V
is called the ground

line, GL, and the intersections of P with H and V called the H

trace of P, and the V trace
of P. P is generally revolved
about
its V trace as in the illustration in Fig. 124, but may be revolved

about its H
trace as in Fig. 126. Evidently the side view of any
point as Q would be as far from the V trace of P as its top view
is from the ground line.

FIG. 125. First angle projection.

If the horizontal and vertical

Note.^ planes are extended beyond their
ntersection, 'four dihedral angles will be formed, which are numbered as
illustrated in Fig. 125. If the object be placed in the first angle,
projected
to the planes and the planes opened as before, the
top view would evidently
fall below the front
view, and if the profile plane were added the view of
the left side of the figure would be to the
right of the front view. This
system, known as first angle projection, was formerly in universal use, but
was generally abandoned in this country more than
twenty years ago and
is now almost obsolete. The student should understand it, however, as it
may be encountered occasionally in old drawings, in some book illustrations,
and in foreign drawings. In England some
attempt is being made to
introduce true (third angle) projection, but as
yet it has not been accepted
to any extent.
 ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTION 71

The monument Fig. 127 is shown in orthographic projection in

Fig. 128. On the top view the H tr. ofP is OA.

Evidently in
the revolution of P about its V tr. the H
tr. would revolve to
?

OB and the points projected to it from the top view would re-
volve with it. These, if projected down from OB to meet hori-

FIG. 126.

zontal projectors from corresponding points on the! front view,

would locate the points on the side view. Fig. 129 illustrates the
principle pictorially.
In practice only as many views are made as are necessary to
describe the object, and the ground line and Ptraces are not

FIG. 127. FIG. 128.

represented, but center lines or other lines of the views are used
for reference or datum lines as in Fig. 130. Thus the center
line of the side view may be regarded as the edge of a reference
plane whose H trace is the center line on the top view. In our
theoretical study we shall make the three views of a number of
72 ENGINEERING DRAWING

simple objects, at first working from the GL and V trace of P

as datum lines, afterward using center lines; developing the
ability to write the language, and exercising the imagination in
seeing the object itself in space by reading the three projections.

FIG. 129.

Fig. 131 shows successive cuts made on a block, and the cor-
responding projections of the block in the different stages. The
effort should be made to visualize the object from these
pro-
jections until the projection can be read as easily as the picture.
A drawing as simple as A' or B' can be read, and the mental

picture formed, at a glance; one with more lines as E' will re-
quire a little time for study and comparison of the different
views. One cannot expect to read a whole at once
drawing any
more than he would think of reading a whole page of print at a
glance.
 ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTION 73

Fig. 132 is another progressive series, illustrating the necessary

use of hidden lines.
The objects in Fig. 133 are to be "written" in orthographic

n C3H
FIG.. 131.

projection by sketching their three views. Similar practice

may be gained by sketching the projections of any simple models,

FIG. 132.

or objects with geometrical outlines, such as those illustrated in

Fig. 390.

FIG. 133.

After a study of the methods of pictorial representation (Chap-

ter VIII) we shall reverse this operation and practise reading, by
making the pictures of objects drawn in orthographic projection.
74 ENGINEERING DRAWING

Auxiliary Views.
Sometimes a view taken from another direction will aid in show-
ing the shape or construction of an object to better advantage
than can be done on the three reference planes alone, and often
such a view may save making one or more of the regular views.
For example, the three views of Fig. 134 do not show the face A
clearly. A projection on a plane whose edge (H trace) is S-S,
parallel to the face A, Fig. 135, would show the true size of the
face, and the position of the hole, and would obviate the necessity
for a side view. The projection is imagined as made by dropping
perpendiculars to the plane, and revolving the plane about S-S

FIG. 134.
^^ FIG. 135. Auxiliary projection.

into the plane of the top view, as illustrated pictorially in Fig.

136. Since this plane is perpendicular to H, the width of W
this view would evidently be the same as the width of the front
view.
Such a plane as S is called an auxiliary plane, and the projec-
tion on it an auxiliary projection or auxiliary view.

These planes may be set up anywhere perpendicular to one of

the planes of projection, and revolved into the plane of the paper.
In practical work extensive use is made of auxiliary views in
showing the true size of sections and inclined surfaces.
The plane S in Fig. 136 was taken perpendicular to H and re-
volved into H. It might as readily have been revolved about
its V trace into V. Fig. 137 is the picture of an object with the
H and V planes, and an auxiliary plane parallel to one of the
ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTION 75
76 ENGINEERING DRAWING

faces of the object and perpendicular to V. [Link]. 138 shows the

position of the planes and the projections when opened up, the
auxiliary plane being revolved about its V trace to coincide

FIG. 138. Auxiliary projection. FIG. 139. Auxiliary projection.

with V. These figures illustrate clearly that the dimensions of

the auxiliary view are obtainable directly from the other views.
In practice the auxiliary plane trace is not actually drawn,
but, like the ground line, after use has been made of it in explain-

FIG. 140.

ing the principle, its position is simply imagined, and the views
are worked from center lines. Thus in Fig. 139 the center line
on the auxiliary view is really the projection of the center line
of the top view or, more
accurately, the edge of a plane whose H
 ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTION 77

trace the center line of the top view, and the perpendicular
is

distance of any point as p or q from the center line on the top

view is laid off perpendicular to the center line on the auxiliary
view.
Often not necessary to project the whole figure on the
it is

auxiliary plane, but only the part to be shown in true shape, as

the lug or pad in Fig. 140 or the cut face of Fig. 141.
An auxiliary plane may be imagined as detached from its
trace and may be set off anywhere at a convenient place on the
paper.

FIG. 141. FIG. 142. Section on A-B.

Sectional Views.
Often it is not possible to show clearly the interior construction
or arrangement of an object by outside views, using dotted lines
for the invisible parts. In such case the object is drawn as if a
part of it were cut or broken away and removed. projection A
of this kind is known
as a sectional view, or section, and the ex-
"
posed cut surface of the material is indicated by section lining."
It should be understood that in thus removing an obstructing
portion so as to show the interior on one view, the same portion
is not removed from the other views; but on the view to which
78 ENGINEERING DRAWING

the cut surface is perpendicular the trace of the cutting plane is

indicated by a line. Thus in Fig. 142 the top view shows the
trace of the cutting plane A-B, and the front view is a section

FIG. 143.

showing the bearing as it would appear if the part in front of the

plane A-B were removed. Fig. 143 is a pictorial illustration.
This figure also illustrates the fact that the cutting plane need not

FIG. 144. Half section.

be continuous, but may be taken so as to show the construction

to the best advantage.
When a figure is symmetrical about an axis, it is a common
 ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTION 79

practice to show half in section and the other half in full. Figs.
144 and 145 are examples. Fig. 146, an illustration of a broken
section, is self-explanatory.

FIG. 145. Half section.

Little auxiliary views known as turned sections, or revolved

sections, are of great convenience in showing the shape of some
particular part. They may be drawn directly on the view, as

FIG. 146. Broken section.

in Fig. 147, or the piece may be broken to admit of placing the

section, as in Fig. 148.
It is not assumed that the cutting plane cuts everything

FIG. 147. Revolved sections.

through which it*

passes. It is a practical rule in drawing that
if in a sectional view a part can be shown more clearly by leaving
80 ENGINEERING DRAWING

it in position full, it is so left. This is true of shafts, bolts, rods,

keys, etc., which are never sectioned, but are drawn as in Figs.
149 and 150. A combination full and sectional view, known as a
"dotted section" will sometimes show the construction of an
object economically. Fig. 151 A is an illustration.

FIG. 148. Revolved section.

Section lining is done with a fine line, generally at 45 degrees,

and spaced uniformly, to give an even tint, the spacing being
governed by the size of the surface, but except in very small
drawings not less than 1/16 of an inch. On drawings to be
inked or traced the section lining is only indicated freehand in

FIG. 149. FIG. 150.

pencil, and is done directly in ink. The spacing is done entirely

by the eye. Care should be exercised in setting the pitch by the
first two or three lines, and one should
glance back at the first
lines often in order that the not gradually change to
pitch may
wider or narrower.
 ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTION 81

Large surfaces in section are sometimes shown as in Fig. 152.

This both saves time and improves the appearance. Adjacent
pieces are section lined in opposite directions, and are often

FIG. 151. A dotted section.

brought out more clearly by varying the pitch, using lines closer
together for smaller pieces.
Different materials are sometimes indicated by conventional
symbols. The use of those symbols is discussed in Chapter IX.

FIG. 152.

Revolution.
The natural way to place an object would be in the simplest

position, with one face or edge parallel to a plane of projection.

6
82 ENGINEERING DRAWING

It sometimes necessary, however, to represent it in a position

is

oblique to the planes. In such a case it may be necessary to

draw the object first in a simpler position, and revolve it about an
axis perpendicular to a plane of projection to the required
position.

FIG. 153. Revolution about axis perpendicular to H.

Rule: an object be revolved about an axis perpendicular to

If

a plane, projection on that plane will remain unchanged in

its

size and shape, and the dimensions parallel to this axis on other

planes will be unchanged.

Thus if the pyramid Fig. 153 be revolved through 30 degrees about
an axis perpendicular to the H plane, its H projection will take the

FIG. 154. Revolution about axis perpendicular to V.

position shown at B. The height of the pyramid has not been

changed in the revolution, hence the front and side views are
the same height as the original front view. If, instead/ the pyra-
mid be revolved about an axis perpendicular to V, the front view
will be unchanged and
may be copied in the new position. The
 ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTION 83

distance from the ground line to any point in the top view would
be unchanged, hence the new top view may be found by pro-
jecting up from the front view and across from the original top
view, Fig. 154.
Similarly in the revolution forward or back, about an axis
perpendicular to P, the side view is unchanged and the dimensions
(widths) on the top and front are the same as in the original
position, Fig. 155.

FIG. 155. Revolution about axis perpendicular to P.

Successive revolutions be made under the same rules.

may
Fig. 156 is a block revolved from
its first position about an axis

perpendicular to H
through 45 degees, then about an axis per-
pendicular to P through 45 degrees until the cut face is MNO
parallel to the vertical plane. To avoid confusion it is well to
letter or number the corresponding points as the views are car-
ried along.

Evidently the only difference in principle between revolutions

84 ENGINEERING DRAWING

and auxiliary planes is that in the former the object is moved

and in the latter the plane is moved.
Although objects in practical drawing would never be placed
in these complicated positions, unless unavoidable, problems
in revolution are an excellent aid in the understanding of the
theory of projection.

FIG. 156. Successive revolutions.

The True Length of a Line.

These principles are evident If a line is parallel to a
:
plane
its projection on that
plane will be equal in length to the line
itself.

If a line is perpendicular to a
plane its projection on the plane
will be a point.
 ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTION 85

If a line is inclined to a plane its projection will be shorter

than the line.
If is parallel to
a line H
or V its projection on the other plane
will be parallel to the ground line.
H
A line inclined to both and V will not show its true length

FIG. 158.

in either projection. If it be revolved until it is parallel to one

of the planes its projection on that plane will be its true length.
In Fig. 157 the line AB revolved about an axis perpendicular
is

to H until it is V and its true length is A v Bvr

parallel to .

Fig. 158 is a similar construction with the axis perpendicular to V.

159. FIG. 160.

Or by a second method the line may be revolved about its

projection, into the plane. This is illustrated pictorially in Fig.

159. The H
projection of the line AB
in space is a line con-

necting the feet of the perpendiculars from A B to the plane.

all

These perpendiculars form what is known as the projecting plane.

86 ENGINEERING DRAWING

If this projecting plane be revolved

about its H
trace, which is the
H projection of the line, until it coincides with H, the line will be

seen in its true length.

Construction. Fig. 160. The distance of A and B below H

is indicated on the V projection. Thus if to A h B h the perpendic-
ulars A A and B B be drawn, A B will be the true length of
h r h r r r

AB.

Shade Lines.
In the alphabet of lines the visible outline was indicated as a
uniform, bold, full line. This is the general practice for working
drawings.
It is possible by using two weights of lines, to add something
to the clearness and legibility of a drawing, and at the same

FIG. 161. Shading a circle.

time to give to its appearance a relief and finish very effective

and desirable in some classes of work. Shade lines are required

on patent office drawings, and are used in a few shops on assem-
bly drawings, but for ordinary shop drawings the advantage
gained is overbalanced by the increased cost. It is correct to
use them whenever the gain in legibility and appearance is of
sufficient importance to warrant the expenditure of the added
time necessary.
Theoretically the shade line system is based on the principle
that the object is illuminated from one source of light at an in-
finite distance, the rays coming from the left in the direction of
the body diagonal of a cube, so that the two projections of any
ray each make an angle of 45 degrees with the GL. Part of the
object would thus be illuminated and part in shade, and a shade
 ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTION 87

line is a line separating a light face from a dark face. The strict

application of this theory would involve some trouble, and it is

never done in practice, but the simple rule is followed of shading
the lower and right hand lines of all figures.
The light lines should be comparatively fine and the shade
lines about three times their width. The width of the shade
line is added outside the surface of the piece. They are never
drawn in pencil, but their location may be indicated, if desired,
by a mark on the line. In inking a shaded drawing all light lines
alone should be inked first, then the shade lines.

FIG. 162. Shade lines.

A circle may be shaded by shifting the center on a 45-degree

line toward the lower right hand corner, to an amount equal to
the thickness of the shade line, >and drawing another semicircular
arc with the same radius, or it may be done much more quickly,
particularly with small circles, after the "knack" has been
acquired, by keeping the needle in the center after drawing the
circle and springing the compass out and back gradually by
pressing with the middle finger in the position of Fig. 161.
Never shade a circle arc heavier than the straight lines.
Fig. 162 is an example of a shade line drawing. The aid in
reading given by the shade lines will be noted.
88 ENGINEERING DRAWING

Line shading is a method of representing the effect of light

and shade by ruled used on patent drawings, "show plans,"
lines,

drawings for illustration, and the like-. To execute it effectively

FIG. 163. FIG. 164.

and 'rapidly requires practice and is an accomplishment not

usual among ordinary draftsmen. An
explanation of the
methods, a'nd several examples illustrating its application are
given in Chapter XIV, page 259.

FIG. 165. FIG. 166.

PROBLEMS.
If drawn to the dimensions and scales given, these problems
will each occupy a space not to exceed 4" x 5".

Group I.
Orthographic from pictorial views.
Prob. 1. Draw three views of block, Fig. 163, using G.L.
2. Draw three views of core box, Fig. 164, using center
lines (without G.L.}.
 ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTION 89

3. Draw three views of box, Fig. 165, using center lines.

4. Draw three views of block, Fig. 166, using G.L.
5. Draw three views of support, Fig. 167, using center lines.
6. Draw three views, of block, Fig. 168, using G.L.

FIG. 167. FIG. 168.

7. Drawthree views of block, Fig. 169, using G.L.

8. Drawthree views of piece, Fig. 170, using center lines.
When three views are specified, the top view, front
view, and right side view are understood.

FIG. 169. FIG. 170.

Group II. Views to be completed.

Prob. 9. Draw the top and front views given, Fig. 171, and add
Scale Q" = l ft.
side view.
10. Draw
three views of clamp, Fig. 172. Scale 6" = 1 ft.
11. Complete the top and front views and draw side view
of block, Fig. 173.. Scale 3" -1 ft.

12. Draw three views of block, Fig. 174. Scale 3" = 1 ft.
90 ENGINEERING DRAWING

FIG. 171. FIG. 172.

T^

H%
'

j i

HT 'i

*>!> .1

FnJi
Jl
FIG. 173. FIG. 174.

1
pf-f

FIG. 175. FIG. 176.

 ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTION 91

13. Draw three views of circular block, Fig. 175. Scale

3" =1 ft.

14. Draw three views of block, Fig. 176. Scale 3" = 1 ft.

For further practice the bottom and left side views

of problems 12, 13, and 14 may be drawn.

FIG. 177.

15. Draw front view, complete top view, and draw left
side view of frame, Fig. 177. Scale 3"=^1 ft.
16. Draw front view, top view, and complete left side
view given, of the standard, Fig. 178. Scale 6" = 1 ft.

FIG. 179. FIG. 180.

Group III.
Auxiliary projections.
Prob. 17. Draw the front view given, complete the top view and
draw auxiliary view on the given C.L. of truncated
pyramid, Fig. 179. Full size.
18. Draw auxiliary view of cylinder, Fig. 180.
92 ENGINEERING DRAWING

FIG. 181.

FIG. 182.

FIG. 183.
 ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTION 93

19. Draw auxiliary view of square prism, Fig. 181.

20. Draw auxiliary view of cylinder, Fig. 182.
21. Draw auxiliary view of block, Fig. 183.

FIG. 184.

22. Draw auxiliary view of cone cut by plane, Fig. 184.

23. Draw auxiliary view of pentagonal pyramid, Fig. 185.
24. Draw auxiliary view of bearing, Fig. 186. Scale 3" =
1ft.

FIG. 186.

Group IV. Sectional views.

Prob. 25. Draw front view and sectional side view of ring, Fig.
187. Full size.
26. Draw front view and sectional top view of eccentric,
Fig. 188. Scale 6" = 1 ft.
94 ENGINEERING DRAWING

FIG. 188.

FIG. 189.

FIG. 191.
 ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTION 95

27. Draw top view and sectional front view of casting,

Fig. 189. Scale 6" =1 ft.

28. Draw top view, side view, and sectional front view of
body, Fig. 190. Scale 6" = 1 ft.

FIG. 193.

Half sections.
29. Draw top view and half-section front view of flanged
piece, Fig. 191. Scale 3" = 1 ft.

30. Draw top view and half-section front view of sleeve

Fig. 192. Scale 6" =1 ft.

FIG. 194.

31. Draw end view in section, and front view with lower
half in section, of piston, Fig. 193. Scale 6" = 1 ft.
32. Draw top view, front view in half -section, and end view
of tool-rest holder, Fig. 194. Scale 6" = 1 ft.
96 ENGINEERING DRAWING

Group V. Revolution.
Prob. 33. (1) Draw three views of Fig. 195 in simplest position,
(2) Revolve from position (1) about an axis perpendic-
ular to H through 15 degrees.

FIG. 195.

(3) Revolve from position (2) about an axis perpendic-

ular to V
through 45 degrees.
(4) Revolve from position (1) about an axis perpendic-
ular to P forward through 30 degrees.

o
r-^H
[HE!
r-'f-*\

VO o
5 6
FIG. 195 A.

(5) Revolve from position (2) about an axis perpendic-

ular to P forward through 30 degrees.
(6) Revolve from position (3) about an axis perpendic-
ular to P forward through 30 degrees.

FIG. 197.

(4), (5), (6) may be placed to advantage under

(1), (2), and (3) so that the widths of front and top
views may be projected down directly.
 ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTION 97

In problem 33 any of the objects in Fig. 195 A

may be used instead of Fig. 195.
34. (1) Draw three views of Fig. 196.
(2) Revolve from position (1) about an axis perpendic-
ular to V through 30 degrees.
(3) Revolve from position (2) about an axis perpendic-
ular to H
through 45 degrees.
35. (1) Draw three views of Fig. 197.

FIG. 198.
1
Revolve from position (1) about an axis perpendic-
(2)
P through 30 degrees.
ular to
36. Complete top and front views, and draw side view of
box in position as shown in Fig. 198, using auxiliary
view shown at A to obtain projections of lid. Scale
6" = 1ft.

Group VI. True length of lines.

Prob. 37. Find true length of the body diagonal of a 1 1/2" cube.
38. Find true length of the brace AB in tower diagram,
Fig. 199.
39. Find true length of any element, as A B, of oblique

cone, Fig. 200. Scale 6" = 1 ft.

40. Find true length of line AB of pier, Fig. 201. Scale

6" =1 ft.

41. Find true length of line AB on brace, Fig. 202. Scale

3/4" = 1ft.
7
98 ENGINEERING DRAWING

Group VII. Drawing from description.

Prob. 42. Draw three views of a pentagonal prism, axis long V
and perpendicular to H, circumscribing circle of base
1 1/8" diam., surmounted by a cylindrical abacus
(cap) 1 1/2" diam., 1/2" thick.

FIG. 199. FIG. 200.

43. Draw three views of a triangular card each edge of

which is 1 3/4" long. One edge is perpendicular to P,
and the card makes an angle of 30 degrees with H.
44. Draw three views of a circular card 1 3/4" diam., in-

FIG. 201. FIG. 202.

clined 30 to H, and perpendicular to V. (Find 8

points on the curve).
45. Draw three views of a cylinder 1" diam., 2" long, with
hexagonal hole, 3/4" long diam., through it. Axis of
cylinder parallel to H
and inclined 30 degrees to V.
 ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTION 99

46. Draw top and front views of a hexagonal plinth whose

faces are 5/8" square and two of which are parallel
to H, pierced by a square prism 2 3/4" long, base 1/2"
square. The axes coincide, are parallel to H, and
make an angle of 30 degrees with V. The middle
point of the axis of the prism is at the center of the
plinth.
47. Draw the two projections of a line 2" long, making an
angle of 30 degrees with V, and whose V projection
makes 45 degrees with G.L., the line sloping down-
ward and backward to the left.

48. Draw three views of a square pyramid whose faces are

isosceles triangles 1 1/4" baseand 2" alt., lying with
one face horizontal, the H
projection of its axis at an
angle of 30 degrees with G.L.
49. Draw three views of a triangular pyramid formed of
four equilateral triangles whose sides are 1 3/4".
,The base makes an angle of 45 degrees with H, and
one of the edges of the base is perpendicular to V.
50. Draw top and front views of a rectangular prism,
base 5/8" x 1 1/4" whose body diagonal is 13/4" long.
Find projection of prism on an auxiliary plane per-
pendicular to the body diagonal.
 CHAPTER VII.

DEVELOPED SURFACES AND INTERSECTIONS.*

A surface considered as generated by the motion of a

may be
line. Surfaces thus be divided into two general classes, (1)
may
those which can be generated by a moving straight line, (2) those
which can be generated only by a moving curved line. The
first are called ruled surfaces, the second, double curved surfaces.
Any position of the moving line is called an element.
Ruled surfaces may be divided into (a) planes, (b) single curved
surfaces, (c) warped surfaces.
A plane may be generated by a straight line moving so as to
touch two other intersecting or parallel straight lines.
Single curved surfaces have their elements either parallel or
intersecting. These are the cylinder and the cone; and a third
surface, which we shall not consider, known as the convolute, in
which the consecutive elements intersect two and two.
Warped surfaces have no two consecutive elements either
parallel or intersecting. There is a great variety of warped
surfaces. The surface of a screw thread and of the pilot of a
locomotive are two examples.
Double curved surfaces are generated by a curved line moving
according to some law. The commonest forms are surfaces of
revolution, made by the revolution of a curve about an axis in
the same plane, as the sphere, torus, or ring, ellipsoid, paraboloid,
hyperboloid, etc.
In some kinds of construction full sized patterns of different
faces, or of the entire surface of an object are required; as for
example in stone cutting, a templet or pattern giving the shape
of an irregular face, or in sheet metal work, a pattern to which a
sheet may be cut that when rolled, folded, or formed will make
the object.

* The full theoretical discussion of surfaces, their classification,

proper-
ties, intersections, and development may be found in any good descriptive
geometry.
100
 DEVELOPED SURFACES AND INTERSECTIONS 101

The operation of laying out the complete surface on one plane

is called the development of the surface.
Surfaces about which a thin sheet of flexible material (as paper
or tin) could be wrapped smoothly are said to be developable;
these would include figures made up of planes and single curved
surfaces only. Warped and double curved surfaces are non-
developable, and when patterns are required for their construction
they can be made only by some method of approximation,
which assisted by the pliability of the material will give the re-
quired form. Thus, while a ball cannot be wrapped smoothly, a
two-piece pattern developed approximately and cut from leather
may be stretched and sewed on in a smooth cover, or a flat disc
of metal may be die-stamped, formed, or spun to a hemispherical
or other required shape.
We have learned (page 74) the method of finding the true
size of a plane surface by projecting it on an auxiliary plane.

FIG. 203. FIG. 204.

If the true. size of all the faces of an object made of planes be

found and joined in order, at their common edges, the result
will be the developed surface. This may be done usually to the
best advantage by finding the true lengths of the edges.
The development of a right cylinder would evidently be a
rectangle whose width would be the altitude, and length the
rectified circumference, Fig. 203; and the development of a

right cone with circular base would be a sector with a radius

equal to the slant height, and arc equal in length to the circum-
ference of the base, Fig. 204.
In the laying out of real sheet metal problems an allowance
must be made for seams and lap, and in heavy sheets for the
thickness and for crowding of the metal; there is also the con-
sideration of the commercial sizes of material, and of economy
in cutting, in all of which some practical shop knowledge is
102 ENGINEERING DRAWING

In this chapter we will be confined to the principles

necessary.
alone.
In the development of any object we must first have its pro-
jections, drawing only such
views or parts of views as are neces-
sary to give the lengths of elements and true size of cut surfaces.

To develop the hexagonal prism, Fig. 205.

roll out into
Since the base perpendicular to the axis it will
is

the straight line AB. This line is called by sheet metal workers
the "stretchout." Lay off on theABlength of the perimeter
of the base, and at the points 1, 2, 3, etc., erect perpendiculars,

FIG. 205. Development of hexagonal prism.

called "measuring lines," representing the edges. Measure on

each of these itslength as given on the front view, and connect
the points. Attach to one of the top lines the true size of the
cut face C, and to one of the bottom lines the size of the base.
The figure will then be the development of the entire surface of
the prism. It iscustomary to make the seam on the shortest
edge.

To develop the cylinder, Fig. 206.

In rolling the cylinder out on a tangent plane the base, being
perpendicular to the axis, will develop into a straight line.
Divide the base, here shown as a bottom view, into a number of
equal parts, representing elements. Project these elements up
to the front view. Draw the stretchout and measuring lines as
before. Transfer the lengths of the elements in order, either by
 DEVELOPED SURFACES AND INTERSECTIONS 103

projection or with dividers, and connect the points by a smooth

curve. This might be one-half of a two-piece elbow. Three-
piece, four-piece, or five-piece elbows may be drawn similarly, as

FIG. 206. Development of cylinder.

FIG. 207. Five-piece elbow.

illustrated in Fig. 207. As the base is symmetrical, one-half

only need be drawn. In these cases the sections as B will de-
velop on their center lines as stretchouts, and measurements will
104 ENGINEERING DRAWING

J_J_iUJ

FIG. 208. Development of five-piece elbow.

FIG. 209. Development of octagonal dome.

 DEVELOPED SURFACES AND INTERSECTIONS 105

be taken on each side of the center line, since the center line repre-
sents a "right section," i.e. the section cut by a plane perpen-
dicular to the axis.
Evidently any elbow could be cut from a single sheet without
waste if the seams were made alternately on the long and short
sides. Fig. 208.
The development of the octagonal dome Fig. 209 illustrates an
application of the development of cylinders.

FIG. 210. Development of hexagonal pyramid.

To develop the hexagonal pyramid, Fig. 210.

The edge GA is shown on the front view in its true length. As
the edges are all of equal length, an arc may be drawn with the
radius GA and the perimeter of the base stepped off on it. The
cutting plane intersects the edges at the points HJKL. Revolve
these points to GA to find the true length of the intercepts and
measure these distances on the corresponding lines of the develop-
ment. Find the true size of the cut face and attach it to the
development.
The rectangular pyramid Fig. 211 is develped in a similar way,
but as the edge EA is not parallel to the plane of projection it
must be revolved to EA' to obtain its true length.

To develop the truncated cone, Fig. 212.

Divide the base into a convenient number of equal parts,
project these points on the front view and draw the elements
 106 ENGINEERING DRAWING

through them. With a radius equal to the slant height of the

cone, i.e. the true length of the element OA, draw an arc and lay
off on it the circumference of the base; draw the developed posi-

FIG. 211. Development of rectangular pyramid.

FIG. 212. Development of cone.

tions of the elements and on them measure the true lengths

from the vertex to the
cutting plane, found by revolving each
point over to the extreme element OA.
 DEVELOPED SURFACES AND INTERSECTIONS 107

Double -curved surfaces are developed approximately by

assuming them to be made up of parts of developable surfaces.
Thus the sphere may be made of sections of cylinders whose

FIG. 213. Sphere, gore method

diameter is equal to the diameter of the sphere, and developed

as in Fig. 213, or it may be made up of frustra of cones and
developed as in Fig. 214.

FIG. 214. Sphere, zone method.

Triangulation.
The commonest and best method for approximate develop-
ment is by triangulation, i.e., assuming the surface to be made
up of a large number of triangular strips, or plane triangles with
108 ENGINEERING DRAWING

very short bases. This is used for all warped surfaces, and for
oblique cones, which, although single-curved surfaces, and capable
of true theoretical development, can be done much more easily
and accurately by triangulation.
The method is extremely simple. It consists merely in divid-
ing the surface into triangles, finding the true lengths of the sides
of each, and constructing the triangles one at a time, joining
them on their common sides. A study of Fig. 215, the develop-
ment of an oblique cone, will explain the method completely.

FIG. 215. Development of oblique cone by triangulation.

In this case the triangles all have a common

vertex, the apex of
the cone, their sides are elements, and their bases the chords of
short arcs of the base of the cone.
Divide the base into a number of
equal parts 1, 2, 3, etc. (as
the plan is symmetrical about the axis A h C h one-half
only need
be constructed). If the seam is to be on the short
side, the line
AC will be the center line of the development and may be drawn
directly at A'C' as its true length is given. Find the true lengths
of the elements 1A, them until parallel to
2A, etc., by revolving
1

V. This may be done without

confusing the and H
V projections,
 DEVELOPED SURFACES AND INTERSECTIONS 109

by constructing the triangles for the true lengths in an auxiliary

figure as shown, laying off the lengths of the projections as H
bases on the line DC' and connecting with the point A" With '.

A' as center and radius A'V draw an arc on each side of A'C'.
h
With C' as center and radius C l intersect these arcs at 1'.
Then A'V will be the developed position of the element Al.
With 1' as center and arc 1, 2, intersect A'2' and continue the
operation.

FIG. 216. Development of oblique cone by triangulation.

Fig. 216 is an oblique cone connecting two parallel pipes of

different diameters. This is developed in the same way as Fig.
215, except that the true size of the base is not given in the top
view and must be revolved until parallel to H, as shown.

Transition Pieces.
Transition pieces are used to connect pipes or openings of
different shapes of [Link]. 217, for connecting a
round pipe and a square pipe on the same axis, is typical. These
are always developed by triangulation.
The piece shown in Fig. 217 is evidently made up of four
isosceles triangles whose bases are the sides of the square, and
four parts of oblique cones. As the top view is symmetrical
110 ENGINEERING DRAWING

about both center lines, one-fourth only need be divided. The

construction is illustrated clearly in the figure.

FIG. 217. Transition piece.

FIG. 218. Transition piece.

Fig. 218 is another transition piece from rectangular to round.

By using the turned sections of one-half the round opening, the
need of the full side view is avoided.
 DEVELOPED SURFACES AND INTERSECTIONS 111

The Intersection of Surfaces.*

The habit should be formedof thinking of surfaces as made up
ofelements, the successive positions of the generating line.
When two surfaces intersect, their common line, the line of
intersection, would be found by connecting the points at which
the elements of one surface pierce the other.
Two reasons make it necessary for the draftsman to be familiar
with the methods of finding the intersections of surfaces, first,
intersections are constantly occurring on working drawings, and
must be represented, second, in sheet metal combinations the
intersections must be found before the pieces can be developed.
In the first case it is only necessary to find a few points usually,
and "guess in" the curve; in the second case enough points
must be determined to enable the development to be laid out
accurately.

Intersection of Two Cylinders.

Any practical problem resolves itself into some combination of
the geometrical type forms of solids.
In Fig. 219 the intersection of two cylinders might represent a
dome on a boiler. If the top view of the cylinder A is divided

FIG. 219. Intersection of two cylinders.

into a number of equal parts the points will represent the top
views of elements. Draw the side views of these elements, which
will pierce the cylinder B as shown. If these points be projected
across to meet the corresponding elements on the front view the
on the curve. Since the axes inter-
intersections will be points

* Often called
"penetrations" or "interpenetrations."
112 ENGINEERING DRAWING

sect,the projection of the invisible part of the curve will coincide

with the visible part.
The method of development of the cylinder A is evident from
the figure.
In general, the method of finding the line of intersection of any
two surfaces is to pass a series of planes through them in such a
way as to cut from each the simplest lines. The intersection of
these lines will be points on the curve.
In Fig. 219 the plane T may be assumed as cutting out two
elements from the cylinder A whose intersections with the ele-
ment cut from the cylinder B, being points common to both,
cylinders, will be points on the curve, as shown
in the sketch.

FIG. 220. Two cylinders, axes not intersecting.

This principle is 220 with two cylinders whose

illustrated in Fig.
axes do not intersect. If A were to be developed a
the cylinder
right section as at &-/S would have to be taken, whose stretchout
would be a straight line. If the cutting planes were taken at
uniform distances apart, or at random, the elements would not
be spaced uniformly on the stretchout but would be found as
they project on the turned section of $-/S.

Intersection of Cylinder and Cone.

To find the intersection of a cylinder and a cone the cutting
planes may be taken so as to pass through the vertex of the cone
and parallel to the elements of the cylinder, thus cutting ele-
ments from both cylinder and cone; or with a right cone they may
be taken perpendicular to the axes, so as to cut circles from the
 DEVELOPED SURFACES AND INTERSECTIONS 113

cone. Both these methods are illustrated in Fig. 221. Some

judgment is necessary in the selection both of the direction and
number of the cutting planes. More points need be found at the

FIG. 221. Intersection of cylinder and cone.

places of sudden curvature or change of direction of the line of

intersection.
Cutting spheres instead of planes may be used to advantage in
some cases. If any surface of revolution be cut by a sphere whose

FIG. 222. FIG. 223.

center on the axis of revolution, the intersection will be a

is

circle. This principle may be employed in finding the inter-

section of a cylinder and cone of revolution, whose axes intersect,
8
114 ENGINEERING DRAWING

as in Fig. 222. If spheres be drawn with, center at the intersec-

tion of the axes they will cut circles from each, whose intersection
will be points on the curve.
The intersection of two cones of revolution may be found in the
same way, Fig. 223. The cone B would be developed by cutting
a right section as S-S whose stretchout will be a circle arc, locat-
ing the elements on it and finding the true length of each from
the vertex to the line of intersection

FIG. 224. Intersection of a surface of revolution and a plane.

It is often necessary on a drawing to represent the line of inter-

section of a plane and a surface of revolution, such as is shown
in Fig. 224. The method clearly illustrated in the figure.
is A
series of planes as S-S are passed perpendicular to the axis of
revolution, cutting out the circles shown on the end view. The
points at which these circles cut the "flat" are projected back
as points on the curve.

PROBLEMS.
Selections from the following problems may be constructed
accurately in pencil, without inking. Any practical problem can
be resolved into some combination of the "type solids," and the
exercises given illustrate the principles involved in the various
combinations.
When time permits, an added interest in developments may
 DEVELOPED SURFACES AND INTERSECTIONS 115

be found by working the problems on suitable paper, allowing for

lap, and cutting them out.
In the sheet metal shops, development problems, unless very
complicated, are usually laid out directly on the iron.
Except when noted, the following problems may be drawn in a
space 4"x5".

Group I. Prisms, Fig. 225.

Prob. 1. Develop entire surf ace of triangu-
larprism (A)
2. Develop entire surface of pentag-
onal prism (B)

FIG. 226.

3. Develop entire surface of oblique

square prism (C)
4. Develop entire surface of triangu-
lar prism (D)
116 ENGINEERING DRAWING

Group II. Cylinders, Fig. 226.

Prob. 5. Develop entire surface of cylinder (A)

6. Develop three-piece elbow (B)

7. Develop one section of octagonal

FIG. 227.

roof and find true shape of a hip

rafter (C)
8. Develop one section of dome, and
find true shape of hip (D)

FIG. 228.

Group III. Pyramids, Fig. 227.

Prob. 9. Develop entire surface of triangu-

lar pyramid (A)

10. Develop pattern for octagonal
lamp shade (B)
11. Complete top view, and develop
surface of pentagonal pyramid (C)
 DEVELOPED SURFACES AND INTERSECTIONS 117

12. Complete top view and develop

surface of oblique hexagonal
pyramid (D)

Group IV. Cones, Fig. 228.

Prob. 13. Complete top view, and develop
cone (A)
14. Complete top view, and develop
flangeand hood cones of (B)
15. Complete top view, and develop
cone (C)
16. Complete top view, and develop
cone (P)

FIG. 229.

Group V. Triangulation, Fig. 229 (space 5"x 8").

Prob. 17. Develop conical connector (A)
18. Develop connnector (B)
19. Develop transition piece (C)
20. Develop transition piece (D)
21. Develop offset boot (E)
22. Develop three-way pipe (F)
118 ENGINEERING DRAWING

Group VI. Intersection of Prisms, Fig. 230 (space 5"x 8")

Prob. 23. Find the line of intersection of
two prisms (A)
24. Find the line of intersection of
two prisms (B)
25. Find the line of intersection of
two prisms (C)

26. Find the line of intersection of

two prisms (D)
Develop the surface of the larger prism in Probs. 23, 24, 25, 26.

Group. VII. Intersection of Cylinders, Fig. 231.

Prob. 27. Find the line of intersection of
two cylinders (A)
28. Find the line of intersection of
two cylinders (B)
 DEVELOPED SURFACES AND INTERSECTIONS 119

29. Find the line of intersection of

two cylinders (C)
30. Find the line of intersection of
two cylinders (D)

FIG. 231.

Group VIII. Intersection of Cylinder and Cone, Fig. 232.

Prob. 31. Find the line of intersection of
cylinder and cone (A)
32. Find the line of intersection of
cylinder and cone (B)
33. Find the line of intersection of
cylinder and cone (C)
34. Find the line of intersection of
cylinder and cone (D)
35. Find the line of intersection of
cylinder and cone (E)
36. Find the line of intersection of
cylinders and cone (F)
120 ENGINEERING DRAWING

FIG 232.

FIG. 233.
 DEVELOPED SURFACES AND INTERSECTIONS 121

Group IX. Intersection of Two Cones, Fig. 233.

Prob. 37. Find line of intersection of two
cones (A)
38. Find line of intersection of two
cones (B)
If desired, any of the figures in Groups VII, VIII and IX may
be developed, in a space 4" x 5".

FIG. 234.

Group X. Intersection of Surfaces by Planes, Fig. 234,

Prob. 39. Find line of intersection of (A)
40. Find line of intersection of (B)
41. Find line of intersection of (C)
42. Find line of intersection cut by
planes R and S from cast-iron
transition piece (D)
43. Find line of intersection cut by
planes RS and T from cast-iron
transition elbow (E)
 CHAPTER VIII.

PICTORIAL REPRESENTATION.

We have noted the difference between perspective drawing and

orthographic projection. Perspective drawing shows the object
as it appears to the eye, but its lines cannot be measured directly.
Orthographic projection shows it as it really is in form and
dimensions, but to represent the object completely we have
found that at least two projections were necessary, and that an
effort of the geometrical imagination was required to visualize
.itfrom these views. To combine the pictorial effect of perspec-
tive drawing with the possibility of measuring the principal
lines directly, several kinds of one plane projection or conven-
tional picture methods have been devised, in which the third
dimension is taken care of by turning the object in such a way
that three of its faces are visible. With the combined advan-
tages will be found some serious disadvantages which limit their
usefulness. They are distorted until the appearance is often
unreal and unpleasant; only certain lines can be measured; the
execution requires more time, particularly if curved lines occur,
and difficult to add many figured dimensions, but with all
it is

this, the knowledge of these methods is extremely desirable and

they can often be used to great advantage. Structural details
not clear in orthographic projection may be drawn pictorially,
or illustrated by supplementary pictorial views. Technical
patent
illustrations, office drawings and the made like are
advantageously in one plane projection; layouts and piping plans
may be shown, and many other applications will occur to drafts-
men who can use these methods with facility. One of the uses to
which we apply them
shall is in testing the ability to read^ortho-
graphic projections bv translating into pictorial representation.

Isometric Drawing.
The simplest
of these systems is isometric
drawing.
a cube in orthographic
If
projection, Fig. 235, be conceived as
revolved about a vertical axis
through 45 degrees, then tilted
'

122
 PICTORIAL REPRESENTATION 123

forward until the edge AD is foreshortened equally with A B and

AC, the front view in this position is said to be in isometric
(equal measure) projection. The three lines A B, and AC AD
make equal angles with each other and are called the isometric
axes. Since parallel lines have their projections parallel, the
other edges of the cube will be respectively parallel to these axes.
Any line parallel to an isometric axis is an isometric line, and the
planes of these axes and all planes parallel to them are called
isometric planes. It will thus be noticed that any line or plane

FIG. 235. Revolution to isometric position.

which in orthographic projection is perpendicular to either of

its

the reference planes, will be an isometric line or plane.

In this isometric projection the lines have been foreshortened
to approximately 81/100 of their length and an isometric scale
to this proportion might be made as drawn in Fig. 236. If the

amount of foreshortening be disregarded and the full lengths

laid off on the axes, a figure slightly larger but of exactly the
same shape would result. This is known as isometric drawingt
As the effect of increased size is usually of no consequence, and
the advantage of measuring the lines directly with an ordinary
scale is a great convenience, isometric drawing is used almost

exclusively instead of isometric projection.

To make an isometric drawing of a rectangular object start
with the three axes 120 degrees apart, drawing one vertical, the
other two with the 30-degree triangle. Let this represent the
front corner of the object and measure on the three lines its
length, breadth and thickness, Fig. 237. To draw intelligently in
isometric it is only necessary to remember the direction of the
three principal isometric planes. Hidden lines are always
omitted except when necessary for the description of the piece.
124 ENGINEERING DRAWING

Lines not parallel to one of the isometric axes are called non-
isometric lines. The first rule is, measurements can be made only
on isometric lines; and conversely, measurements cannot be made
on non-isometric lines. Thus the diagonals of the face of the
cube, Fig. 235, are non-isometric lines, and although equal in

FIG. 236. An isometric scale. FIG. 237. The isometric axes.

length, are evidently of very unequal length on the isometric

drawing.
To draw an object composed of non-isometric lines, an iso-
metric construction must be built up and the points located
by

FIG. 238. Isometric construction lines.

isometric coordinates. Thus the hexagonal prism, Fig. 238,

may be enclosed in the rectangular box and the corners located
on these isometric lines by measuring the orthographic projection.
It is not at all
necessary actually to enclose the object in rec-
tangular construction. In many instances it is better to get the
 PICTORIAL REPRESENTATION 125

isometric coordinates by offsets. Figs. 239 and 240 are self-

explanatory.
Of course angles in isometric drawing cannot be measured in
degrees. In general to represent any angles, or combination of
non-isometric lines, their orthographic view must be drawn first,

FIG. 239. Offset construction.

adding construction lines which can be drawn isometrically, and

transferring the measurements from the orthographic to these
isometric lines.
A circle on any isometric plane would be projected as an
ellipse. It may be constructed from the orthographic projection
by coordinates, or by the method of conjugate diameters. A

FIG. 240. Offset construction.

four-centered circle-arc approximation sufficiently accurate for

all ordinary work is made by drawing a perpendicular from the

point of tangency, that is, the middle point of each side of the
square. As the center of any arc tangent to the line at this point
must lie on the perpendicular, the intersections of these perpen-
126 ENGINEERING DRAWING

diculars would be centers for arcs tangent to two sides, Fig. 241.
Two of these intersections will evidently fall in the corners of the

square, as the lines are altitudes of equilateral triangles. The

construction of Fig. 241 may thus be made by simply drawing

FIG. 241. Approximate isometric circle.

60-degree lines from the corners A and B. To draw any circle-

arc, the isometric square of its diameter should be drawn in the
plane of the face, with as much of this construction as is necessary
to find centers for the part of the circle needed. Fig. 242 shows
arcs on the three visible faces with the construction indicated.

FIG. 242. Construction of isometric circles.

If a true ellipse be
plotted in the same square as this four-
centered approximation it will be a little longer and narrower,
and of more pleasing shape, but in the great majority of drawings
the difference is not sufficient to warrant the extra
expenditure
 PICTORIAL REPRESENTATION 127

of time required in execution. The construction of a closer

approximation with eight centers as illustrated in Fig. 243. This

might be used when a more accurate drawing of an inscribed
circle is required.
It is evident that the isometric drawing of a sphere would

FIG. 243. FIG. 244. Reversed axes.

have a diameter equal to the long axis of the ellipse inscribed in

the isometric square of the real diameter of the sphere, as this
ellipse would be the isometric of a great circle of the sphere.
It is often desirable to show the lower face of an object by

tilting it back instead of forward, thus reversing the axes to the

FIG. 245. Construction with reversed axes.

position of Fig. 244. The construction is just the same but the
direction of the principal isometric planes must be remembered.
Figs. 245 and 246 are applications. Sometimes a piece may be
shown to better advantage with the main axis horizontal as in
Fig. 247.
128 ENGINEERING DRAWING

FIG. 246. Architectural detail on reversed axes.

FIG. 247. Main axis horizontal.

FIG. 248. Isometric section. FIG. 249. Isometric half section.

 PICTORIAL REPRESENTATION 129

The isometric section and half section may sometimes be

employed to good advantage. The cutting planes are taken as
isometric planes, and the section lining done in a direction to give
the best effect. Figs. 248 and 249 are examples.
Shade lines in isometric drawings have no value so far as aiding
in the reading is concerned, but they may by their contrast add

FIG. 250. FIG. 251.

some attractiveness to the appearance. Assuming the light as

coming from the left in the direction of body diagonal of a cube,
and disregarding shadows, shade lines separating light from dark
faceswould be added as in Fig. 250.
Another method popular among patent draftsmen and others
using this kind of drawing for illustration, is to bring out the
nearest corner with heavy lines, as Fig. 251.

FIG. 252. Illustration of first rule.

Oblique projection, sometimes called cavalier projection, is

based on the theoretical principle that with one face of the object
parallel to the picture plane, if the projectors instead of being
perpendicular to it as in orthographic and isometric, make an
angle of 45 degrees with it in any direction, lines perpendicular
9
130 ENGINEERING DRAWING

to the plane would be projected in their true length. It ,would

thus be similar to isometric in having three axes, representing
three mutually perpendicular lines, upon which measurements
could be made. Two of th axes would always be at right angles
to each other, being in the plane parallel to the picture plane,

FIG. 253. Illustration of second rule.

and the cross axis might be at any angle, 30 degrees being gener-
ally used. Thus any face parallel to the picture plane will be
projected without distortion, an advantage over isometric of
particular value in the representation of objects with circular or

FIG. 254. (A) not (B).

irregular outline, and the first rule for oblique projection would
be, place the object with the irregular outline or contour parallel
to the picture plane. Fig. 252 A
instead of or C. B
One of the greatest
disadvantages in the use of either isometric
or oblique drawing isthe effect of distortion produced by the lack
 PICTORIAL REPRESENTATION 131

of convergence in the receding lines, the violation of perspective.

This in some cases, particularly with large objects, becomes so
painful as practically to prohibit the use of these methods. It
is perhaps even more noticeable in oblique than in isometric,
and of course increases with the length of the cross axis. Hence

FIG. 255.

the second rule, always have the longest dimension parallel to

the picture plane. A not B in Fig. 253.
In case of conflict between these two rules the first should
have precedence, as the advantage of having the irregular face
without distortion is greater than is gained by the second rule.
Fig. 254.

FIG. 256. Offsets from right section.

It will be noted that so long as the front of the object is in one

plane parallel to the plane of projection, the front face of the
oblique projection is exactly the same as the orthographic.
When the front is made up of more than one plane, particular
care must be exercised in preserving the relationship by selecting
one as the starting plane and working from it. In such a figure
as the link, Fig. 255, the front bosses may be imagined as cut off
132 ENGINEERING DRAWING

on the plane A-A, and the front view, i.e., the section on A-A
drawn as the front of the oblique projection. On axes through
the centers C and D
the distances CE
behind and CF in front may
be laid off. When an object has no face perpendicular to its

FIG. 257. Piping system in oblique drawing.

base it may be drawn in a similar

way by cutting a right section
and measuring from
as in Fig. 256.
offsets it

This offset method, previously illustrated in the isometric

drawings, Figs. 239 and 240, will be found to be a most rapid and
convenient way for drawing almost any figure, and it should be
studied carefully.

FIG. 258. Circle construction. FIG. 259. "Cabinet" drawing.

Fig. 257 is an illustration of a piping lay-out, showing the value

of oblique drawing in explaining clearly what would be very
difficult to
represent in orthographic.
Circles in oblique drawing may either be plotted, or may be
drawn approximately, on the same principle as Fig. 241, by
erecting perpendiculars at the middle points of the containing
square. In isometric it happens that one intersection falls in
 PICTORIAL REPRESENTATION 133

the corner of the square, and advantage is taken of the fact.

In oblique its position depends on the angle of the cross axis.
Fig. 258 shows three oblique squares at different angles and their
inscribed circles.
Cabinet drawing is a modification of oblique projection in
which all the measurements parallel to the cross axis are reduced

one-half, in an attempt to overcome the appearance of excessive

thickness produced in oblique drawing. The cabinet drawing
Fig. 259 may be compared with the oblique drawing Fig. 255.

Axonometric Projection.
The was shown in the double
principle of isometric projection
revolution of the cube. A
cube might be revolved into any
position showing three of its faces, and the angles and proportion-
ate foreshortening of the axes used as the basis for a system of

rr=Uk5--.
FIG. 260. Dimetric projection.

pictorial representation, known in general as axonometric (or

axometric) projection. Isometric projection is therefore simply
a special case in which the axes are foreshortened equally.
Other positions which would show less distortion may be
chosen, but on account of the added time and special angles
necessary for their execution, are not often used.
When two axes are equal, and the third unequal, the system
is sometimes called "dimetric" projection. A simple dimetric
projection in which the ratios are 1:1:1/2 is shown in Fig. 260.
In this position the tangents of the angles are 1/8 and 7/8,
making the angles approximately 7 and 41 degrees.
134 ENGINEERING DRAWING

and pleasing system known as clinographic projection

A simple
isused in the drawing of crystal figures in mineralogy. It is a
form of oblique projection in which the figure is imagined as
revolved about a vertical axis through an angle whose tangent
is 1/3, then the eye (at an infinite distance) elevated through an

angle whose tangent is 1/6. Fig. 261 is a graphic explanation.

(1) represents the top and front views of the three axes of a
cube.
(2) is the top view revolved through tan- 1/3.
(3) is .the sideview of (2) .

(4) is a front view projected from (2) and (3), the projectors
1
from (3) being at tan" 1/6.

FIG. 261. Analysis of clinographic axes.

When used in crystallography a diagram of the axes is usually

constructed very accurately on card board, and used as a templet
or^stencil, transferring the center and terminal points by pricking-
through to the sheet on which the drawing is to be made. Fig.
262 shows, in stages, a method of constructing this diagram,
which as will be seen is simply a combination in one view of 2
3, and 4 of Fig. 261. Take MON
of convenient length, divide
it into three equal parts, at G and H, and draw perpendiculars as
shown. Make MS = 1/2 MO and draw SVD. Then CD will be
one horizontal axis.
Make ML =1/2 OG and draw LO. Project the point of inter-
section of LO and GC back horizontally to LM at A, then AOB
will be the other horizontal axis.
 PICTORIAL REPRESENTATION 135

To obtain length of vertical axis make ME' = OG, and lay off
OE and OF = OE'.

_^4^S$fe
f
^'
J^
FIG. 262. Stages of construction of clinographic axes.

The axial planes, and some crystals drawn on these axes, are
shown in Fig. 263.

FIG. 263. Crystals in clinographic projection.

These axes are for the isometric system of crystals. Axes for
the other crystal systems may be constructed graphically in the

p*

FIG. 264. FIG. 265.

same way, by drawing their orthographic projections, revolving,

and projecting to the vertical plane with oblique projectors as
was done in Fig. 261.
136 ENGINEERING DRAWING

PROBLEMS.
The following problems are intended to serve two purposes;
they are given first, for practice in the various methods of pictor-

*<M

hh
I
m
FIG. 266. FIG. 267.

ial representation, second, for practice in reading and translating

orthographic projections.

FIG. 268.

They may be drawn in a space not to exceed 4x5 inches, and

are arranged in groups for convenience in selection and assign-

FIG. 269. FIG. 270.

ment; but any of the figures may, if desired, be drawn in one of

the other methods. Some of the figures in Chapter VI may be
used for a still further variety of problems in this connection.
 PICTORIAL REPRESENTATION 137

Do not show invisible lines, except when necessary to explain

construction.

Group I. Isometric Drawing :

Prob. 1. Isometric drawing of the oil-stone, Fig. 264.
Full size.

FIG. 271. FIG. 272.

2. Isometric drawing of truncated pyramid, Fig. 265.

Full size.
3. Isometric drawing of steps, Fig. 266. Full size.
4. Isometric drawing of a 1 1/2" cube with circles on
the three visible faces (approx. method) .

Bottom
FIG. 273. FIG. 274.

5. Isometric drawing of brass, Fig. 267. Scale

6"=!'.
6. Isometric drawing of bracket, Fig. 268. Full size.
Prob. 7. Isometric drawing of brick, Fig. 269. Full size.
8. Isometric drawing of brick, Fig. 270. Full size.
138 ENGINEERING DRAWING

9. Isometric drawing of core box, Fig. 271. Full size.

10. Isometric drawing of block, Fig. 272. Full size.
11. Isometric drawing of knee brace, Fig. 273. Scale

1/2"=!'.

Boffom ^/ens

FIG. 275.

12. Isometric drawing of mitered corner (face return),

Fig. 274; axes reversed to show under side. Scale
6"=!'.
13. Isometric drawing of stone (springing stone of
plate band, or flat arch) Fig. 275, axes reversed.
Full size.

FIG. 276. FIG. 277.

Group II. Isometric Sections :

Prob. 14. Isometric section of Scale 3"=!'.
cap, Fig. 276.
15. Isometric section of Scale
pulley, Fig. 277.
6"=!'.
 PICTORIAL REPRESENTATION 139

16. Isometric half-section of cone, Fig. 278. Scale

6"=!'.
17. Isometric half-section of gland, Fig. 279. Scale
6"=!'.

FIG. 278.

GroupIII. Oblique Drawing:

Prob. 18. Oblique drawing of block, Fig. 280, 30 degrees to
the left. Full size.
19. Oblique drawing of block, Fig. 281, 30 degrees to
the right, full size.

20. Oblique drawing of grindstone, Fig. 282, 45 de-

grees to the right. Scale 1"=!'.

FIG. 280.

21. Oblique drawing of 1 1/2" cube, 30 degrees to the

right, with circles on the three visible faces
(approximate) .

22. Oblique drawing of 1 1/2" cube, 45 degrees to the

left, with circles on three visible faces (approxi-

mate) .

23. Oblique drawing of column section, Fig. 283, 30

degrees to the left. Scale 1/2"=
1 I'.

24. Oblique drawing of monument, Fig. 284, 30

degrees to the right. Scale 1/2"=!'. .
140 ENGINEERING DRAWING

25. Oblique drawing of gland, Fig. 285, 45 degrees

to the right. Full size.
26. Oblique drawing of angle brace, Fig. 286, 30
degrees to the left. Scale 6"= I'.

FIG. 282. FIG. 283.

FIG. 284.

Ttr Hfrai

tl^g
FIG. 285. FIG. 286.

27. Oblique drawing of slotted link, Fig. 287, 30

degrees to the left. Scale 1 1/2"= 1'.

28. Oblique drawing of 288, 45

bell-crank, Fig.
degrees to the left. Scale 6"=!'.
 PICTORIAL REPRESENTATION 141

29. Oblique drawing of link, Fig. 289, 30 degrees to

the right. Full size.
30. Oblique drawing of cap, Fig. 290, 45 degrees to
the left. Scale 6"=!'.

FIG. 287.

FIG. 290.

FIG. 291. FIG. 292.

31. Oblique drawing of cam, Fig. 291, 30 degrees to

the right. Scale 3"= V .

32. Oblique drawing of bearing. Fig. 292, 30 degrees

to the right. Scale 6"=!'.
142 ENGINEERING DRAWING

33. Oblique drawing of moulded brick and face

return, Fig. 293, 45 degrees to the right, axes
reversed to show under side. Scale 3" = !'.
34. Oblique drawing of culvert arch, Fig. 294, 30
degrees to the left, draw by offsets from right
section. Full size.

s-

T *o

I-*"'
L

FIG. 293. FIG. 294.

1 ftf"

==$
//*

S-4-'-
-a-7-
i i
FIG. 295. FIG. 296.

FIG. 297. FIG. 298.

Group IV. Cabinet and Dimetric Projection.

Prob. 35. Cabinet projection of frame, Fig. 295. Scale
3/4"=!'.
PICTORIAL REPRESENTATION 143
144 ENGINEERING DRAWING

36. Cabinet projection of desk, Fig. 296. Scale

1" = !'.
37. Dimetric Projection of table, Fig. 297. Scale
3/4"=!'.
38. Dimetric projection of Roman chair, Fig. 298.
Scale 1"=!'.

J L

FIG. 300. Reading exercises.

Group V. Reading Exercises.

Assuming that the student is now familiar with the methods
of pictorial representation, the objects in Fig. 299 and 300 are

given to test further the ability to read orthographic projec-

tions, by sketching the figures shown, in any one of the pictorial
systems.
Some may be read at a glance, others will require careful com-
parison of the different views before the mental image of the
object is clearly defined.'
 CHAPTER IX.

WORKING DRAWINGS.

A working drawing is a drawing that gives all the information

necessary for the complete construction of the object represented.

It will thus include: (1) The full graphical representation of
the shape of every part of the object. (2) The figured dimen-
sions of all parts. (3) Explanatory notes giving specifications
in regard to material, finish, etc. (4) A
descriptive title.
Although isometric, oblique and cabinet drawing are used to
some extent in special cases, the basis of practically all working
drawing orthographic projection. To represent an object
is

completely, at least two views would be necessary, often more.

The only general rule would be, make as many views as are
necessary to describe the object, and no more.
Instances may occur in which the third dimension is so well
understood as to make one view sufficient, as for example in the
drawing of a shaft or bolt. In other cases perhaps a half dozen
views might be required to show the piece completely. Some
thought will be involved as to what views will show the object
to the best advantage; whether an auxiliary view will save one
or more other views, or whether a section will better explain the
construction than an exterior view. One statement may be
.made with the force of a rule If anything in clearness may be
gained by the violation of any one of the strict principles of
projection, violate it.

This statement is of sufficient importance to warrant several

examples, although there is no guide but the draftsman's judg-
ment as to when added clearness might result by disregarding a
theoretical principle.
six-arm wheel, Fig. 301, be shown in section as if cut by a
If a

plane A-A,
the true projection would be as A; if cut by a plane
B-B the true projection would be as B. Neither of these would
be good practical working drawings, the first does not show the
10 145
146 ENGINEERING DRAWING

true size of the arm, the second is misleading. The sectional

view whether taken on A-A or B-B would be better if made as C.

(NOT)
FIG. 302. Section through a rib.

Similarly, if a section taken through a rib, as the section S-S

of the piston, Fig. 302, is cross-hatched as in A
the effect is mis-
leading. Its character may be indicated much better by
 WORKING DRAWINGS 147

omitting the lining on the rib, as if the section were just in front
of it, as at B, or by running every other line across the rib

section, as at C.
Often a true section would give an unsymmetrical appearance
to the drawing of a symmetrical piece. In such cases principle
should be violated to preserve the effect of symmetry. Fig. 303
is an illustration.

(NOT) B

FIG. 303. A symmetrical section.

Classes of
Working Drawings.
Working drawings may be divided into two general classes,
assembly drawings and detail drawings.
An assembly drawing or general drawing is, as its name implies,
a drawing of the machine or structure showing the relative
positions of the different parts.
A detail is the drawing of a separate piece or group of
drawing
pieces, giving the complete description for the making of each
piece. In a very simple machine the assembly drawing may be
made to serve as a detail drawing by showing fully the form and
dimensions of each part composing it.
Under the general term assembly drawing would be included
preliminary design drawings and layouts, piping plans, and final
complete drawings used for assembling or erecting the machine
or structure.
The design drawing is the preliminary layout, full size if
possible, on which the scheming, inventing, and designing is
worked out accurately after freehand sketches have determined
the general ideas. From it the detail drawings of each piece are
made. The design drawing may be finished and traced to form
the assembly drawing, or the assembly drawing may be drawn
from it, perhaps to smaller scale to fit a standard sheet.
148 ENGINEERING DRAWING

The assembly drawing would give the over-all dimensions, the

distances from center to center or from part to part of the
different pieces, indicating their location and relation so that the
machine could be erected by reference to it.

The grouping of the details is dependent upon the

entirely
requirements of the shop system. In a very simple machine
and if only one or two are to be built, all the details may perhaps
be grouped on a single sheet. If many are to be built from the
same design, each piece may have a separate sheet. In general,
it is a good plan to group the parts of thesame material or
character. Thus forgings may be grouped on one sheet, bolts
and screws on another.
A complete set of working drawings therefore consists of
assembly sheets, and detail sheets for each of the classes of work-
men, as the patternmaker, blacksmith, machinist, etc. These
special drawings need not include dimensions not needed by
those trades. The set may include also drawings for the
purchaser.
There is a "style" in drawing, just as there is in literature,
which in one way indicates itself by the ease of reading. Some
"
drawings stand out," while others which may contain all the
information are difficult to decipher. Although dealing with
"mechanical thought," there is a place for some artistic sense in
mechanical drawing. The number, selection, and disposition of
views, the omission of anything unnecessary, ambiguous, or
misleading, the size and placing of dimensions and lettering, and
the contrast of lines are all elements concerned in the style.
Order of Penciling.
In penciling a working drawing the order should be as follows :

first, lay off the sheet to standard size, with border (1/2 inch),
and block out space for the title; second, plan the arrangement
by making a little preliminary freehand sketch, guessing roughly

at the space each figure will occupy, and placing the views to the
best advantage for preserving if possible a balance in the appear-
ance of the sheet; third, draw the center lines for each view, and
on these lay off the principal dimensions. In Chapter VI the
general principlewas given that the view showing the character-
isticshape should be made first. The different projections should
however be carried on together and no attempt made to finish
one view before drawing another. Fourth, finish the projections,
 WORKING DRAWINGS 149

putting in minor details last; fifth, draw the necessary dimension

linesand add the dimensions; sixth, lay off the title; seventh,
check the drawing carefully.
Fig. 304 illustrates the stages of penciling a drawing. Over-
lapping and overextending pencil marks should not be erased

FIG. 304. Stages of penciling.

until after the drawing has been inked. These extensions are
often convenient in preventing the overrunning of ink lines. All

unnecessary erasing should be avoided as it abrades the surface,

of the paper so that dirt catches more readily.

FIG. 305. Stages of inking.

Order of Inking.
First, ink all circles, then circle arcs; second, ink the straight
lines in the order, horizontal, vertical, inclined; third, ink center
lines; extension and dimension lines; fourth, ink the dimensions;
fifth, section line cut surfaces; sixth, ink notes, title, and
all

border line; seventh, check the tracing. Figure 305 shows the
stages of inking.
150 ENGINEERING DRAWING

DIMENSIONING.
After the correct representation of the object by its projec-
tions, the entire value of the drawing as a working drawing lies
in the dimensioning. Here our study of drawing as a language
must be supplemented by a knowledge. of the shop methods
which will enter into the construction. The draftsman to be
successful must have an intimate knowledge of pattern making,
forging, sheet metal working and machine shop practice.
The dimensions put on a drawing are not those which were
used in making it, but those necessary and most convenient for
the workman who is to make the piece. The draftsman must
thus put himself in the place of the pattern maker, blacksmith or
machinist, and mentally construct the object represented, to
see if it can be cast or forged or machined practically and eco-
nomically, and what dimensions would give the required infor-
mation in the best way. In brief, the drawing must be made
with careful thought of its purpose.
General Rules for Dimensioning.
In the alphabet of lines in Fig. 62 the dimension line was shown
as a fine full line, with long arrow heads whose extremities
indicate exactly the points to which the dimension is taken, and
having a space left for the figure.
Some practice uses a long dash line, and some a red line for
dimension lines. It is common practice among structural
draftsmen to place the dimension above the continuous line as
in Fig. 346, but it is not recommended for machine or architec-
tural work.
Dimensions of course always indicate the finished size of the
piece, without any reference to the scale of the drawing.
Dimensions should read from the bottom and right side of the
sheet, no matter what part of the sheet they are on.
Dimensions up to 24" should always be given in inches. An
exception is again noted in structural practice. Over 24"
practice varies, but the majority use feet and inches. The sizes
of wheels, gears, pulleys and the stroke of
cylinder bores, pistons,
and the length of wheel bases are always given in inches; and
sheet metal work is usually dimensioned in inches.
Feet and inches are indicated thus 5'-6" or 5 ft.-6". When
there are no inches, it should be indicated as 5'-(H".
5'-0",
 WORKING DRAWINGS 151

Fractions must be made with a horizontal line as 2J",

The diameter of a circle should be given, not the radius.
In general give dimensions from center lines, never from the
edge of a rough casting.
Have figures large enough to be easily legible. In an effort
for neatness the beginner often gets them too small.
Radii of arcs should be marked It or Had.
Dimensions should generally be placed between views.

FIG. 306. Example of dimensioning.

In general do not repeat dimensions on adjacent views.

Preferably keep dimensions outside the figure unless added
clearness, simplicity, and ease of reading the drawing will result
from placing them in the figure. See Fig. 306. Keep them off
sectioned surfaces if possible.
Extension should not touch the outline.
lines

Always give an over-all dimension. Never require the work-

man to add or subtract figures.
Never use any center line as a dimension line.
Never put a dimension on a line of the drawing.
A dimension not agreeing with the scaled distance, or which
has been changed after the drawing has been made should be
heavily underscored as in Fig. 307 (2) or marked as in (3)
,
.
152 ENGINEERING DRAWING

Dimensions must never be crowded. If the space is small,

methods as illustrated in Fig. 307 (4) (5) (6) (9), etc., may be used.
The direction in which a section is taken should be indicated
by arrows on the line representing the cutting plane, as in (29).
If it is possible to locate a point by dimensions from two center

lines, do not give an angular dimension.

NOT THUS
"/H h*H (D
-UTI- Hh/

@
FHl-fHl J
^
FIG. 307. Dimensions.

The Finish Mark.

Several methods are used for indicating that certain parts are
to be machined, and that allowance must therefore be made on
the casting or forging for finish. The symbol in common use is
a small "f" placed on the surface, on the view which shows the
surface as a line, Fig. 307 (26). If the piece is to be finished all

over, the note "f. all over" is placed under it, and the marks
on the drawing omitted.
Another finish mark, proposed by Professor Follows for
adoption as a standard, isshown at (27). It has a distinct
by pointing to the line instead of crossing it,
individuality, and,
does not mar the appearance of the drawing as the "f " does.
The symbol as used in (28) indicates that the entire surface
between the extension lines is to be finished.
Some elaborate symbols for different kinds of finish have been
devised, but it is much better to specify these in words.

Notes and Specifications.

Some necessary information cannot be drawn, and hence
must be added in the form of notes. This would include the
 WORKING DRAWINGS 153

number required of each piece, the kind of material, kind of

finish, kind of fit (as force fit, drive fit, etc.), and any other
specifications as to its construction or use.
Do not be afraid of putting notes on drawings. Supplement
the graphic language by the English language whenever added
information can be conveyed, but be careful to word it so clearly
that the meaning cannot possibly be misunderstood.
If a note as to the shape of a piece will save making a view,
use it.

If two pieces are but one " right-hand" and the 'other
alike,
"left-hand," one only is drawn and a note added 1-R. H., 1-L. H.
Standard bolts and screws are never detailed, but are specified
in the bill of material.
The bill of material is a tabulated statement placed on a draw-
ing, or in some cases, for convenience, on a separate sheet, which
gives the mark, name, number wanted, size, material, pattern
number, and sometimes the weight, of each piece. A column
giving the over-all dimensions of the piece when crated or boxed
for shipping is sometimes added, particularly in manufactures
for foreign shipment. A final column is usually left for
"
remarks."
Fig. 308 is a detail drawing illustrating the use of the bill of
material.

Title.*

The title to a working drawing is usually boxed in the lower

right hand corner, the size of the space varying of course with
the size of the drawing. For 12"xl8" sheets the space reserved
may be about three inches long. For 18"x24" sheets four or
four and a half, and for 24"x36" sheets five or five and a half
inches.
A form of title which is growing in favor is the record strip,
a narrow strip marked off entirely across the lower part of the
sheet, containing the information required in the title, and
ample space for the record of orders, changes, etc. Fig. 309
illustrates this form.
It is sometimes desired to keep records of orders and other
private information on the tracing, but not have them appear
*For a full discussion of titles for different classes of drawings see "The
Essentials of Lettering/' from which this paragraph is condensed.
154 ENGINEERING DRAWING
 WORKING DRAWINGS 155

on the print. In such case both the corner title and record
strip are used, and the record strip trimmed off the print before
sending it out.

Contents of Title.

In general the title of a machine or structural drawing should

contain:
(1) Name of machine or structure.
"
(2) General name of parts (or simply details").

FIG. 309. A record strip.

(3) Name of purchaser, if special machine.

-

(4) Manufacturer; company or firm name and address,

(5) Date; usually date of completion of tracing.
(6) Scale or scales; desirable on general drawings, often
omitted from fully dimensioned detail drawings.
(7) Drafting room record; names, initials or marks of the
draftsman, tracer, checker, approval of chief draftsman,
engineer or superintendent.

FIG. 310. A printed title form.

(8) Numbers; of the drawing, of the order. The filing

number is often repeated in the upper left hand corner
upside down, for convenience in case the drawing should
be reversed in the drawer.
15G ENGINEERING DRAWING

The title should be lettered freehand in single stroke capitals,

either upright or inclined, but never both styles in the same title.
Any revision or change in the drawing should be noted, with
date, in the title or record strip.
Every drafting room has its own standard form for titles.
In large offices this is often printed in type on the tracing cloth.
Figs. 310 and 311 are characteristic, examples.
Sometimes a title is put on with a rubber stamp, and inked
over while wet.

GENERAL NOTES.
WORKMANSHIP-
MATERIAL

CONTRACT.
SHEET No,

ASSEMBLING PAINT-
SHOP PAINT
FIELD PAINT
BUILT BY

KING BRIDGE COMPANY

FIELD CONNECTION* CLEVELAND, OHIO
F.O. B
SHIP __^ DRAWINGS FINISHED o
FIG. 311. A printed title form.

In commercial drafting, accuracy and speed are the two require-

ments. The drafting room is an expensive department, and
time an important element. The draftsmen must therefore
is

have a ready knowledge not only of the principles of drawing,

but of the conventional methods and abbreviations, and any
device or system that will save time without sacrificing effective-
ness, is desirable.

FASTENINGS.

In every working drawing will occur the

necessity of repre-
senting the methods of fastening parts either with together,
permanent fastenings (rivets) or with removable ones (bolts,
screws and keys), and the draftsman must be
thoroughly familiar
with the conventional methods of their
representation.
 WORKING DRAWINGS 157

The Helix.
A helix the line of double curvature generated by a point
is

moving uniformly along a straight line while the line revolves

uniformly about another line, as an axis.
The distance advanced parallel to the axis in one revolution is

called the pitch. the moving line is parallel to the axis it will
If

generate a cylinder, and the word "helix" alone always means

a cylindrical helix. If the moving line intersects the axis (at an
angle less than 90 degrees) it will generate a cone and the curve
made by the moving point will be a conical helix. When the
angle becomes 90 degrees the helix degenerates into a spiral.

f 2 3 4 5 6 7 S 9 /O///2/

FIG. 312. Construction of the helix.

To Draw a Helix. Divide the circle of the base of the cylinder

into anumber of equal parts, and the pitch into the same number.
As the point revolves through one division it will advance one
division of the pitch, when half way around the cylinder it will have
advanced one-half the pitch. Thus the curve may be found by
projecting the elements represented by the divisions of the Circle,
to intersect lines drawn through the corresponding divisions of
the pitch, as in Fig. 312.
The conical helix is drawn similarly, the pitch being measured
on the axis.

Screw Threads.
The helix is the curve of the screw thread, but is not often
drawn, and only with screws of large diameter. Fig. 313
illustrates its application on a square thread screw and section of
158 ENGINEERING DRAWING

nut. Two helices of the same pitch but different diameters are

required, one for the tip and one for the root of the thread. If

many threads are to be a

drawn, templet may be made, by laying
off the projection of the helix on a piece of cardboard, and cutting

out with a sharp knife.

Fig. 314 shows the method of drawing a helical spring with
round section, by constructing the helix of the center line of the

FIG. 313. Construction of square thread.

section, drawing on it a number of circles of the diameter of the

stock, and" drawing an envelope curve tangent to the circles.

Forms of Threads.

Screws are used for fastenings, for adjustment, and for trans-
mitting power or motion. For these different purposes several
different forms of thread are in use. The United States Standard

FIG. 314.

(sometimes called the Franklin Institute, and Sellers standard),

Fig. 315, A, is the commonest, and in this country is the form
intended when not otherwise specified. It is a V thread at
60 degrees with the tip flattened one-eighth of its
height, which
lessens the liability of its being injured,
and the root filled the
same amount, thus increasing the strength of the bolt. In
drawing, these flats need not be represented.
 WORKING DRAWINGS 159

The sharp V at 60 degrees used, although it has little^to

is still

recommend it. The square thread and the Acme or Powell

thread are used mainly to transmit motion. Other forms shown
are the buttress, knuckle, and Whitworth, the English standard.

fA) U. S. STANDARD SHARP V SQUARE

-P

KNUCKLE WH/TWOGTH
FIG. 315. Forms of screw threads.

Threads are always understood to be single and right hand

unless otherwise specified.
A right hand thread advances away from the body when turned
clockwise. A
left hand thread is always marked plainly "L H,"
and is quickly recognized also by the direction of slant.

FIG. 316. Conventional threads.

A single thread has one thread, of whatever section, winding

around the cylinder. When it is desired to give a more rapid
advance without using a coarser thread, two or more threads are
wound together, side by side, giving double and triple threads, as
illustrated in Fig. 316, C and D.
160 ENGINEERING DRAWING

Conventional Representation of Threads.

For ordinary practice the labor of drawing the exact curves of
threads is altogether unnecessary, and the helix is conventional-
ized into a straightline. The square thread screw would thus

.-V-
M ^W^^^
-

WfiMffi
4/T/l/l/j/M/Vl fjTWK'^i^
"" UU- iuU-Sm 4|%Wi%
4^-n-
/U/llllvl ^H^lMWJ>
ill Hiwk-
4/1^474^AiA4/
FIG. 317. Stages in drawing V threads.

be drawn as in Fig. 316 (A) or (B), which while not so realistic

or pleasing as Fig. 313, requires very much less time.
The V thread would be drawn, both in pencil and ink, in the
stages shown in Fig. 317.

For screws less than perhaps one inch in diameter, the thread
shapes are omitted and one of the conventional forms of Fig. 318
used.. A is a very common convention. The lines are drawn
with a slight slant (one-half the pitch), and spaced by eye. The

FIG. 319. Tapped hoi

spacing need not be to the correct pitch, but to look well should
somewhat approximate it.
The root lines are usually made heavier, for effect. The
beginner's usual mistake of exaggerating the slant must be care-
fully guarded against. It is a question as to whether there is
 WORKING DRAWINGS 161

any necessity of slanting the lines at all, and in much good

practice they are drawn straight across.
Bis a simpler convention, in that it requires no pencil lines

for limiting the root lines, as there is always a center line already
drawn. In this the root lines are always placed on the shade
side.
C is
a convention that does not look like a thread, but that can
be made rapidly, and is understood by all workmen.
Fig. 319 shows the conventional representation of' tapped
holes in plan, section and elevation. In showing a tapped hole

FIG. 320.

in section the slant of the thread lines would evidently be reversed

as the part represented fits the invisible side of the screw. In
tapped holes not extending through the piece, the "drill point,"
or shape of the bottom of the hole should always be shown.
When two pieces fitted together are shown in section the
threads must be drawn, as in Fig. 320. The same is true for a
male thread in section.
It is not necessary to draw the threads on the whole length of
a long threaded shaft. They may be started at each end, and
"
ditto" lines used in the space between.
11
162 ENGINEERING DRAWING

Dimensioning Threads.
If a thread Standard the only dimensions given are
is U. S.

the outside diameter and the length. When these dimen-

sions are given the thread is always assumed to be U. S.
Standard right hand, and the machinist knows the pitch, drill
sizes, etc. The word "pitch" has been defined as the distance
between threads. A commonly accepted meaning among
machinists is the number of threads per inch, thus "8 pitch"
would mean eight threads per inch. There is very little danger
of misunderstanding in these two meanings, but it may be safer,
"
particularly in screws of large diameter, to say threads
per in."

FIG. 321. U. S. Standard bolts (unfinished).

With double andtriple threads "pitch" is generally accepted

to mean
the distance between adjacent threads, and the distance
advanced in one revolution is called the "lead."
A distinction in designation should be made between tapped
holes and threaded holes.

Bolts and Nuts.

There are adopted sizes for standard hexagonal and square
bolt heads and nuts, hence on a standard bolt no dimensions are
placed except the diameter, length (under the head to tip of
point), and length of threaded part. As there is so frequent
necessity for the representation of bolts and screws the drafts-
man must be able to draw them without reference to tables or
measurement.
 WORKING DRAWINGS 163

Fig. 321 shows the U. S. Standard hex. head, and the stand-
ard square head bolt and nut. In drawing a hex. head three
faces are shown, and in a square head, one face.

DIMENSIONS OF U. S. STANDARD BOLTS AND NUTS.

164 ENGINEERING DRAWING

A a standard hex. head or nut is

quick method of penciling
shown in stages in Fig. 322. Mark a point on the center line at

LLTJ
I
~ezz& *

FIG. 322. A method of drawing a hexagonal head.

a distance 1 1/2D + 1/8". Sixty-degree lines drawn from this

point to the base will give points for the
outside corners. The
remainder of the construction is evident from the figure.

CTTJ
LCD
m
It is evident
r

FIG. 323. Locknuts.

from geometry that the projected width of the

inclined face one half that of the front face.
is

For the conventional representation of the smaller sizes it is

sufficient to draw the long diameter of the head twice the diam-
eter of the shaft, and the thickness of both head and nut equal
to the diameter of the shaft.
Many different lock-nut devices to prevent nuts from working
loose, are used in machine design. The jam nut or check nut is
a common method, Fig. 323, using either two "three-quarters"
or standard nuts, or one full and one thin nut. Theoretically
the thin nut should be under, but it is sometimes placed outside.
D another application. In automobile work the "castle" nut
is

shown in Fig. 324 with pin through the bolt is universally used.
These are made on the A. L. A. M. (Assn. of Licensed Automobile
Manufacturers) standard, which has finer threads and smaller
heads and nuts than the U. S. Standard. A table of sizes of
A. L. A. M. bolts is given under the figure.
 WORKING DRAWINGS 165

Cap screws differ from bolts in that they are used for fastening
two pieces together by passing through a clear hole in one and

FIG. 324. A. L. A. M. Standard bolt and castle nut.

screwing into a tapped hole in the other. The heads are the
same thickness as the diameter of the bolt, but are usually
somewhat smaller in diameter than bolt heads. Some cap screw
166 ENGINEERING DRAWING

heads are made, however, to U. S. Standard. Fig. 325 shows

forms with an accompanying table of sizes.
six different

SQUAP OVAL FILLISTER FLAT FILL/STEP BUTTON COUNTERSUNK

FIG. 325. Cap screws.

Studs. Threaded studs are bolts having a thread on each end,

one end to screw into a tapped hole, the other for a nut, Fig. 326.
The screwed end should be 11/4 to 1 1/2 D long.
 WORKING DRAWINGS 167

Set screws are used for holding two parts in relative position,

being screwed through one part and having the point set against
the other. They are made with square and hex. heads, whose
thickness and short diameter are equal to the diameter of the

REGULAR LOW HEAD HEADLESS

FIG. 326. Studs. FIG. 327. Set screws.

screw, with low head, and headless, as shown in Fig. 327; and
with points of different shapes for different purposes, Fig. 328.
The Allen headless set screw, patented in 1910, with countersunk

POUND FLAT CUP CONr

FIG. 328. Set screw points.

hexagonal socket, shown in Fig. 330, is approved by factory

inspectors as safe, and is used where there might be danger of
clothing being caught in moving parts.

FLAT POUND FILLISTER FRENCH

FIG. 329. Machine screws.

Machine screws are specified by gage number, not by sizes in

fractions of an inch. Fig. 329 shows the various forms of
machine screw heads.
168 ENGINEERING DRAWING

A new standard for machine screws was proposed in 1907 by

the American Society of Mechanical Engineers but has not yet
come into general use. Tables of these sizes, as well as for other

ALLEN HEADLESS COLLAR SCREW LAG SCREW

5ET SCREW

DRIVE SCREW.
WOOD SCREWS SHOULDER SCREW

EXPANSION BOLT HANGER BOLT CARRIAGE BOLT

EYE BOLT
TURN BUCKLES WING NUT
FIG. 330. Various bolts and screws.

standard screws, may be found in Kent, American Machinist's

and other handbooks.
Various other types of bolts and screws are illustrated in Fig. 330.

F/at Tops \F/af Tops\ Complete Threads

F/at Bottoms Pound Round Tops and Bottoms
Bottoms
Bottoms tin* *T~~ ^ 32
J."na - f/"of Length
fTaper per

.8 outside cf/'am. + <4.8

Threads V~ Number o, Threads
per /"'
FIG. 331. Section of Briggs pipe thread.

Pipe Threads and Fittings.

Pipe threads are cut on a taper, known as the Briggs Standard,
illustrated in enlarged scale in Fig. 331. In drawing pipes the
taper of the threaded portion is usually slightly exaggerated.
 WORKING DRAWINGS 169
DIMENSIONS OF STANDARD STEEL AND WROUGHT IRON PIPE.
170 ENGINEERING DRAWING

Pipe designated by the nominal inside diameter, which

is

differs slightly from the actual inside diameter, as will be noted

"
from the table on page 169. Extra" and "double extra" heavy
pipe has the same outside diameter as standard weight pipe of
the 'same nominal size, the added thickness being on the inside.
of V pipe is 1.315, the inside diameter
r
Thus the outside diameter

S/ZE OF
PIPE:

'A
I
M

'

4
73 a

'A '
*t /O

FIG. 332. Cast iron fittings.

of standard I" pipe 1.05, of 1" extra strong .951, and of XX,
.587".
The dimensions of fittings vary somewhat with the different
manufacturers. In dimensioning piping the best practice is to
give figures from center to center of fittings.
Fig. 332 illustrates some of the ordinary cast iron fittings.
The dimensions indicated are given in the accompanying table.
Fig. 333 shows malleable fittings.
 WORKING DRAWINGS 171

deducing Union
Coup/mg / gfa.

L-A/Cap A ^_

A'

Ji I
~w
'76

/xl

*JL

FIG. 333. Malleable fittings.

3O TEETH - CAST Iff ON - FULL SIZE

FIG. 334. Cast spur gear.

172 ENGINEERING DRAWING

/O P., 48 r.
"
DEPTH OF CUT. 3/6
FIG. 335. Cut spur gear.

FIG. 336. Cast bevel gear.

 WORKING DRAWINGS 173
Gears.
While not within our scope to take up any machine design,
it is

it isimportant that designers know the correct methods for the

representation of designed parts. In the working drawings of

5 P/TCfi - 3S TEETH
Finish a// o\ser

FIG. 337 Cut bevel gear.

N(<>
Finish a// over
Ang/e for gashing cuf 5g S/NGLE THBEAO
"c.P.
5. 72 "f?D.. "C. P. 36 TEETH HARDENED STEEL
HARDENED STEEL

FIG. 338. Worm and gear.

gears and toothed wheels the teeth are never drawn on the wheel.
For cast gears the pitch circle, addendum circle and root circle
are drawn, and the full sized outline of one tooth, Fig. 334.
174 ENGINEERING DRAWING

For cut gears the blank is drawn, and notes added for full

information regarding pitch, cutters, etc., Fig. 335.

Fig. 336 is a drawing of a cast bevel gear, showing
the
method of complete dimensioning for the construction of the

pattern. Fig. 337 is a cut bevel gear and Fig. 338 is a worm
gear.
On assembly drawings gears are represented as in Fig. 339.

FIG. 339.

CONVENTIONAL SYMBOLS.
The methods of drawing screw-threads and gears just con-
sidered would be called conventional, as they do not represent
real outlines of the objects. Other conventions are used for
electrical apparatus, for materials, etc.
In specifying the materials of which objects are to be made,
the safest rule to follow is to add the name of the material as a
note. There are cases however in which when the piece is shown
in section, adjacent parts made of different materials can be
indicated to good advantage by using different characters of
cross-hatching.
The commonest example of this is in distinguishing a bearing
or lining metal poured into place hot, such as babbitt metal.
It is universal practice to show such metals by the conventional

symbol of crossed lines shown in Fig. 340. An example of this

is the lead lined valve, Fig. 144.
 WORKING DRAWINGS 175

The quickest way to make this symbol is to section over both

the lining metal and the adjacent cast iron at once, then cross
the lining metal in the other direction.
There have been a number of different codes of symbols pro-
posed and published for the representation on working drawings
of different metals and materials. Aside from their doubtful
value on account of the lack of agreement, they are all open to
the same objection, that of the added time necessary for their
execution.
With the variety of materials used in modern construction it

is entirely impracticable to have symbols for all.

LEATHER GLASS LIQUID INSULATING

(OTHER FLEXIBLE MATERIALS) MATERIAL
FIG. 340. Symbols for materials in section.

Fig. 340 gives conventions for a number of different mate-

rials. Those in the first line are accepted by practically all who
use conventional cross-hatching. There is much variation in
the symbols proposed for the other materials shown. Those
given are part of the ,codes of government standards of the
Bureau of Steam Engineering and the Bureau of Construction
U. S. N., who require their use on assembly drawings submitted
by firms estimating on government work.
Until a standard is adopted universally it would seem necessary
to add to a drawing made with symbolical section lining, a key
to materials, as is done in architectural drawing, or else to letter
the name on each piece, in which case the fancy
of the material

section-lining would appear to be unnecessary.

176 ENGINEERING DRAWING

SQUARE SECTION

FIG. 341. Conventional breaks and other symbols.

(6) (M)
|(M)
're
}

nL2Zref7f O.C.5hut. D. C. Ser/es >.C. Compound Pnase TwoPnase

^ij orM %%*
e Dynamo Alternator
e
leraforor Motor

6-6 A -0-
n TT

31
R AAAAAAA ^AAA^V
_j4- C[
Orcv/t Breaker Resistance Vanaffi/e
Crossings
Converter

Transformer /nsfrvment
I Transformer

1 Jl Jl

i n
&/?
11
^./?
R;I
5.^
^ST: 7: 5.^-
'
*Yor5tor .
Sw/fches Connection Connect/on Connection

FIG. 342.
 WORKING DRAWINGS 177

Fig. 341 shows a number of conventional breaks and other

useful symbols.
In making a detail of a long bar of uniform section there is

evidently no necessity for drawing its whole length. It may be

shown much better by breaking out a piece and giving the length
in a dimension.
The crossed diagonals are used for two distinct purposes, to
indicate position or finish for a bearing, and to indicate a piece
square in section, but are not apt to be confused.
Sheet metal and structural shapes in section to small scale may
be shown most effectively in solid black with white spaces between
parts.
Very short section-lines are best made freehand.
Fig. 342 gives a set of electrical diagrammatic symbols.
There is no universal standard, but of those proposed here a
number are in general use. The standard wiring symbols of the
National Electrical Contractors Association is given on page 221.

COMMERCIAL SIZES.
The following notes give the commercial methods of specifying
sizes of the items in the list. The material must, of course,
always be specified.
Chain. Give diameter of rod used.
Electrical Conduit. Same as pipe.
Pipe. Give nominal inside diameter.
R. R. Rails. Give height of section and weight per yard.
Rolled Steel Shapes; Give name, essential dimensions and
weight per foot.
Rope. Give largest diameter.
Shafting. The best practice is to give the actual diameter.
Sheet Metal. Give thickness by gage number, or in thou-
sandths of an inch (for 3/ 16" and over, give thickness in fractions).
Springs. Helical, give outside diameter, gage of wire, and
coils per inch when free.

Tapered Pieces. Give size at small end, and taper per foot.
Tubing. Give outside diameter and thickness.
Wire. Give diameter by gage number or in thousandths of
an inch.
Wire Cloth. Give number of meshes per lineal inch, and gage
of wire.
12
178 ENGINEERING DRAWING
Wood Screws. Give length, diameter by number, and kind of
head.
Special. Manufactured articles or fittings, give manufacturer's
name and catalogue number.

CHECKING.

Before being sent to the shop, a working drawing must be

checked for errors and omissions by an experienced checker, who
in signing his name to it becomes responsible for any inaccuracy.
This is the final "proof-reading" and cannot be done by the one
who has made the drawing nearly so well as by another person.
In small offices all the work is checked by the chief draftsman,
and draftsmen sometimes check each other's work; in large
drafting rooms one or more checkers who devote all their time
to this kind of work are employed.
Students may gain experience in this work by being assigned
to check other students' work.
To be checking must be done in an absolutely
effective,
systematic way, and with thorough concentration.
Professor Follows in his "Dictionary of Mechanical Drawing"
has specified admirably the work of checking, in twelve items,
which are given with his permission. Each of these should be
followed through separately, allowing nothing to distract the
attention from it. As each dimension or feature is verified a
checkmark should be placed above it.

1. Put yourself in the position of those who are to read the

drawing and find out if it is easy to read and tells a
straight story. Always do this before checking any
individual features; in other words, before you have
had time to become accustomed to the contents.
2. See that each piece is
correctly illustrated and that all
necessary views are shown, but none that are not
necessary.
3. Check all the dimensions
by scaling, and, where advisable,
by calculation also.
4. See that dimensions for the shop are given as required by
the shop, that is, that the shop is not left to do any
adding or subtracting in order to get a needed dimension.
 WORKING DRAWINGS 179

5. Go over each piece and see that finishes are properly

specified.
6. See that every specification of material is correct and that
all necessary ones are given.
"
7. Look out for interferences." This means check each
detail with the parts that will be adjacent to it in the
assembled machine and see that proper clearances have
been allowed.
8. When checking for clearances in connection with a mechan-
ical movement, lay out the movement to scale, figure
the principal angles of motion and see that proper
clearances are maintained in all positions.
9. See that all the small details, as screws, bolts, pins, keys,
rivets, etc., are standard and that, where possible, stock
sizes have been used.
10. Check every feature of the record strip.
11. Review the drawing in its entirety in connection with any
points that rj/ave suggested themselves during the above
f
checking,
12. Bearing in mind the value of explanatory notes, do not
fail to add such notes as your experience tells you will

increase the efficiency of the drawing.

STRUCTURAL DRAWING.

The term "structural drawing" is always understood to mean

working drawings and details for steel construction, such as
bridges, roof trusses, skeletons of tall buildings, etc.
Structural work differs from machine work in that it is made
up of rolled shapes and put together permanently with rivets.
The function of the drawing is to show the shapes and sizes of
the steel used in the design, and the spacing of the rivets.
Some of the parts are put together in the shop and some at
the place of erection, and a distinction must be shown between
"shop rivets" and "field rivets." The holes left for field con-
nection are always made solid black.
Fig. 343 shows the Osborn symbols for riveting, which are
so universally used that no key on the drawing is necessary; and

Fig. 344 shows rivets in larger scale.

180 ENGINEERING DRAWING

In drawing rivets the drop pen, Fig. 30, is a favorite instrument

with structural draftsmen.
The general rules for working drawings are of course applicable
to this branch, but there are some minor differences in common
practice that should be noticed.

Srtopff/wte

FIG. 343. Standard symbols for riveting.

Structural drawings are necessarily made with finer outlines

than machine drawings, and shade lines are never used.
To prevent confusion on the tracing, center lines and gage
lines are very often drawn in red.

FIG. 344.

On account of the limited space for successive dimensions, the

figures are set over continuous dimension lines, instead of in
spaces left in the lines.
Dimensions ovbr one foot are given in feet and inches.
 WORKING DRAWINGS 181

Care should be taken that dimensions are given to commercial

sizes of materials.

Angles, as for gussets, are indicated by their tangent, on a 12"

base line.
The stress diagram is often added to the drawing.
"
Bent plates should be developed, and the stretchout" length
of bent forged bars given.
When showing only part of a given piece, always draw it from
the left end toward the right.
A bill of material always accompanies a structural drawing.
This may be put on the drawing, but the best practice now
attaches it as a separate "bill sheet."
Figs. 345 and 346 are given to illustrate the general make-up
of structural drawings. The original drawings were 24"x36".
When a view is given under a front view, as in Fig. 345, it is not
a bottom view, but a section taken through the web, above the
lower flange.

PROBLEMS.
The part of any working drawing problem consists of
first

the selection of views, the choice of suitable scales, and the

arrangement of the sheet. In class work the preliminary sketch
layout should be submitted for approval before the drawing is

commenced.
All views of an object must be drawn to the same scale, but
different objects on the same sheet may be drawn to different
scales.
The problems here given may be drawn on 12"xl8" or 18"x24"
sheets. Their division into groups is suggestive rather than
arbitrary, and the selections made from them will depend
upon the kind and length of course.

Group I. Bolts, Screws, Pipes, etc.

Prob. 1. Draw helical screw threads and springs as indi-
cated in Fig. 347.
Prob. 2. Draw a bolt sheet containing: 3/4"x3" bolt with
hex. head and nut; 3/4"x3" square head bolt; 7/8"
x3 1/2" stud, with hex. nut; l/2"x2" hex. head
cap screw; 5/8"xl 1/2" cup point set screw;
182 ENGINEERING DRAWING
WORKING DRAWINGS 183
184 ENGINEERING DRAWING

Prob. 2. l/4"xl 1/2" oval fillister head machine screw;

(Continued.)

l/2"x2 1/2" low head, round point set screw, with

jam nut; 5/16"x3/4" headless set screw, with.
hanger point; 3/8"xl 1/2" countersunk head cap
screw; l/4"xl 3/4" round head machine screw;
3 1/2" lag screw (1/2" diam,); 2 1/2" flat head

FIG. 347.

wood screw (3/16" diam.); l/2"x4" hanger bolt,

with lock nut; 5/8" Allen set screw; 1/4" wing
nut.
Prob. 3. Pipe Fittings. In the upper left-hand corner of
sheet draw a 2" T. Plug one outlet, in another
place a 1 l/2"x2" bushing, in remaining outlet
use a 2" close nipple and on it screw a 1 l/2"x2"
reducing bushing. Lay out remainder of sheet so
as to include the following 1 1/2" fittings:
coup-
ling, globe valve, R. & L. coupling, angle valve, 45-
degree ell, 90-degree ell, 45-degree Y, cross, cap, 3
part union, flange union.
Add extra pipe, nipples and fittings so that the
system will close at the reducing fitting first
drawn.
 WORKING DRAWINGS 185

Prob. 4. A Piping Problem. Given two sources of pres-

sure supply a citymain and a steam pump. A
sprinkler system must have pressure on at all
times, and is to be connected so as to have city
pressure, pump pressure, or pressure from -an
overhead tank. A battery of boilers is also to be
connected to these three sources. The tank is to
be capable of supply from either pump or main.

FIG. 348.

Design a pipe layout in elevation, so that each

system can be operated independently, and be
perfectly interchangeable, using the fewest
fittings and simplest connections. Fig. 348 is a

sketch showing the position of the outlets.

Group II. Study Sheets in Dimensioning.

(All to be in orthographic projection, with
necessary views.)
Prob. 1. Make a freehand working sketch of the casting,
Fig. 349, showing the location of all dimensions,
according to the rules for dimensioning, thus

Prob. 2. Same for Fig. 350.

186 ENGINEERING DRAWING

Prob. 3. Freehand sketch of yoke (A) Fig. 351, indicating

dimensions for the blacksmith. The holes to be

punched.
Prob. 4. Same for equalizing bar (B) Fig. 351.

FIG. 340. FIG. 350.

Prob. 5. Freehand sketch of casting, Fig. 352, giving

necessary machine shop dimensions in blank.
Prob. 6. Same for Fig. 353.
Additional practice may be had by applying the rules for
dimensioning to Figs. 130, 140, 294, 295, 296, etc.

FIG. 351.

Group III. Drawing from Sketches.

Models, furnished by the Department, are to be sketched
and measured; drawings are to be made from the sketches

FIG. 352.

without further reference to the model or machine; sketches

to be submitted along with finished
tracings.
Reference, Chapter X, Technical Sketching.
 WORKING DRAWINGS 187

Group IV. Machine Parts, etc.

Prob. 1. Make working drawing of crank shaft from dimen-
sioned sketch, Fig. 354.
Prob. 2. Working drawing of cross-head, Fig. 355.

(Notice the occurrence of a curve of intersection.)

FIG. 354.

FIG. 355.

Prob. 3. Working drawing of a flange coupling, size to be

assigned, and dimensions taken from the table
accompanying Fig. 356.
Prob. 4. Working drawing of bearing, from Fig. 357.
188 ENGINEERING DRAWING
D

ABC E A'

UL
ZF
a?
It 7J
9 4.

FIG. 356.

ABC
//f

7J7
M.
3% 4- 8
FIG. 357.
WORKING DRAWINGS 189

FIG. 359.
190 ENGINEERING DRAWING

T sis

Section on AA
FIG. 360.

Column 5ecfion ABC 22"

D E F~ O H L
jj.
/6
22" 26 7"
24" 28 7" /P
28" 33" 8" /e" * 20

FIG. 361.
WORKING DRAWINGS 191

FIG. 362.

FIG. 363.
192 ENGINEERING DRAWING
 WORKING DRAWINGS 193

Prob. 5. Working drawing of fly-wheel. Outside diameter

60"; hub 6" diameter, bore 3", keyway l/2"x7/8".
Arms at rim to be 3/4 the size at the hub. Sec-
tions of rim, arm, and hub are shown in the

sketch, Fig. 358.

Prob. 6. Working drawing of eccentric, from Fig. 359.
Prob. 7. Working drawing of pulley, figuring dimensions
from formulae given, Fig. 360.

FIG. 366.

Suggested sizes (a) 24" dia. 6" face 2" bore.

(b) 42" dia. 14" face 3 7/16" bore.
(c) 20" dia. 10" face 2 3/16" bore.
(d) 12" dia. 16" face 2 7/16" bore.
(e) 60" dia. 8" face 3 15/16" bore.
(f) 36" dia. 4" face 1 7/16" bore.
Prob. 8. Working drawing of column base, from Fig. 361.
Prob. 9. Working drawing of a column base with G =
71/2" and H = 10", to carry 137,000 Ibs., assuming
13
194 ENGINEERING DRAWING
 WORKING DRAWINGS 195

the bearing value of foundation to be 300 Ibs.

per sq. Ribs 45 degrees.

in.

Prob. 10. Working drawing of roof truss from sketch, Fig.

362.
Prob. 11. Working drawing of cast iron manhole cover,
from sketch, Fig. 363.
Prob. 12. Working drawing of timber trestle, height, 12, 14,
16, 18, or 20 feet, Fig. 364, using timbers of
sizes given.

FIG. 368.

Group V. -Assembly and Detail Drawings.

Prob. 1. Make detail drawings of screw jack, Fig. 365.
Prob. 2. Make detail drawings of wrought iron hanger,
Fig. 366.
Prob. 3. Make assembly drawing of milling machine vise
from details in Fig. 367. The sketch is not a
part of the detail drawing but is given to show
the arrangement of parts.
Prob. 4. Make assembly and detail drawings of pop safety
valve from the sketch details of Fig. 368.
196 ENGINEERING DRAWING

^^ f
[Link] =5 >
v . c\ ^0 S* I - f/M^

gj^||i^^j|to
;/^_j
 WORKING DRAWINGS 197

Prob. 5. Make assembly drawing of center grinder, from

detail drawing, Fig. 369.
Prob. 6. Make assembly drawing of friction clutch shifter,
from detail drawing, Fig. 308. Its arrangement
is shown in sketch, Fig. 370.

FIG. 370.

Prob. 7. Make detail drawings of grinder, from assembly

drawing, Fig. 371.
Prob. 8. Make assembly drawing of gas engine mixer from
details of Fig. 372.

Group VI. Checking.

Prob. 1. Fig. 373 is incorrect in several places both in

drawing and dimensions. Check it for errors,

following the system given on page 178, and re-
port the errors and corrections on a separate
sheet.
Prob. 2. Check Fig. 374 in the same way.

Group VIII. Miscellaneous.

Prob. 1. A patent office drawing, on Bristol board, from an
assigned model or sketch. Reference, Chapter
XIV.
198 ENGINEERING DRAWING
 WORKING DRAWINGS 199

M/xer /eeve
C0sf/rv/i

FIG. 372.

FIG. 373. An incorrect drawing to be checked for errors.

200 ENGINEERING DRAWING

Prob. 2. A sheet metal problem, to be drawn, developed

and dimensioned, from specifications assigned.
Prob. 3. A plan of building or room, to be measured and
drawn. Reference, Chapter XI.
Prob. 4. A problem in furniture designing.
Prob. 5. A problem in structural drawing.

FIG. 374. An incorrect drawing to be checked for errors.

 CHAPTER X.

TECHNICAL SKETCHING.

From its long use in connection with art the word "sketch"
has come to suggest the impression of a free or incomplete or
careless rendering of some idea, or some mere note or suggestion
for future use. This meaning is entirely misleading and wrong
in the technical use of the word. A sketch is simply a working
drawing made freehand, without instruments, the quick expres-
sion of graphic language, but in information adequate and

complete.
So necessary to the engineer is the training in freehand sketch-
ing, it might almost be said in regard to its importance that the
preceding nine chapters have all been in preparation for this one.
Such routine men as tracers and detailers may get along with
skin and speed in mechanical drawing, but the designer must -be
able to sketch his ideas with a sure hand and clear judgment.
In all mechanical thinking in invention, all preliminary designing,
all explanation and instructions to draftsmen freehand sketching

is the mode of expression.

It represents the mastery of the language, gained, only after
full proficiency in mechanical execution, and is the mastery which
the engineer, and inventor, designer, chief draftsman, and contrac-
tor, with all of whom time is too valuable to spend in mechanical
execution, must have.
It be necessary to go a long distance from the drawing
may
room to get some preliminary information and the record thus
obtained would be valueless if any detail were missing or obscure.
Mistakes or omissions that would be discovered quickly in making
an accurate scale drawing may easily be overlooked in a freehand
sketch, and constant care must be observed to prevent their
occurrence.
Sometimes, if a piece is to be made but once a sketch is used
as a working drawing and afterward filed.
The best preliminary training for' this work is the drawing in
201
202 ENGINEERING DRAWING

the public schools, training the hand and eye to see and represent
form and proportion. Those who have not had this preparation
should practice drawing lines with the pencil, until the hand
obeys the eye to a reasonable extent.
The pencil should be held with freedom, not close to the point,

FIG. 375. Sketching a vertical line.

FIG. 376. Sketching a horizontal line.

vertical lines drawn downward, Fig. 375, and horizontal lines

from left to right, Fig. 376.
An H or 2H pencil sharpened to a long conical point, not too
sharp, a pencil eraser, to be used sparingly, and paper, either in
note book, pad, or single sheet clipped on a board, are all, the
materials needed.
 TECHNICAL SKETCHING 203

In making working sketches from objects a two-foot rule and

calipers are necessary. Other machinists' tools, a try square,
surface gauge, depth gauge, thread gauge, etc., are very con-
venient. The draftsman's triangle may often be used in place of
a square. Sometimes a plumb line is of service. Much ingenuity
is often required to get dimensions from an existing machine.
Sketches are made in orthographic, axonometric, or perspective
drawing, depending upon the use which is to be made of them.
Sketches of machine parts to be used in making working drawings,
etc., would be made in orthographic; explanatory, or illustrative
sketches might be made in axonometric or perspective.
The best practice is obtained by sketching from castings,
machine parts, or simple machines, and making working draw-
ingsfrom the sketches without further reference to the ob j ect In .

class work a variation may be introduced by exchanging the

sketches so that the working drawing is made by another student.
This emphasizes the necessity of putting down all the information
necessary,and not relying on memory to supply that missing; and
working with the idea that the object is not to be seen after the
sketch is made. A most valuable training in the observation of
details is the sketching from a piece previously studied.
memory
It is an excellent training in sureness of touch to make sketches

directly in ink, perhaps with fountain pen.

,*!

rv^
FIG. 377.

Sketching in Orthographic Projection.

The
principles of projection and all the rules for working
drawings are to be remembered and applied here.
The object should be studied and the necessary views decided
upon. In some cases fewer views would be made in the sketch
than in the working drawing, as a note in regard to thickness or
shape of section might save a view, Fig. 377. In other cases
204 ENGINEERING DRAWING

additional views may be sketched rather than complicate the

figuresby added lines which would confuse a sketch, although
the same lines might be perfectly legible in a scale drawing.
In beginning a sketch always start with center lines or datum
lines, and remember that the view showing the
contour or charac-
teristic shape is to be drawn first. This is generally the view
showing circles if there are any.
In drawing on plain paper, the location of the principal points,
centers, etc., should be marked so that the sketches will fit the
sheet, and the whole sketch with as many views, sections and
auxiliary views as are necessary to describe the piece, drawn
without taking any measurements, but in as nearly correct propor-
tion as the eye can determine.
An object should of course be represented right side up, i.e.,
in its natural working position. If symmetrical about an axis,
often one-half only need be sketched. Circles may be drawn
with some accuracy by marking on the center lines points equi-
distant from the center.
Often fragmentary auxiliary views or sections aid in explaining
construction. The rules of projection are to be broken if any
advantage may be gained.
If a whole view cannot be made on one page it may be put on

two, each being drawn up to a break line used as a datum line.

Sketches should be made entirely freehand, no ruled lines being
used.

Dimension Lines.
After the sketching of the piece is entirely finished it should be
gone over and dimension lines for all the dimensions needed for
the construction added, drawing extension lines and arrow heads
carefully and checking to see that none are omitted, but still
making no measurements.
Dimensions.
Up to this stage the object has not been handled and the
drawing has been kept clean. The measurements for the
dimensions indicated on the drawing may now be added. The
two-foot rule will serve for most dimensions. Never use the
draftsman's scale for measuring castings. Its edge will be
marred and it will be soiled. The diameters of holes may be
measured with the inside calipers. It is often necessary to lay
 TECHNICAL SKETCHING 205

a straight edge across a surface as in Fig. 378. In measuring the

distance between centers of two holes of the same size measure
from edge to corresponding edge. Always measure from finished
surfaces if possible. Judgment must be exercised in measuring
rough castings so as not to record inequalities due to the foundry.
Fig.379 illustrates measuring a curve by offsets.

FIG. 378.

It is better to have too many dimensions rather than too few.

It isa traditional mistake of the beginner to omit a vital figure.
Add all remarks and notes that may seem to be of any value
at all.

FIG. 379. Measurements by offsets.

The title should be written on the sketch, and for class sketches
the amount of time spent.
Always date every sketch. Valuable inventions have been lost
through the inability to prove priority, because the first sketches
had not been dated. In commercial work the draftsman's note-
book with its sketches and calculations is preserved as a permanent
206 ENGINEERING DRAWING

record, and sketches should be made so as to stand the test of

time, and be legible after the details of their making have been
forgotten.
Cross Section Paper.
Sketches are often made on coordinate paper ruled faintly in
sixteenths, eighths or quarter inches, either simply as an aid in
drawing straight lines and judging proportions; or assigning

#f mjttd
3ld2%jjiigTtt
Mfep
L! 'i;._j-. J-4_._u- L

Hffi

HrLtiibittiramTON
h:n^;!Ti:i^WiVy^:q
jTiTt^j^fei^iT
dmhr 1

.-L4-{_i>4-4-i.-i 4-j_4-U4_LX4J_L.L44.| j_ i _j..!_ t

J- T -L4-UJ-U 4-H-i-|-.-
^^-H-H-H^-f-^-FW -
1
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FIG. 380. Sketch on coordinate paper.

suitable values to the unit spaces, and

drawing to approximate
scale. In the latter case a sufficient number of measurements
must be taken while the sketch is being made, to permit of its
off on the coordinate
being laid paper. Fig. 380 is an illustration.

Sketching by Pictorial Methods.

An axonometric, oblique or perspective sketch of an object or
of some detail of construction will often
explain it when the
orthographic projection cannot be read intelligently by a work-
man. Often again a pictorial sketch
may be made more quickly
and serve as a better record than
orthographic views of the same
piece would do, and the draftsman who can make a pictorial
sketch with facility will find abundant
opportunity for its
advantageous use.
 TECHNICAL SKETCHING 207

Axonometric Sketching.
Since measurements are not made on sketches there is abso-
lutely no advantage in sketching on isometric axes 120 degrees
apart and making an unnecessary distortion. A much better
effect is gained and the distortion greatly lessened by drawing
the cross axes at a much smaller angle with the horizontal, Fig.
381, and foreshortening them until satisfactory to the eye. It
is legitimate in such an isometric sketch still further to decrease

the effect of distortion by slightly converging the receding lines.

Objects of rectangular outline are best adapted to sketching in
axonometric projection.

FIG. 381. 120 axes and flattened axes compared.

When it is important to show the top surface the axes may be

drawn at greater angles to the horizontal, and the vertical axis
foreshortened, thus tipping the object forward as in Fig. 382.
Some care must be exercised in adding dimensions to a pic-
torial sketch. The extension lines must always be either in or
perpendicular to the plane on which the dimension is being given.

Oblique Sketching.
The advantage of oblique projection in preserving one face
without distortion is of particular value in sketching, and the
painful effect of this kind of drawing done mechanically may be
greatly lessened in sketching, by foreshortening the cross axis
to a pleasing proportion, Fig. 383. By converging the lines
parallel to the cross axes, the effect of parallel perspective is
obtained. This converging in either isometric or oblique is

sometimes called "fake perspective."

Perspective Sketching.
A sketch made in perspective will of course give the best
effect pictorially. As we do not in this book take up the subject
208 ENGINEERING DRAWING

of mechanical perspective, with its rules and methods, only the

phenomena of perspective and their application in freehand

sketching can be considered in this connection.
Perspective has already been defined as being the representa-
tion of an object as seen by the eye from some particular station
point. Geometrically, it is the intersection of the cone of rays

FIG. 382.

from the eye to the object, with the vertical plane, or "picture
plane." There is a distinction between "artist's perspective"
and "geometrical perspective/' in that the artist draws the
object as he sees it projected on the spherical surface of the
retina of his eye, while geometrical, or mechanical perspective is

FIG. 383. Oblique, with and without foreshortening.

projected on a plane, as in a photograph, but except in wide

angles of vision the difference is not very noticeable.
The ordinary phenomena of perspective, affecting everything
we see, the fact of objects appearing smaller in proportion to
their distancefrom the eye, and of parallel lines appearing to
converge as they recede, are of course well known.
The outline of the object in Fig. 384 is drawn from a photo-
 TECHNICAL SKETCHING 209

graph. It willbe noted that the vertical lines remain vertical

in the picture, and that the two sets of horizontal lines each
" "
appear to converge toward a point called the vanishing point.
These two vanishing points will lie on a horizontal line drawn
"
at the level of the eye, called the horizon"; and the first rule is,
all horizontal lines vanish on the horizon.

When the object is turned as in Fig. 384, with its vertical faces
at an angle with the picture plane, the drawing is said to be in
angular perspective. It is sometimes called "two-point" per-
spective because of having two vanishing points.

FIG. 384. Perspective (from photograph).

turned so that one face is parallel to the picture

If the object is

plane, the horizontal lines on that face and all lines parallel to
them would remain horizontal in the picture and would thus
have no vanishing point. The object drawn in this position is
said to be in parallel, or "one-point" perspective.
In sketching in perspective from the model the drawing is
made simply by observation, the directions and proportionate
lengths of lines being estimated by sighting and measuring on the
pencil held at arm's length; and knowledge of the geometrical
rules and principles used only as a check.
With the drawing board or sketch pad held perpendicular to
the "line of sight" from the eye to the object, the direction of a
line is tested by holding the pencil at arm's length parallel to
the board, rotating the arm until the pencil appears to coincide
with the line on the model, then moving it parallel to this position,
back to the board.
The apparent lengths of lines are estimated in the same way,
holding the pencil in a plane perpendicular to the line of sight,
14
210 ENGINEERING DRAWING

marking with the thumb the length of pencil which covers a line
of the model, rotating the arm, with the thumb held in position,
until the pencil coincides with another line, and estimating the

proportion of this measurement to the second line, Fig. 385.

The sketch should be made lightly, with free sketchy lines, and
no lines erased until the whole sketch has been blocked in.
Have the drawing as large as the paper will admit.
In constructing a perspective from an orthographic or other
drawing, use may be made of the plan and cone of rays, and the
vanishing points. Imagining the eye as located at the station

FIG. 385.

point, a little thought will show that the vanishing point of any
system of parallel lines is the projection on the picture plane of
their infinite ends, the eye and farther
looking farther out, till

the line of vision is parallel to the lines.

Hence, the vanishing
point of any system of parallel lines is found by drawing from the
station point a line parallel to the
given lines and finding where it
pierces the picture plane.
A line drawn from the station point perpendicular to the
picture plane pierces itin a point called the "center of vision."
Evidently all lines
perpendicular to the picture plane will vanish
in the center of vision. This is the basis of parallel perspective.
An object in parallel perspective with one face in the picture
plane is shown at A, Fig. 386. At B is shown the top view of A
 TECNHICAL SKETCHING 211

with the cone of rays. C shows the picture plane detached and
set forward in order that it may not interfere with the plan when
revolved. D is the top view of C after the picture plane has been
revolved.

FIG. 386. Parallel perspective.

FIG. 387. Angular perspective.

It will be noticed that the edges perpendicular to the picture

plane vanish in the center of vision, and that their perspective
lengths are found by dropping to them points the of intersection
of the cone of rays with the picture plane.
Direct measurements can be made only in the picture plane.
212 ENGINEERING DRAWING

The station point should be taken at a distance at least twice

the length of the longest side.
Fig. 387 is a series illustrating an object
in angular perspective.

A the object, with one corner in the picture plane; B the plan,

FIG. 388.

showing the finding of the vanishing points for the two series of
horizontal lines by drawing lines through the station point paral-
lel to them; C the picture plane moved forward bringing with it

FIG. 389. A perspective sketch.

the horizon and vanishing points; D the

picture plane revolved.
The figure illustrates the general case. It is usual, in practice,
to take the S. P. directly in front of the corner that is in the
P.P.
 TECHNICAL SKETCHING 213

Fig. 388 shows that the vanishing point of a system of oblique

lines is on a perpendicular from the vanishing point of their

projections.
Fig. 389 gives an application of perspective sketching, showing
construction.
Fig. 390 contains a selection of perspective sketches to be
sketched in orthographic.

FIG. 390. Perspective sketches.

 CHAPTER XI.

THE ELEMENTS OF ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING.

It is entirely beyond the scope of this book to take up archi-

tectural designing. But in the application by the architect, of
engineering drawing as a language, there are idioms and peculi-
arities of expression, with which all engineers should be familiar,
as in the interrelation of the professions they are often required
to read or work from architects' drawings, or to make the draw-
ings for special structures.
Characteristics of Architectural Drawing.
The general principles of drawing are the same for all kinds of
technical work. Each
profession requires its own
special appli-
bation of these principles, and the employment of particular
methods, symbols and conventions.
In architectural drawing the necessary smallness of scale
makes it impossible to represent the different parts exactly, and

the drawings thus become largely conventional. The necessary

notes for their explanation, and the information regarding the
details of materialand finish are too extensive to be included on
the drawings so are written separately, and are called the speci-
fications. These specifications have equal importance and
weight with the drawings.
Architecture is one of the fine arts, and in an architect's draw-
ings there is an evidence of artistic feeling in their make up,
produced in part by the freehand work and lettering upon them,
that gives them an entirely different appearance from a set of
machine drawings.
The present day fad of over running corners is however a
rather senseless affectation.
Kinds of Drawings.
Architectural drawings may be divided into three general
classes :

(1) Display and competitive drawings.

(2) Preliminary sketches.
(3) Working Drawings.
214
THE ELEMENTS OF ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING 215
216 ENGINEERING DRAWING
THE ELEMENTS OF ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING 217

FIG. 393. Perspective in ruled outline.

FIG. 394. A pencil rendering.

218 ENGINEERING DRAWING

FIG. 395. A pen drawing.

FIG. 396. A wash drawing.

 THE ELEMENTS OF ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING 219

Display Drawings.
The object of display drawings is to give a realistic or effective

representation of the arrangement and appearance of a proposed

building, for illustrative or competitive purposes. They may be
either plans and elevations, or may include perspective drawings;
and contain little or no structural information. For legibility
and attractiveness they are "rendered/' generally on Whatman,
eggshell, tracing, or other white paper, in some medium, giving
the effect of light and shade. Fig. 391 illustrates an elevation
rendered in wash, in which a certain perspective effect is added
by extending the foreground.
Figures, trees, other buildings, etc., are sometimes introduced
on such drawings, not so much for pictorial effect, but to give an
idea of the relative size of the buildings.
In rendering plans for display or competitive purposes, tints
and shadows are often used to show the plan in relief and to
express the ideas of the architect more fully. Fig. 392 illustrates
a plan of this kind, employing poche and mosaic; "poche"
meaning simply the blackening of the walls to indicate their
"
relative importance in the composition, and mosaic " the
rendering, in light lines and tints, of the floor design, furniture,
etc.,on the interior, and the walks, drives and gardening of the
exterior.
The must be familiar with perspective drawing, as
architect
he uses itboth in the preliminary study of his problem and to
show the client the finished appearance of the proposed structure.
Perspectives are rendered according to the purpose of the draw-
ing. Four different methods are illustrated. Fig. 393 is a ruled
outline, Fig. 394 a pencil drawing, usually done on tracing paper;
Fig. 395 a pen drawing, and Fig. 396 awash drawing, done either
in monochrome or in color. In rendering a perspective in water
color it is best to transfer it by rubbing, as described on page
268, in order to preserve the surface of the paper.

Preliminary Sketching.
The architects' designing problems present so many solutions
that a great amount of preliminary sketching is necessary, and
the architectural draftsman must be facile with the pencil.
These schemes are carried on first in very small sketches, not to
scale, and afterward worked up enlarging them in sketches to
220 ENGINEERING DRAWING

scale. Tracing paper is very desirable for this work as one sketch
can be made over another, thus saving time in laying out, and
enabling the preservation of all the different solutions. The
final preliminary sketches are submitted to the client, and should
give all the general dimensions. In preparing these sketches
the important consideration to be kept in mind is that the client
is usually a person not accustomed to reading a drawing, and that

they must therefore be particularly clear and free from ambiguity.

Tracing paper drawings are often mounted for display either
" "
by tipping" or floating," as described on page 267.

'
AILCH1TECTV1LAL SYMBOLS -

EAfcTHMM'SECTlOrt' 'COflCRETE-lH-SECTIOrt- >TA6E5WMAKIN6>CONCRCfE*yM80l

FIG. 397. Symbols for building materials.

Working Drawings.
All the general principles in
Chapter IX regarding working
drawings are applicable to architectural working drawings.
The assembly drawings are plans, elevations and sections. The
plans of a building of the size of an ordinary house would be
drawn to the scale of 1/4"= 1', larger buildings to 1/8"= 1'.
In order to keep the drawings to convenient
working size, only
one view, usually, is drawn on a sheet.
Plans.
A floor plan is a horizontal section at a distance above the floor
varying so as to cut the walls at a height which will best show
 THE ELEMENTS OF ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING 221

STANDARD SYMBOLS FO& WIRING PLANS

OS adopted and recommended by
THE NATIONAL ELECTRICAL CONTRACTORS ASSOCIATION of the UNITED STATES and THE AMERICAN. INSTITUTE of ARCHITECTS

Celling Outlet; Electric only. Numeral Ceiling Outlet. Combination .| indicate*

in center indicates number of 4- 16C.P. Standard Incandescent
Standard 16 C.R Incandescent Lamps. Lamps and 2 Gas Burners .

Bracket Outlet; Electric only. Numeral^ Bracket Outlet Combination ; .

in center indicates number of indicates 4-16 C P. Standard Incan-

^

m
Standard 16 C.R Incandescent Lamps. descent Lamps and 2 Gas Burners.

Ceiling Outlet; Gas only. Bracket Outlet; Gas only.

Wall or Baseboard Receptacle. Numeral > Tloor Outlet Numeral irt

in center indicates number of center indicates number of
Standard 16 C.P. Incandescent Lamps. < Standard 16 C P Incandescent Lamps.

f Outlet for Outdoor Standard or Outlet for Outdoor Standard or Pedestal.

)6 Pedestal; Electric only. Numeral indicates Combination ^-indicates 6-16 C P
*
number of Stand. 16 C.P. Incan . Lamps. Stand Incan. Lamps and 6 6as Burners.
.

\
Drop Cord Outlet. One Light Outlet for Lamp Receptacle.

Arc Lamp Outlet. Special Outlet, for Lighting , Heating

|
and Power Current, as described in Spec.

Ceiling Fan Outlet.

S 1
S.P. Switch Outlet. \
Show as many symbols as there are
S2 -

D.P. Switch Outlet. switches, or in case of a- very larg*

,

S3 3- Way Switch Outlet. group of switches, indicate number

of switches by a Roman Numeral ,
'

S* 4- Way Switch Outlef thus S XII , meaning 12 Single Pole

:
1

switches. Describe type of switch

S Automatic Door Switch Outlet. in specifications, that is, Flush or
Surface , Push Button or Snap.
SE Electrolier Switch Outlet.

Meter Outlef. Distribution Panel .

Junction or Pull Box Motor Outlet: Mumeral .o center indicates H.R

Cx3 Motor Control Outlet . Transformer .

'
Main or Feeder run concealed under floor. Mam or Feeder run concealed under flooroboe.
- Main or Feeder run exposed. Branch Circuit run concealed under floor.

Branch Circuit run concealed under floor above. Branch Circuit Run Exposed
- "
Pole Line. Riser.

fa Telephone Outlet, Private Service . M Telephone Outlet; Public Service H Bell Outlet.

f~"V Buzzer Outlet. ] |g Push Button Outlet; Numeral Indicates number- of Pushes.

____/B\ Annunciator: Humeral indicates number of Points. Spa)ting Tub*.

^
Watchman Clock - Master Time Clock Outlet.
(S)
Outlet .
J Watchman Station Outlet.

Secondary Ti'me Clock Outlet. GO Door Opener

[[)

JXJ Special Outlet; for Signal [Link] described in Specifications. |l|l||

Battery Outlet.

""
f Circuit-for Clock, Telephone , Bell or other Service, run under floor , conccolad.
\ Kind of Service wanted ascertained by Symbol to which line connects
- ( Circuit for Clock, Tele phone. Bell or other Service, run under floor above concealed.

\ Kind of Service wanted ascertained by Symbol to which line, connects.

Note Ifother than Standard 16 C.R Incandescent Lamps ore. desired,

Specifications should describe capacity of Lamp to be used

SUGGESTIONS IK COMHECTIOtt WITH , STANDARD SYMBOLS TOR. WllEING PLANS

It i* important that ample space bt allowed for the installation of mains, feeders, branches and distribution
panels .It is [Link] that a key to the symbols used accompany oil plans.
If mains , feeders , branches and distribution panels ore shown on the plan* , .it i* desirable that they
be designated by letters or numbers. '
S'-6"
[Link] of center of W (
,
( Living Roo
Rooroa
Chambers S'-O"
Outlets (unless otherwis
} [Link]* 6'-0"
specified j
Corridor* 6'- 3'
\
Height of switches (unless otherwise 4 -0 -
1

BY THE NAT F THE UNITED 5TATCS-

COPYRIGHT -l0 -I9O7

FIG. 398. Standard wiring symbols.

222 ENGINEERING DRAWING

the construction. The cut would thus evidently cross all

openings no atmter at what height they were from the floor.
The joist system or construction of the floor, and also any infor-
mation regarding the ceiling above, as beams, gas and electric
outlets, etc., may be shown on the same drawing.

; -

5
Ilfadr
:::-:;;::."
-

^"TT^ I-

FIR.3 7 FLOOR.. PLAM

' C A L E '
4-0*

FIG. 399. A residence floor plan.

The differentdetails such as windows,

doors, etc., must be
indicated by conventional
representation, using symbols, which
are readily understood
by the contractors who have to read the
drawings, A wall, of whatever material, is shown by two lines
giving its thickness, with the space between
generally section-
lined (or tinted) to indicate the material.
code of conventional A
 THE ELEMENTS OF ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING 223

symbols, representing good practice, is given in Fig. 397. As

there is no universally accepted standard of symbols, a key to
materials represented in section should always be shown on the
drawing.
Fig. 398 contains the standard symbols for wiring plans.

RESIDE MCE /.
5E COM D FLOO R_ -
PUAN MR.-A-F.-[Link]
s CA L e r- 4-0" MEDIA OHIO
X-Y-Z ARCHITECT
DE CATVR. ILL

FIG. 400. A residence floor plan.

Figs. 399 and 400 are representative residence floor plans,

showing the application of a number of conventions, and Fig. 401

is the plan of an
engineering structure.

Elevations.
An elevation is a vertical projection showing the front, side or
rear view of a structure, giving the heights and exterior treat-
224 ENGINEERING DRAWING

FIG. 401. Floor plan of sub-station.

FIG. 402. An elevation, with wall section.

 THE ELEMENTS OF ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING 225

ment. The visualizing power must be exercised to imagine the

actual appearance or perspective of a building from its elevations.
Roofs in elevation are thus often misleading to persons unfamiliar
with drawing, as their appearance in projection is so different
from the real appearance of the building when finished.
Only those dimensions should be put on elevations as are not
possible to show on the other drawings.
Fig. 402 is an elevation, with wall section of the house whose
plans are shown in Figs. 399 and 400.

FIG. 403. Section of sub-station.

Sections.
A section is an interior view on a vertical cutting plane and is
used primarily to indicate the heights of the floors and different
parts, and to show the construction and architectural treatment
of the interior. In a simple structure a part section or "wall
226 ENGINEERING DRAWING

section/' shown with the

elevation, as in Fig. 402, is often suffi-
cient. This cutting plane, as the horizontal, need not be continu-
ous, but may be broken so as to include as much information as
possible. Fig. 403 is a full section, or sectional elevation of the
sub-station shown in plan in Fig. 401.
Details.
Architectural details are made to explain peculiar construc-
tions or to give a full graphic description of any part. Often

DETAIL -OF- FRAMING '[Link] BASE MEMT' WIHDOW5

SCALE "=i-o"

FIG. 404. An isometric detail.

some peculiarity of framing be explained easily by an iso-

may
metric detail, as Fig. 404. and the like may be
Stair details
shown with sufficient clearness, as in Fig. 405, to the scales of
3/4" or I". Mouldings and other mill work details are generally
made full size. The turned or revolved section is often of use
in showing moulding sections in position.
Dimensioning.
As in machine drawing, the correct dimensioning of an archi-
tectural drawing requires a knowledge of the methods of building
 THE ELEMENTS OF ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING 227

construction. The dimensions should be placed so as to be the

most convenient for the workman, should be given from and to
accessible points, and chosen so that commercial variation
in the
sizes of materials willnot affect the general dimensions.
A study of the dimensioning on the figures of this chapter will
be of value.
The statement that the notes were put in the specifications
does not at all imply that no notes are to be placed on the

FIG 405. A stair detail.

drawings. On
the other hand, there should be on architectural
working drawings clear, explicit notes in regard to material,
construction and finish. The builders are apt to overlook a
point mentioned only in the specifications, but as they are using
the drawings constantly, will be sure to see a reference or note
on the drawing of the part in question.

Lettering.
There are two distinct divisions in the use of lettering by the
architect, the first, including all the titles and
Office Lettering,
notes put on drawings for information; the second, Design
Lettering, covering drawings of letters to be executed in stone or
bronze or other material in connection with design.
228 ENGINEERING DRAWING

The Old Roman is the architect's one general purpose letter

which serves him with few exceptions for all his work in both
divisions. It is a difficult letter to execute properly and the
draftsman should make himself thoroughly familiar with its
construction, character, and beauty, through a text-book on
the subject, before attempting to design inscriptions for perma-
nent structures, or even titles.
Titles on display drawings are usually made in careful Old
Roman, and on working drawing, in a rapid single stroke based
on Old Roman. For notes the Reinhardt letter is best adapted.
An architectural title should contain part or all of the following
items:

(1) Name and location of structure.

(2) Kind of view, as roof plan, elevation (sometimes put on
different part of sheet).
(3) Name and address of owner or client.
(4) Date.
(5) Scale.

(6) Name and address of architect.

(7) Number (in the set).
(8) Key to materials.
(9) Office record.
 CHAPTER XII.

MAP AND TOPOGRAPHICAL DRAWING.

Thus far in our consideration of drawing as a graphic language

we have had to represent the three dimensions of an object,
either pictorially or, in the usual case, by drawing two or more
views of it. In map drawing, the representation of features on
parts of the earth's surface, there is the distinct difference that
the drawing is complete in one view, the third dimension (the
height) either being represented on this view, or in some cases
omitted as not required for the particular purpose for which the
map was made.
The surveying and mapping of the site is the first preliminary
work in improvements and engineering projects, and it is desira-
ble that all engineers should be familiar with the methods and
symbols used in this branch of drawing. Here again, as in our
discussion of architectural drawing, we cannot consider the prac-
tice of surveying and plotting, or go into detail as to the work of
the civil engineer, but we are interested in his use of drawing as
a language, and in the method of commercial execution of plats
and topographical maps. The titles of several books on plane
and topographic surveying are given in Chapter XV.
Maps in general may be classified as follows:

(1) Those on which the lines drawn represent imaginary or

unreal lines, such as divisions between areas subject to different
authority or ownership, either public or private; or lines indicating
geometrical measurements on the ground. In this division may
be included plats or land maps, farm surveys, city subdivisions,
plats of mineral claims.
(2) Those on which lines are drawn to represent real or
material objects within the limits of the tract, showing their
relative location, or size and location, depending upon the purpose
of the map. When relative location only is required the scale
may be small, and symbols employed to represent objects, as
houses, bridges or even [Link] the size of the object is an
15 229
230 ENGINEERING DRAWING

important consideration the scale must be large and the map

becomes a real orthographic top view.
(3) Those on which
lines or symbols are drawn to tell the

relative elevation of the surface of the ground. These would be

maps, or if contours are used with elevations marked
called relief
on them, contour maps.
Various combinations of these divisions may be required for
different purposes. A topographic map, being a complete
description of an area, would include 1, 2 and 3, although the
term may be used for a combination of any two.

Plats.

A map plotted from a plane survey, and having the third

dimension omitted, is called a "plat" or "land map." It is
used in the description of any tract of land w hen it is not neces-
r

sary to show relief, as in such typical examples as a farm survey

or a city plat.
The first principle to be observed in the execution of this kind
of drawings is simplicity. Its information should be clear, con-
cise and direct. The
lettering should be done in single stroke,
and the north point and border of the simplest character. The
day of the intricate border corner, elaborate north point, and
ornamental title is, happily, past, and all such embellishments

are rightly considered not only as a waste of time, but as being

in extremely bad taste.

A Farm Survey.
The
plat of a farm survey should give clearly all the informa-
tion necessary for the legal description of the parcel of land. It
should contain:
(1) Lengths and bearings of the several sides.
(2) Acreage.
(3) Location and description of monuments found and set.
(4) Location of highways, streams, etc.
(5) Official division lines
within the tract.
(6) Names owners of abutting property.
of
(7) Title and north point.
(8) Certification.

Fig. 406 illustrates the general treatment of this kind of

drawing. It is almost
always traced and blue printed, and no
 MAP AND TOPOGRAPHICAL DRAWING 231

water lining of streams or other elaboration should be attempted.

It is important to observe that the size of the lettering used for
the several features must be in proportion to their importance

PLAT
OF svxYfr of
THJ. [Link] FARM
Z.OT6 TffACTfZ [Link]-9- TKACT8
MAD/SOM THSf>.
'
LAK CO.
/ frereby certify ffre atove p/0f /{? be correct o.
SCALE /''ZOO' * S,

ff3/p29c/r Co. Sur

FIG. 406. A farm plat.

Plats of Subdivisions.
The plats of subdivisions and allotments in cities are filed with
the county recorder for record, and must be very complete in
their information concerning the location and size of the various
232 ENGINEERING DRAWING

lots and parcels composing the subdivisions, Fig. 407. All

monuments set should be shown and all measurements of lines
and angles given, so that it will be possible to locate any lot with
precision.
Sometimes landowners desire to use these maps in display to
prospective buyers, and some degree of embellishment is allowable,

'
SUBDI V/5 rION
^3 "** CF TH
^-&Ffi&-^
'
r- R DOT y ESTATE
COLUMBUS. O.

FIG. 407. A city subdivision.

but care must be taken not to overdo the ornamentation. These

drawings are usually finished as blue prints. Fig. 408 is an
example showing an acceptable style of execution and finish.
When required for reproduction to small size for illustrative
purposes a rendering such as shown in Fig. 409 is sometimes
effective.
 MAP AND TOPOGRAPHICAL DRAWING 233

FIG. 408. A real estate display map.

-
-I =! JMM
JJ J J

JJ _l _J J 5
]
-J -I _l -J _J
JJJJJ=! s^J-iZSJS_l
J J r! J _J =! =r: =! zd =J
J dd
J _JJ S^l =i =;

FIG. 409. A shade line map.

234 ENGINEERING DRAWING

City Plats.
Under this head is included chiefly maps or plats drawn from
subdivision plats or other sources for the record of city improve-
ments These plats are used for the record of a variety of infor-
as, for example, the location
mation, such of sewers,water mains,

street railways, and street improvements. One valuable use is

rr
FIG. 410. A sewer map.

in the levying of assessments for street

paving, sewers, etc. As
they are made for a definite purpose
they should not contain
unnecessary information, and hence will not include all the
details as to sizes of lots, location of which are
monuments, etc.,
given on subdivision plats.
They are usually made on mounted paper and should be to a
 MAP AND TOPOGRAPHICAL DRAWING 235

scale large enough to show clearly the features required, 100'

and 200' to the inch are frequent scales, and as large as 50' is
sometimes used. For smaller cities the entire area may be
covered by one map; in larger cities the maps are made in con-
venient sections so as to be filed readily.
A study of Fig. 410, a sewer map, will show the general treat-
ment of such plats. The appearance of the drawing is improved
by adding shade lines on the lower and right hand side of the
blocks, i.e., treating the streets and water features as depressions.
A few of the more important public buildings are shown, to
facilitate reading. The various wards, subdivisions or districts
may be shown by large outline letters or numerals as illustrated
in the figure.

Topographical Drawing.
As before defined, a complete topographical map would contain:
(1) The imaginary lines indicating the divisions of authority
or ownership.
(2) The geographical position of both the natural features and
the works of man. They may also include information in regard
to the vegetation.

FIG. 411.

(3) The relief, or indication of the relative elevations and

depressions.
The relief, which
is the third dimension, is represented in

general eitherby contours or by hill shading.

A contour is a line on the surface of the ground which at every
point passes through the same elevation, thus the shore line of a
body of water represents a contour. If the water should rise
one foot the new shore line would be another contour, with one
foot "contour interval." A series of contours may thus be
illustrated approximately by Fig. 411.
236 ENGINEERING DRAWING

Fig. 412 is a perspective view of a tract of land.

Fig. 413 is a
contour map of this area,
[Link]
414 is the same surface shown
with hill shading by hachures. Contours are drawn as fine, full
lines, with every fifth one of heavier weight, and the elevations in

FIG. 412.

feet marked on them at intervals, usually with the sea level as

datum. They may be drawn with a swivel pen, Fig. 26, or with
a fine pen such as Gillott's 303. On paper drawings they are
usually made in brown.

FIG. 413.

The showing of
relief by means of hill
shading gives a pleasing
effect but is very difficult of does not give exact eleva-
execution,
tions and would not be
applied on maps to be used for engineering
purposes. They may sometimes be used to advantage in re-
 MAP AND TOPOGRAPHICAL DRAWING 237

connoissance maps, or in small scale maps for illustration.

There are several systems, of which hachuring is the commonest.
Fig. 415 illustrates the method of execution. The contours are
sketched lightly in pencil and the hachures drawn perpendicular

FIG. 414.

to them, starting at the summit and making heavier strokes for

steeper slopes. The rows of strokes should touch the pencil line,
to avoid white streaks along the contours.
Fig. 416 is a topographic map of the site of a proposed filtra-

FIG. 415.

tion plant, and illustrates the use of the contour map as the
necessary preliminary drawing in engineering projects. Often
on the same drawing there is shown, by lines of different character,
both the existing contours and the required finished grades.
238 ENGINEERING DRAWING

Water Lining.
On topographic maps made for display or reproduction the
water features are usually finished by water-lining," running a
system of fine lines parallel to the shore lines, either in black or
in blue (it must be remembered that blue will not photograph
for reproduction nor print from a tracing). Poor water-lining
will ruin the appearance of an otherwise well executed map, and it

Je/fersor? Zo//ir?gers fairs

Saraft J Potre/f C/ara3 Me Comb

FIG. 416. Contour map for engineering project.

is better to omit it rather than do it hastily or carelessly. The

shore line is drawn first, and the water-lining done with a fine
mapping pen, as Gillott's 170 or 290, always drawing toward the
body and having the preceding line to the left. The first line
should follow the shore line very closely, and the distances between
the succeeding lines gradually increased and the irregularities
lessened. Sometimes the weight of lines is graded as well as the
intervals but this is a very difficult operation and is not necessary
for the effect.
 MAP AND TOPOGRAPHICAL DRAWING 239

A common mistake is to make the lines excessively wavy^or

rippled.
In water-lining a stream of varying width, the lines are not to
be crowded so as to be carried through the narrow portions, but
corresponding lines should be brought together in the middle of
the stream as illustrated in Fig. 417. Care should be taken to
avoid any spots of sudden increase or decrease in spacing.

FIG. 417. Water lining.

Topographic Symbols.
The various symbols used in topographic drawing may be
grouped under four heads :

(1) Culture, or the works of man.

(2) Relief relative elevations and depressions.
(3) Water features.
(4) Vegetation.
When color is used the culture is done in black, the relief in

brown, the water features in blue, and the vegetation in black

or green.
These symbols, used to represent characteristics on the earth's
surface, are made when possible to resemble somewhat the
features or object represented as it would appear either in plan
or elevation. We
cannot attempt to give symbols for all the
features that might occur in a map, indeed one may have to
invent symbols for some particular locality.
Fig. 418 illustrates a few of the conventional symbols used for
cultures or the works of man, and no suggestion is needed as to
the method of their execution. When the scale used is large,
houses, bridges, roads and even tree trunks can be plotted so
240 ENGINEERING DRAWING

State Line
E/ectric Railway
County Line
-7/^v7f#~)^. ~*Tvnn~ei*~ Township L/ne
City ortt/lage
C/ry or

T T T T T 'w
Bridge *,
Te/egrap/? or
'

Levees
Te/epnor/e
,

Jill x B.M.
Bench Mark M/fJeor
^
nfifflr Hedge
Fet
Ferry AA/WNA/VW & Quarry
Privafe ffoads ffai/ or Worm fence Triangu/ofiorr B
5faf/'on
^' Foraf
1
I
SfoneSence

W/re Fence t
Sing/e Track
Church
F mL.S.5.
Dot/b/e Track . Life-sav/na
ffai/roads
Dam frvflerfy iris nof/ittced Sc/?ot?/ Station

FIG. 418. Culture.

Location, n'a or t/r/////?? we//.. .O ryr/o/e M//? shomagrefo//.

O// We//. Gas
Smaf/ O/'/ We//.

Dry Ho/e.... -cj>-

Symtio/ of abandonment. V, thus, . ...)& -?-

A/umber of we//s, thus, >
/g *;
Show vo/vmes, thus --

FIG. 419. Oil and gas symbols.

Determined
E/evafion Sand Mud flat

FIG. 420. Relief.

 MAP AND TOPOGRAPHICAL DRAWING 241

that their principal dimensions can be scaled. A small scale

map can give by its symbols only the relative locations.
Fig. 419 gives the standard symbols used in the development
of oil and gas fields.

Fig. 420 contains symbols used to show relief.

Water features are illustrated in Fig. 421.
In Fig. 422 is shown some of the commoner symbols for vege-
tation and cultivation.
Draftsmen should keep in mind the purpose of the map, and
the relative importance of features should be in some measure
indicated by their prominence or strength, gained principally

Lock

Jrjfermiftenf Streams

Dry Lake
Submarine Cortfot/rs

Fresh Marsh Sa/t Marsh Submerged Marsh T/ata/ F/at

FIG. 421. Water features.

by the amount of ink used. For instance, in a map made for

military maneuvering a cornfield might be an important feature,
or in maps made to show the location of special features, such as
fire hydrants, etc., these objects would be indicated very plainly.

This principle calls for some originality to meet varying cases.

A common fault of the beginner is to make symbols too large.
The symbols for grass, shown under "meadow,"
Fig. 422, if not
made and spaced correctly will spoil the entire map. This
symbol is composed of from five to seven short strokes radiating
from a common center and starting along a horizontal line, as
242 ENGINEERING DRAWING

shown in the enlarged form, each tuft beginning and ending

with a mere dot. Always place the tufts with the bottom parallel
to the border and distribute them uniformly over the space,
but not in rows. A few incomplete tufts, or rows of dots improve
the appearance. Grass tufts should never be as heavy as tree
symbols.
In drawing the symbol for deciduous trees the sequence of
strokes shown should be followed.

,
*--^ > * & c?o frisS *s<x --ovi ***V* **-:<

Meadow Deciduous Trees^ Oak Trees Evergreen Trees

t,i ft * t
t f { f f

Willows Pine, Willow& Brush Cleared Land Cultivated Land

O
'>
(5Q O O
O O Q O 0>
f
j)
tttuu . rr^vrrur
y^y^Vi
O O> O C> C? Q .t, ,i, ^- a, ^, .u i
*>i^ iiii
f I i i i i i

Orchard Corn Tobacco Vineyard

FIG. 422. Vegetation.

The topographic map, Fig. 423, is given to illustrate the general

execution and placing of symbols.
Fig. 424 is a type of map made by landscape architects in the
study of improvements for parks, additions, and estates. Shadows
are often employed on these
maps to show the comparative
heights of tall trees, low trees, and shrubs.
Lettering.
The style of lettering on a topographic map will of course
depend upon the purpose for which the map is made. If for
construction purposes, such as a contour
map for the study of
municipal problems, street grades, plants, or railroads, the single-
stroke gothic and Reinhardt is to be For a finished preferred.
map vertical Roman letters for land features, and inclined
MAP AND TOPOGRAPHICAL DRAWING 243
244 ENGINEERING DRAWING
 MAP AND TOPOGRAPHICAL DRAWING 245

Roman and stump letters for water features should be used.

The scale should always be drawn as well as stated.
The well known maps of the Coast Survey and Geological
Survey are good examples of this kind of map. The quadrangle
sheets issued by the topographic branch of the U. S. Geological
Survey are excellent examples and so easily available that every
draftsman should be familiar with them. These sheets represent
15 min. of latitude and 15 min. of longitude, and the entire
United States is being mapped by the department. In 1911 about
81 per cent, of New York state, 50% of Pennsylvania, and 67%
of Ohio, and other states in somewhat the same percentages
are already completed. These maps may be secured for 5
cents each (not stamps) by addressing The Director, U. S. Geo-
logical Survey, Washington, D. C., from whom information as to
the completion of any particular locality or the progress in any
state may be had. The scale of these maps is approximately
1 inch to the mile. Some territory in the West has been mapped
to 1/2 inch to the mile. On the back of each sheet will be
found a code of the conventional symbols used by the depart-
ment.
Profiles.

Perhaps no kind of drawing is used more by civil engineers than

the ordinary profile, which is simply a vertical section taken
along a given line either straight or curved. Such drawings are
indispensable in problems of railroad construction, highway and
street improvements, sewer construction, and many other prob-
lems where a study of the surface of the ground is required.
Very frequently engineers other than civil engineers are called
upon to make these drawings. Several different types of pro-
file and cross-section paper are in use and may be found in the

catalogues of the various firms dealing in drawing materials.

One type of profile paper in common use is known as " Plate A"
in which there are four divisions to the inch horizontally and
twenty to the inch vertically. Other divisions which are used
are 4 X 30 to the inch and 5 X 25 to the inch. At intervals
both horizontally and vertically somewhat heavier lines are
made in order to facilitate reading.
Horizontal distances are plotted as abscisses and elevations as
ordinates. The vertical distances representing elevations, be-
ing plotted to larger scale, a vertical exaggeration is obtained
16
246 ENGINEERING DRAWING

which isvery useful in studying the profile for the establishing

of grades. The vertical exaggeration is sometimes confusing to
the layman or inexperienced engineer, but ordinarily a profile
will fail in the purpose for which it was intended if the horizontal
and vertical scale are the same. Again the profile unless so
H/gbest/b/rtf ofExcavation
6o/d M// /. 34.0 / \

Proposed Bottom ofCario/ /. +40

Mean Sta JLere/ Q

33 34 35 36 37 38
Miles
FIG. 425. Profile. (Vert, scale 50 times hor.)

distorted would be a very long and unwieldy affair, if not entirely

impossible to make. The difference between profiles with and
without vertical exaggeration is shown in Figs. 425 and 426.
Fig. 427 is a profile together with the alignment which is drawn

33 34 35 36 37
Miles
FIG. 426. Profile. (Vert, and hor. scales equal.)

just below the profile proper. This figure represents a common

method employed by draftsmen in railroad offices. Attention
is called to the method of
straightening out the alignment.
Such a method is also used on surveys for improvement of high-
ways and the like.
MAP AND TOPOGRAPHICAL DRAWING 247
 CHAPTER XIII.

DUPLICATION AND DRAWING FOR REPRODUCTION.

As has been stated, working drawings or any drawings which

are to be duplicated are traced. Sometimes drawings of a tem-
porary character are, for economy, traced on white tracing
paper, but tracing cloth is more transparent, much more durable,
prints better, and is easier to work on.

Drawings intended for blue printing are sometimes penciled

and inked on bond or ledger paper. A print from these papers
requires more exposure and has a mottled appearance, showing
plainly the texture and watermarks.
Tracing cloth is a fine thread fabric, sized and transparentized
with a starch preparation. The three brands Excelsior, Imperial,
and Kohinoor are recommended. The smooth side is considered
by the makers as the right side, but most draftsmen prefer to
work on the dull side, principally because it will take a pencil
mark. The cloth should be tacked down smoothly over the
pencil drawing and its selvage torn off. It should then be dusted
with chalk or prepared pounce and rubbed off with a cloth, to
remove traces of grease which sometimes prevents the flow of
ink (a blackboard eraser serves very well for this purpose) .

To insure good printing the ink should be perfectly black,

and the outline should be made with a bolder line than would
be used on paper, as the contrast of a white line on the blue
ground is not so strong as the black line on a white ground.
Red ink should not be used unless it is desired to have some lines
very inconspicuous. Blue ink will not print. Sometimes, in
maps, diagrams, etc., to avoid confusion of lines, it is desired to
use colored inks on the tracing; if so a little Chinese white added
will render them opaque enough to print.

Sometimes, instead of section lining, sections are indicated by

rubbing a pencil tint over the surface on the dull side, or by
putting a wash of color on the tracing either on the smooth side
or on the dull side. These tints will print in lighter Hue than
the background.
248
 DUPLICATION AND DRAWING FOR REPRODUCTION 249

Ink lines may be removed from tracing cloth by rubbing with

a pencil eraser. A triangle should be slipped under the tracing
to give a harder surface. The rubbed surface should afterward
be burnished with an ivory or bone burnisher, or with a piece of
talc (tailor's chalk) or, in the absence of othermeans, with the
thumb nail. In tracing a part that has been section lined, a
piece of white paper should be slipped under the cloth and the
section lining done without reference to the drawing underneath.
For an unimportant piece of work it is possible to make a
freehand tracing from an accurate pencil drawing in perhaps
one-half the time required for a mechanical drawing.
Tracing cloth is very sensitive to atmospheric changes, often
expanding over night so as to require restretching. If the com-
plete tracing cannot be finished during the day some views
should be finished, and no figure left with only part of its lines

traced.
Water will ruin a tracing, and moist hands or arms should not
come in contact with the cloth. The habit should be formed of
keeping the hands off drawings. It is a good plan, in both drawing
and tracing on large sheets, to cut a mask of drawing paper to
cover all but the view being worked on. Unfinished drawings
should always be covered over night.
Tracings may be cleaned of pencil marks and dirt by rubbing
over with a rag or waste dipped in benzine or gasolene.
The starch may be washed from scrap tracing cloth to make
penwipers or cloths.
The tracing is a " master drawing" and should never be allowed
to .be taken out of the office, but prints may be made from it by
one of the processes described below. Any number of prints
may be taken from one tracing.
Blue Printing.
The simplest of the printing processes is blue printing, made by
exposing a piece of sensitized paper in contact with the tracing to
sunlight or electric light in a printing frame made for the purpose.
The blue print paper is a white paper free from sulphites, coated
with a solution of citrate of iron and ammonia, and ferricyanide of
potassium. On exposure to the light a chemical action takes
place, which when fixed by washing in water gives a strong blue
color. The parts protected from the light by the black lines
250 ENGINEERING DRAWING

of the tracing wash out, leaving the white paper. Blue-print

paper usually bought ready sensitized, and may be had in dif-
is

ferent weights and different degrees of rapidity. When fresh it

is and an unexposed piece should wash,
of a yellowish green color,
out perfectly white. With age or exposure to light or air, it
turns to a darker gray-blue color, and spoils altogether in a
comparatively short time. In some emergency, it may be neces-
sary to prepare blue-print paper. The following formula will
give a paper requiring about three minutes' exposure in bright
sun-light.
(1) Citrate of iron and ammonia (brown scales) 2 oz., water
8 oz.
(2)Red prussiate of potash 11/2 oz., water 8 oz.
Keep in separate bottles away from the light.
To prepare paper take equal parts of (1) and (2) and apply
evenly to the paper with a sponge or camel's-hair brush, by
subdued light.

To make a blue print.

Lay thetracing in the frame with the inked side toward the
glass, and place the paper on it with its sensitized surface against
the tracing. Lock up in the frame so there is a perfect contact

FIG. 428. A blue print frame.

between paper and cloth. See that no corners are turned under.
Expose to the sunlight or electric light. If a frame having a
hinged back is used, Fig. 428, one side may be opened for ex-
amination. When the paper is taken from the frame it will be a
bluish gray color with the heavier lines
lighter than the back-
ground, the lighter lines perhaps not being distinguishable. Put
 DUPLICATION AND DRAWING FOR REPRODUCTION 251

the print for about five minutes in a bath of running water,

taking care that air bubbles do not collect on the surface, and
hang up to dry. An overexposed print may often be saved by
prolonged washing. The blue color may be intensified and the
whites cleared by dipping the print for a moment into a bath

containing a solution of potassium bichromate (1 to 2 oz. of

crystals to a gallon of water), and rinsing thoroughly. This
*' "
treatment will bring back a hopelessly burned print.
To be independent of the weather, most concerns use electric

printing machines, either cylindrical, in which a lamp is lowered

automatically inside a glass cylinder about which the tracing and
paper are held, or continuous, in which the tracing and paper
are fed through rolls, and in some machines, printed, washed
and dried one operation.
in
Prints too large for a frame may be made in sections and
pasted together.
In an emergency it is possible to make a fair print by holding

tracing and paper to the sunlight against a window pane.

A clear blue print may be made from a typewritten sheet
which has been written with a sheet of carbon paper back of it,
so that it is printed on both sides.
Van Dyke paper is a thin sensitized paper which turns dark
brown on exposure and fixing, which is done by first washing in
water, then in a bath of hyposulphite of soda, and washing
again thoroughly. A reversed negative of a tracing may be
made on it by exposing with the inked side of the tracing next
to the sensitized side of the paper. This negative, if printed on
blue-print paper will give a blue-line print with white back-
ground.
" "
The Van Dyke negative may be transparentized so as to
print in one-half to one-third the time, by a solution sold by the
dealers, or by a solution of paraffin cut in benzine.
A direct black paper is made by the Carlton Supply Co.,

Brooklyn, N. Y., which is printed and washed the same as a

blue print and gives permanent black lines on white ground.
White ground prints have the advantage that additions or
notes may be made in ink or pencil, and that tints may be added.
Changes are made on blue prints by writing or drawing with
any alkaline solution, such as of soda or potash, which bleaches
the blue. A little gum arable will prevent spreading. A tint
252 ENGINEERING DRAWING

may be given by adding a few drops of red or other colored ink

to the solution.- Chinese white is sometimes used for white-
linechanges on a blue print.
A
blue print may be made from a drawing made in pencil or
ink on bond paper or tracing paper, but with thick drawing
paper the light will get under the lines and destroy the sharpness.
A print be made from Bristol or other heavy white paper
may
by turning with the ink side against the paper, thereby revers-
it

ing the print, or by making a Van Dyke negative, with a long

exposure; or it may be soaked in benzine and printed while wet.
The benzine will evaporate and leave no trace.
A
blue-line print may be taken from a blue print by fading the
blue of the first print in weak ammonia water, washing thor-
oughly, then turning it red in a weak solution of tannic acid,
and washing again. Transparentizing at this stage will assist.
In printing a number of small tracings they may be fastened
together at their edges with gummed stickers and handled as a
single sheet.
Any white paper may be rendered sufficiently translucent to
"
give a good blue print, with the transparentizing solutions"
mentioned before, and a machine called the " mechanigraph "
is now on the market which does this commercially, enabling
drawings to be made on white paper in pencil, from which
finished prints can be made without inking or tracing.
The methods of the hectograph or gelatine pad, neostyle,
mimeograph, etc., often used for duplicating small drawings, are
too well known
to need description here.
Large drawings or drawings in sets are often photographed to
reduced size and blue prints or other prints made from the
negatives giving convenient prints for reference.
Drawing for Reproduction.

By term is meant the preparation of drawings for repro-

this
duction by one of the photo-mechanical
processes used for
making plates, or "cuts," as they are often called, for printing
purposes. Such drawings will be required in the preparation
of illustrations for
books and periodicals, for catalogues or other
advertising, and incidentally for patent office drawings, which
are reproduced by photo-lithography.
Line drawings are usually reproduced
by the process known as
zinc etching, in which the
drawing is photographed on a process
 DUPLICATION AND DRAWING FOR REPRODUCTION 253

plate, generallywith some reduction, the negative film reversed

and printed so as to give a positive on a sensitized zinc plate
(when a particularly fine result is desired, a copper plate is used)

zMMvmmmz^
FIG. 429. Drawing for one-half reduction.

FIG. 430.

which etched with acid, leaving the lines in relief and giving,
is

when mounted type-high on a wood base, a block which can

be printed along with type in an ordinary printing press.
254 ENGINEERING DRAWING

Drawings for zinc etching should be made on smooth white

ink and preferably
paper or tracing cloth in black drawing
larger than the required reproduction.
If it is desired to preserve the hand-draw n character of the
T

FIG. 431. Drawing for "two- thirds" reduction.

original, the reduction should be slight; but if a very smooth

effect iswanted, the drawing may be as much as 3 or 4 times as
large as the cut. The best general size is one and one-half
times linear. Fig. 429 illustrates the appearance of an original

FIG. 432.

drawing and Fig. 430 the same drawing reduced one-half. Fig.
431 is another original which has been reduced two-thirds, Fig.
432. The coarse appearance of these originals and the open
shading should be noticed.
A reducing glass, a concave lens mounted like a reading glass
 DUPLICATION AND DRAWING FOR REPRODUCTION 255

is sometimes used to aid in judging the appearance of a drawing

on reduction. If lines are drawn too close together the space
between them will choke in the reproduction and mar the effect.
One very convenient thing not permissible in other work may
be done on drawings for reproduction any irregularities may
be corrected by simply painting out with Chinese white. If it is
desired to shift a figure after it has been inked it may be cut out
and pasted on in the required position. The edges thus left
will not trouble the engraver, as they will be tooled out when
the etching is finished.
Wash drawings and photographs are reproduced in a similar
w ay on copper by what is known
T
as the half-tone process in
"
which the negative is made through a ruled screen" in front of
the plate, which breaks up the tints into a series of dots of varying
size. Screens of different fineness are used for different kinds of
paper, from the coarse screen newspaper half-tone of 80 to 100
lines to the inch, the ordinary commercial and magazine half-
tone of 133 lines, to the fine 150 and 175 line half-tones for print-
ing on very smooth coated paper.
Photographic prints for reproduction are often retouched and
worked over, shadows being strengthened with water color,
high-lights accented with Chinese white, and details brought
out that would otherwise be lost. In catalogue illustration of
machinery, etc., objectionable backgrounds or other features can
be removed entirely. Commercial retouchers use the air-brush
as an aid in this kind of work, spraying on color with it very
rapidly and smoothly and securing results not possible in hand-
work.
Half tones cost from ten to fifteen cents per sq. in. with a
minimum price of $1.00, zinc etching from five to seven
and
cents per sq. in. with a minimum of sixty cents.
Line illustrations are sometimes made by the "wax process"
in which a blackened copper plate is covered with a very thin
film of wax, on which a drawing may be photographed and its
outline scratched through the wax by hand with different sized
gravers. The lettering is set up in type and pressed into the
wax; more wax is then piled up in the wider spaces between the
lines and an electrotype taken. Drawings for this process need
not be specially prepared, as the work may be done even from a
pencil sketch or blue print. Wax plates print very clean and
256 ENGINEERING DRAWING

sharp and the type-lettering gives them a finished appearance,

but they lack the character of a drawing, are more expensive than
zinc etching and often show mistakes due to the lack of famili-

arity of the engraver with the subject. Fig. 433 shows the
characteristic appearance of a wax plate.

Gear Bracket Bearing, 1 O.I.

FIG. 433. A wax plate.

Maps and large drawings are usually reproduced by lithog-

raphy, in which the drawing is either photographed or engraved
on a lithographic stone, and transferred from this either to another
stone from which it is printed or in the offset process to a thin
sheet of zinc which is wrapped around a cylinder, and prints to
a rubber blanket which in turn prints on the paper.
 CHAPTER XIV.

NOTES ON COMMERCIAL PRACTICE.

Under this heading there is included a number of suggestions

and items of miscellaneous information for student and drafts-
man.

To Sharpen a Pen.
Pens that are in constant use require frequent sharpening
and every draftsman should be able to keep his own pens in
fine condition. The points of a ruling pen should have an oval
or elliptical shape as (a) Fig. 434, with the nibs exactly the same
length, (b) is a worn pen and (c) (d) and (e) incorrect shapes*

B C D
FIG. 434. Corrected ruling pen points.

sometimes found. The best stone to use is a hard Arkansas

knife piece or knife edge. It is best to soak a new stone in oil
for several days before using. The ordinary carpenter's oil
stone is too coarse to be used for instruments.
The nibs must first be brought to the correct shape as (a) and
as indicated on the dotted lines of (b), (c) and (d). This is
done by screwing the nibs together until they touch and, hold-
ing the pen as in drawing a line, drawing it back and forth on the
stone, starting the stroke with the handle at perhaps 30 degrees
with the stone, and swinging it up past the perpendicular as the
257
258 ENGINEERING DRAWING

line across the stone progresses. This will bring the nibs to
exactly equal shape and length, leaving them very dull. They
should then be opened slightly and each blade sharpened in
turn until the bright spot on the end has just disappeared,
holding the. pen as in Fig. 435 at a small angle with the stone
and rubbing it back and forth with a slight oscillating or rocking
motion to conform to the shape of the blade. The pen should
be examined frequently and the operation stopped just when the
reflecting spot has vanished. A
pocket magnifying glass may
be of aid in examining the points. The blades should not be
sharp enough to cut the paper when tested by drawing a line,
without ink, across it. If over-sharpened the blades should

FIG. 435.

again be brought to touch and a line drawn very lightly across

the stone as in the first operation. When tested with ink the
pen should be capable of drawing clean sharp lines down to the
finest hair [Link] these finest lines are ragged or broken the pen
isnot perfectly sharpened. It should not be necessary to touch
the inside of the blades unless a bur has been formed, which
might occur with very soft metal or by using too coarse a stone.
In such cases the blades should be opened wide and the bur
removed by a very light touch, with the entire inner surface of
the blade in contact with the stone, which of course must be
sufficiently thin to be inserted between the blades. The beginner
had best practise by sharpening several old pens before attempt-
ing to sharpen a good instrument. After using, the stone should
be wiped clean and a drop of oil rubbed over it to
prevent
hardening and glazing.
To Make a Lettering Pen.*
Lettering should never be done with the ruling pen, but some
draftsmen make a lettering pen for coarse single-stroke letters,
* Described
by Prof. C. L. Adams.
 NOTES ON COMMERCIAL PRACTICE 259

out of an old ruling pen by first rubbing the point very blunt,
then grinding the blades together to a conical shape, and finally
shaping a ball end on the blunted point. This pen will make a
line somewhat similar to that made by the Payzant and Shepard
pens. Its handle should be plainly cut or marked to distinguish
it from a ruling pen.

Line Shading.
Line shading, the rendering of the effect of light and shade by
"
ruled lines, was referred to in Chapter VI as an accomplishment
not usual among ordinary draftsmen." The reason for this is
that it is not used at all on working drawings and the drafts-
man engaged in that work does not have occasion to apply it.
It is used, however, on display drawings, illustrations, patent
officedrawings, and the like, and is worthy of study if one is
interested in this class of finished work.

FIG. 436. Flat and graded tints.

To execute line shading rapidly and effectively requires con-

tinued practice and some artistic ability, and, as much as any-
thing else, good judgment in knowing when to stop. Often the
simple shading of a shaft or other round member will add greatly
to the effectiveness of a drawing, and may even save making
" "
another view, or a few lines of surface shading on a flat surface
will show its position and character. The pen must be in per-
fect condition, with its screw working very freely.
Fig. 436 shows three preliminary exercises in flat and graded
tints in which the pitch or distance from center to center of lines
is equal. In wide graded tints as (b) and (c) the setting of the
pen is not changed for every line, but several .lines are drawn,
260 ENGINEERING DRAWING

then the pen changed slightly and several more drawn. Fig.
437 is an application, illustrating the rule that an inclined
illuminated surface is lightest nearest the eye and an inclined sur-
face in shade is darkest nearest the eye.
With the light coming in the conventional direction a cylinder
would be illuminated as in Fig. 438. Theoretically the darkest

^ ShadeSnt

FIG. 437. FIG. 438.

line 'is at the tangent or shade line

and the lightest part at the
"brilliant line" where the light is reflected directly to the eye.
Cylinders shaded according to this theory are the most effective,
but often in practice the dark side is carried out to the edge, and
in small cylinders the light side is left unshaded.

ABC D 3"
FIG. 439. Cylinder shading.

Fig. 439 is a row of cylinders of different sizes. The effect of

polish is given by leaving several brilliant lines, as might occur

if the light came in through several windows.
A conical surface may be shaded by driving a fine needle at
the apex and swinging a triangle about it, as in (A) Fig. 440.
 NOTES ON COMMERCIAL PRACTICE 261

To avoid a blot at the apex of a complete cone the needle may

be driven on the extension of the side as in (B), or it may be
shaded by parallel lines as in (C).
Fig. 441 illustrates several applications of these principles.

A B C
FIG. 440. Cone shading.

FIG. 441. Shaded single curved surfaces.

FIG. 442. Spheres.

It is in the attempt to represent double curved surfaces that

the line-shader meets his principal troubles. The brilliant line
becomes a brilliant point and the tangent shade line a curve,
and to represent the gradation between them by mechanical
lines is a difficult proposition.
17
262 ENGINEERING DRAWING

Fig. 442 shows three methods of shading a sphere. The bril-

liant point and shade line may be found by revolving the pro-

jecting plane of the ray passing through the center, about its

FIG. 443.

FIG. 444. Shaded double curved surfaces.

vertical trace as in Fig.

443, but in practice these are usually
"guessed in." The first method (a) is the commonest. Con-
centric circles are drawn from the center, with varying pitch,
 NOTES ON COMMERCIAL PRACTICE 263

and shaded on the lower side by springing the point of the com-

pass. In the brilliant point is used as center. In (c), the

(b)
"wood cut" method, the taper on the horizontal lines is made
by starting with the pen out of perpendicular and turning the
handle up as the line progresses.
Fig. 444 shows several applications with double curved surfaces
of different kinds.

Patent Office Drawings.

In the application for letters patent on an invention or dis-
covery there is required a written description called the specifi-
cation, and in case of a machine, manufactured article, or device
for making it, a drawing, showing every feature of the invention.
If it is an improvement, the drawing must show the invention

separately, and in another view a part of the old structure with

the invention attached. A high standard of execution, and con-
formity to the rules of the Patent Office must be observed. A
pamphlet called the "Rules of Practice," giving full information
and rules governing patent office procedure in reference to appli-
cation for patents may be had gratuitously by addressing the
Commissioner of Patents, Washington, D. C.
The drawings are made on smooth white paper specified to be
of a thickness equal to three-sheet Bristol-board. Two-ply
Reynolds board is the best paper for the purpose, as prints may
be made from it readily, and it is preferred by the Office. The
sheets must be exactly 10 by 15 inches, with a border line one
inch from the edges. Sheets with border and lettering printed,
as Fig. 445, are sold by the dealers, but are not required to be used.
A space of not less than 11/4 inches inside of the top border
must be left blank for the printed title added by the Office.
Drawings must be in black ink, and drawn for a reproduction
to reduced scale. As many sheets as are necessary may be used.
In the case of large views any sheet may be turned on its side
so that the heading is at the right and the signatures at the left,
but all views on the same sheet must stand in the same direction.
Patent Office drawings are not working drawings. They are
descriptive and pictorial rather than structural, hence will have
no center lines, no dimension lines nor figured dimensions, no
notes nor names of views. The scale chosen should be large
enough to show the mechanism without crowding. Unessential
264 ENGINEERING DRAWING

details or shapes need not be represented with constructional

accuracy, and parts need not be drawn strictly to scale. For
example, the section of a thin sheet of metal drawn to scale

might be a very, thin single line, but it should be drawn with a

double line, and section-lined between.
Section lining must not be too fine. One-twentieth of an
inch pitch is a good limit. Solid black should not be used
excepting to represent insulation or rubber.

Shade lines are always added, except in special cases where

they might confuse or obscure instead of aid in the reading.
Surface shading by line shading is used whenever it will add
to the legibility, but it should not be thrown in
indiscriminately
or lavishly simply to please the client.
Gears and toothed wheels must have all their teeth shown,
and the same is true of chains, but screw threads
sprockets, etc.,
may be represented by the conventional symbols. The Rules
of Practice gives a chart of electrical symbols, symbols for colors,
etc., which should be followed.
The drawings may be made in orthographic, axonometric,
 NOTES ON COMMERCIAL PRACTICE 265

oblique, or perspective. The pictorial system is used extensively,

for either all or part of the views. The examiner is of course ex-
pert in reading drawings, but the client, and sometimes the attor-
ney, .may not be, and the drawing should be clear to them. In
checking the drawing for completeness it should be remembered
that in case of litigation it may be an important exhibit in the
courts.
Only in rare cases is a model of an invention required by the
Office.
are lettered "Fig. 1," "Fig. 2" etc., and the parts
The views
designated by reference numbers though which the invention is
described in the specifications. One view, generally "Fig. 1,"
ismade as a comprehensive view that may be used in the Official
Gazette as an illustration to accompany the "claims."

FIG. 446.

The draftsman usually signs the Hrawing as the first witness.

The inventor signs the drawing in the lower right-hand corner.
In case an attorney prepares the application and drawing, the
attorney writes or letters the name of the inventor, signing his
own name underneath as his attorney.
To avoid making tack holes in the paper it should be held to
the board by the heads of the thumb tacks only.
Fig. 446 is a clamp drawing board used by some patent drafts-
men.
The requirements for drawings for foreign patents vary in
different countries, most countries requiring drawings and several
tracings of each sheet.
Fig. 447 is an example of a patent office drawing, reduced to
1/2 size.

Stretching Paper and Tinting.

If a drawing is to be tinted the paper should be stretched on
the board. First, dampen it thoroughly until limp, either with
266 ENGINEERING DRAWING

WITNESSES: Duqizesne Sprague INVENTOR.

FIG. 447. A patent office drawing.

 NOTES ON COMMERCIAL PRACTICE 267

a sponge or under the faucet, then lay it on the drawing board

face down, take up the excess water from the edges with a
blotter, brush glue or paste about one-half inch wide around the
edge, turn over and rub the edges down on the board until set,
and allow to dry horizontally.
Drawings or maps on which much work is to be done, even
though not to be tinted, may be made advantageously on
stretched paper; but Bristol or calendered paper should not be
stretched.
Tinting is done with washes made with moist water colors.
The drawing may be inked (with waterproof ink) either before,
or preferably after tinting.
The drawing should be cleaned and the unnecessary pencil
marks removed with a very soft rubber, the tint mixed in a
saucer and applied with a camePs-hair or sable brush, inclining
the board and flowing the color with horizontal strokes, leading
the pool of color down over the surface, taking up the surplus
at the bottom by wiping the brush out quickly and picking up
with it the excess color. Stir the color each time the brush is

dipped into the saucer. Tints should be made in light washes,

depth of color being obtained if necessary by repeating the wash.

To get an even color it is well to go over the surface first with a
wash of clear water.
Diluted colored inks may be used for washes instead of water
color.

Mounting Tracing Paper.

Tracings are mounted for display, on white mounts, either by
"tipping" or "floating." To tip a drawing brush a narrow
strip of glue or paste around the under edge, dampen the right
side of the drawing by stroking with a sponge very slightly
moistened, and stretch the paper gently with the thumbs on
opposite edges, working from the middle of the sides toward the
corners.
To float a drawing make a very thin paste and brush a light
coat over the entire surface of the mount, lay the tracing paper
in position and stretch into contact with the board as in
tipping. bubbles occur force them out by rubbing from
If 'air
the center of the drawing out, laying a piece of clean paper over
the drawing to protect it.
268 ENGINEERING DRAWING

Mounting on Cloth.
It is sometimes necessary to mount drawings or maps on cloth.
The following methods are used:
Hot mounting is best for both heavy and thin paper. For
heavy paper, tack down mounting cloth with another cloth
under, put 1/2 pint library paste with 1/2 oz. water in pan
and bring to boil. With broad brush paste back of drawing or
print quickly, working from center out, turn over and place on
cloth. Have hot iron ready and iron print from center out, in
circular motion, ironing fast until edges are stuck, then removing
tacks to release the steam and ironing till dry. Never iron on
the back, as the steam formed will cause blisters.
Cold paste 'may be used for hurry work, applying it to the
cloth instead of the paper, and ironing as before.
For mounting thin paper. The print to be mounted is rolled,

face in, on a large roller (a roll of detail paper may be used),

hot paste applied starting at end, the print rolled off on the
cloth, and followed up as fast as unrolled by hot irons. If cold

paste is used apply it to the cloth. Never attempt to apply

cold paste on thin paper.
Cold Mounting. When hot irons are not available, prints
may be mounted by stretching cloth tightly on table, applying
paste, and rolling with photographic print roller, leaving the
cloth stretched until perfectly dry.

Methods of Copying Drawings.

Drawings are often copied on opaque paper by laying the

drawing over the paper and pricking through with a needle
point, turning the upper sheet back frequently and connecting
the points. Prickers may be purchased, or may be m,ade easily
by forcing a fine needle into a soft wood handle. They may be
used to advantage also in accurate drawing, in transferring
measurements from scale to paper.

Transfer by Rubbing.
This method is used extensively by architects, and may be
used to good advantage in transferring
any kind of sketch or de-
sign to the paper on which it is to be rendered.
The original is made on any paper, and may be worked over,
changed, and marked up until the design is satisfactory. Lay
 NOTES ON COMMERCIAL PRACTICE 269

a piece of tracing paper over the original and trace the outline
carefully. Turn the tracing over and retrace the outline just
as carefully on the other side, using a medium soft pencil (perhaps
H or 2H) with a sharp point. Turn back to first position and tack
down smoothly over the paper on which the drawing is to be
made, registering the tracing to proper position by center or
reference lines on both tracing and drawing. Now transfer the
drawing by rubbing the tracing with the rounded edge of a
knife handle or other instrument (a smooth-edged coin held
between thumb and forefinger and scraped back and forth is
commonly used), holding a small piece of tracing cloth with
smooth side up between the rubbing instrument and the paper,
to protect the paper. Do not rub too hard, and be sure that
neither the cloth nor paper move while rubbing.
Very delicate drawings can be copied with great accuracy in
this manner.
If the drawing is symmetrical about any axis the reversed

tracing need not be made, but the rubbing can be made from
the first tracing by reversing it about the axis of symmetry.

P&fffeGtoss

FIG. 448. A transparent drawing board.

made from one tracing, and when the

Several rubbings can be
same must be repeated several times on a drawing
figure or detail
much time can be saved by drawing it on tracing paper and
rubbing it in the several positions.

A Transparent Drawing Board.

A successful device for copying drawings on opaque paper is
illustrated in Fig. 448. A wide frame of white pine carrying a
piece of plate glass set flush with the top, is hinged to a base
lined with bright tin. A sliding bar carries two show-case lamps,
whose light may thus be concentrated under any part of the
2fO ENGINEERING DRAWING

drawing. Ventilation and protection from overheating is provided

by the ground glass and air space between it and the plate glass.
The frame has a piece of felt glued on the bottom and may be
used on the top of any table where connection with an electric
light outlet is convenient.
Drawings even in pencil may be copied readily on the heaviest
paper or Bristol-board by the use of this device.

FIG. 449. Pantograph.

The Pantograph.
The principle of the pantograph, used for reducing or enlarging
drawings in any proportion, is well known. Its use is often of
great advantage. It consists essentially of four bars, which for

any setting must form a parallelogram, and have the pivot,

FIG. 450. Suspended pantograph.

tracing point, and marking point in a straight line; and any

arrangement of four arms conforming to this requirement will
work in true proportion. Referring to Fig. 449 the scale of
enlargement is PM/PT or AM/AB. For corresponding reduc-
tion the tracing point and
marking point are exchanged.
 NOTES ON COMMERCIAL PRACTICE 2ft

The inexpensive wooden form of Fig. 449 is sufficiently accurate

for ordinary outlining. A
suspended pantograph with metal
arms, for accurate engineering work, is shown in Fig. 450.

Drawings may be copied to reduced or enlarged scale by using

the proportional dividers.
The well-known method of proportional squares is often used
for reduction and enlargement. The drawing to be copied is
ruled in squares of convenient size, or, if it is undesirable to mark
on the drawing, a sheet of ruled tracing cloth or celluloid is laid
over it, and the copy made freehand on the paper, which has
been ruled in corresponding squares, larger or smaller, Fig. 451.

FIG. 451. Enlargement by squares.

About Tracings.
Sometimes it is desired to add an extra view, or a title, to a

print without putting it on the tracing. This may be done by

drawing the desired additions on another piece of cloth of the
same and printing the two tracings together.
size as the original,
A figure be taken out of a tracing, and another inserted
may
" "
by making an inlay, laying the new piece under the tracing and
cutting through both together with a sharp knife, then fastening
the new piece in the hole with collodion.
Do not take up a blot with a blotter, but scoop it up with the
finger, leaving a smear. Erase the smear when dry, with a
pencil eraser.
272 ENGINEERING DRAWING

To prevent smearing in cleaning, titles if printed from type on

tracing cloth should be printed in an ink not affected by benzine.
Local printers are often unable to meet this requirement, but
there are firms which make a specialty of this kind of printing.

Preserving Drawings.
A drawing, tracing, or blue print which is to be handled much
may be varnished with a thin coat of white shellac.
Prints made on sensitized cloth will withstand hard usage.
A method imbedding drawings in sheet celluloid, making
of
them water- and grease-proof, is carried on by the Dodge Motor
Map Co., N. Y. The cost is about fifty cents a square foot.
Blue prints for shop use are often mounted for preservation
and convenience, by pasting on' tar board or heavy press board
and coating with white shellac or Damar varnish. A coat of
white glue under the varnish will aid still further in making the
drawings washable.
Tracings to which more or less frequent reference will be made
should be filed flat in shallow drawers. Sets of drawings pre-
served only for record are often kept in tin tubes numbered and
filed systematically. A pasteboard tube with screw cover is also
made for this purpose. It is lighter than tin and withstands
fire and water even better.
Fireproof storage vaults should always be provided in connec-
tion with drafting rooms.

FIG. 452.

Miscellaneous hints.
A temporary adjustmentof a T-square may be made by put-
ting athumb tack in the head, Fig. 452.
A homemade ellipsograph has been made on the principle of
the pin-and-string method of Fig. 90 by adding a clip to the
compass pen to hold the string, which will pull the leg in as the
compass, with its center at 0, moves from B to D.
 NOTES ON COMMERCIAL PRACTICE 273

If much ruling in red ink is done, a pen for the purpose with
nickel plated or german silver blades is advisable.
A steel edge to a drawing board is made of an angle iron planed

straight and set flush with the edge. With this edge and a
steelT-square very accurate plotting may be done. These are
often used in bridge offices.
 CHAPTER XV. *

BIBLIOGRAPHY OF ALLIED SUBJECTS.

The present book has been written as a general treatise on the

language of
Engineering Drawing. The following short
classi-

fied list ofbooks is given both to supplement this book, whose

scope permitted only the mention or brief explanation of some
subjects, and as an aid to those who might desire the recommen-
dation of a book on some branch of drawing or engineering.

Architectural Drawing.
Ware, Wm. R. The American Vignola. 2 v. 9 1/2x12 1/2.
Scranton, 1906.
Part I, The Five Orders. 76 pp., 18 pi. $2.50.
Part II, Arches and Vaults, Roofs and Domes, Doors
and Windows, Walls and Ceilings, Steps and
Staircases. 50 pp., 19 pi. $2.50.
Simple proportions for drawing the classic orders; and their
application in composition.
A book every architectural draftsman should have.
Martin, Clarence A. Details of Building Construction.
33 pi. 9 1/2x12 1/2. $2.00. Bates & Guild,. 1905.
Suggestive details of domestic architecture representing good
practice, principally in wood, as windows, cornices, etc.

Snyder, Frank M. Building Details. Issued in parts of

10 pi. each, 16x22. $2.25 net. N. Y., 1906
Selections of fully dimensioned details, principally of large
buildings, from the drawings of various representative
architects.

Descriptive Geometry.
Church, Albert E. Elements of Descriptive Geometry.
286 pp., 6x8 1/2 rev. ed. $2.25 [Link] Book Co., 1911.
This book has been a standard ever since its original publica-
tion in 1864. The present revision is by Geo. M. Bartlett.
Anthony and Ashley. Descriptive Geometry. 134 pp. ,34
pi., obi. 6x7 1/2. $2.00. D. C. Heath & Co., 1909.
A comprehensive elementary treatise.
274
 BIBLIOGRAPHY OF ALLIED SUBJECTS 275

MacCord, C. W. Elements of Descriptive Geometry. 248

pp., 6x9. $3.00. Wiley, 1902.
Particularly good on auxiliary planes and warped surfaces.

Gears and Gearing.

Logue, Charles H. American Machinist Gear Book, 348 pp.,
6x9. $2.50. McGraw-Hill, 1910.
"Simplified tables and formulas for designing, and practical
points in cutting all commercial types of gears."

Grant, George B. A Treatise on Gear Wheels, 103 pp.,

6x9. Phila. Gear Works, 1906.
A practical book on the designing and cutting of gears.

Anthony, G. C. The Essentials of Gearing. 84 pp., 15 fold-

ing pi., obi. 6x7 1/2. $1.50. D. C. Heath & Co., 1897.
An elementary text-book on the drawing of tooth outlines.

Stutz, Charles C. Formulas in Gearing. 6x9, 5th ed., 183

pp., $2.00. Brown and Sharpe Mfg. Co., 1907.
Useful formulas for gear design.

Handbooks.
A great many "pocket size" handbooks, with tables, formulas,
and information are published for the different branches of
the engineering profession, and draftsmen keep the ones
pertaining to their particular line at hand for ready reference.
Attention is called, however, to the danger of using handbook
formulas and figures without understanding the principles
"
upon which they are based. Handbook designer" is a term
of reproach applied not without reason to one who depends
wholly upon these aids without knowing their theory or
limitations.
Among the best known of these reference books are the
following:

American Civil Engineers' Pocketbook, Mansfield Merriman,

ed. in chief. 1380 pp. $5.00 net. Wiley, 1911.
A new book by a corps of well-known engineers.
American Machinists' Handbook, and Dictionary of Shop
Terms, by F. H. Colvin and Frank A Stanley. 513 pp. $3.00 net.
McGraw-Hill, 1908.
"
A reference book on machine-shop and drawing-room data,
methods and definitions."

Architects' and Builders'

Pocketbook, F. E. Kidder.
15th ed., 1661 pp. $5.00. Wiley, 1908.
The standard architects' reference book.
276 ENGINEERING DRAWING

Cambria Steel. A Handbook of Information Relating to

Structural Steel Manufactured by the Cambria Steel Co. 468 pp.
$1.00. Phila., 1907.
A standard book for structural steel designers.
Carnegie. Pocket Companion containing Useful Informa-
tion and Tables appertaining to the Use of Steel as manufactured
by the Carnegie Steel Co. 345 pp. $2.00. Pittsburg, 1903.
Catalogue of Bethlehem Structural Shapes, Manufactured
by Bethlehem Steel Co. ,72 pp. Bethlehem, Pa., 1909.
Contains tables for shapes rolled by this company.

Civil Engineers' Pocketbook, J. C. Trautwine. 19th ed.,

1257 pp. $5.00 net. Trautwine Co., Phila., 1909.
The best known reference book for civil engineers.
Electrical Engineers' Pocketbook. H. A. Foster, ed.,
1599 pp. $5.00. D. Van Nostrand, N. Y., 1908.
"A handbook of useful data for electricians and electrical
engineers."
Handbook of Cost Data. H. P. Gillette. 1841 pp. $5.00.
Myron C. Clark, Chicago, 1910.
For civil engineers and contractors.
Mechanical Engineers' Pocketbook. Wm. Kent. 8th ed.,
1461 pp. $5.00 net. Wiley, 1910.
"
A reference book of rules, tables, data, and formulae, for the
use of engineers, mechanics, and students." Universally
known by mechanical engineers.
Mechanical Engineers' Reference Book. H. H. Suplee.
3rd ed., 922 pp. $5.00 net. J. B. Lippincott, Phila., 1907.
"
A
handbook of tables, formulas, and methods for engineers,
students, and draftsmen."
Standard Handbook for Electrical Engineers. 3rd ed.,
1500 pp. $4.00 net. McGraw-Hill, 1910.
Contains a more complete theoretical treatment than Foster.
Of particular value to students.

Machinery Data Sheets, 6x9 "Machinery" N. Y.

A data sheets for designers, published as supplements
series of
to the periodical. Back numbers cut and bound may be
purchased.

Lettering.
French (Thos. E.) and Meiklejohn, (R). The Essentials
of Lettering. 3d ed., 76 pp., 6x9. $1.00. McGraw-Hill, 1911.
"
A manual for students and designers."
 BIBLIOGRAPHY OF ALLIED SUBJECTS 277

Reinhardt, Chas. W. Lettering for Draftsmen, Engineers,

and Students. 23 pp., 8 pi., 8x11. $1.00 net. D. Van Nostrand,
1895.
A complete analysis of the single-stroke "Reinhardt" letter.

Machine Drawing and Design.

A great many text-books and reference books have been
written on machine drawing and designing. A few only are
noted here.

Unwin, William C. Elements of Machine Design.

Part I, General principles, fastenings and transmission
machinery, new ed., 531 pp., 5 1/2x8 1/2.
$2.50. Longmans, Green & Co., 1909.
Part II, Engine details 431 pp., 5x7. $2.00. Longmans,
Green & Co., 1902.
A standard English text-book widely used in this country.

Spooner, Henry J. Machine Design, Construction, and

Drawing. 691 pp., 5 1/2x8 1/2. $3.50 net. Longmans, Green
& Co., 1910.
Another English text-book conforming to .modern English
engineering practice.
Cathcart, W. E. L. Machine Design.
Part I, Fastenings, 6x9 1/2, 291 pp. $3.00 net. Van
Nostrand, 1903.
A good reference book giving modern American data from
best practice.
Kimball and Barr. Elements of Machine Design. 446 pp.,
6x9. $3.00.- Wiley, 1909.
A text-book with discussion of the fundamental principles of
design.
Reid (John S.) and Reid (David). A Text-book of Mechani-
cal drawing and Elementary Machine Design. 439 pp., 6x9.
$3.00. Wiley, 1910.
Contains an interesting summary of an investigation into
present practice in drafting-room conventions and methods.
Jepson, George. Cams and the Principles of their Construc-
tion. 59 pp., 6x9. $1.50 net. Van Nostrand, 1905.
A short discussion of various forms of cams and the methods
of drawing them.

Mechanism.
Robinson, S. W. Principles of Mechanism. A Treatise on
the Modification of Motion by means of the Elementary Combina-
18
278 ENGINEERING DRAWING

tions of Mechanism, or of the Parts of Machines. 309 pp., 6x9.

$3.00. Wiley, 1900.
The authority on non-circular gearing. Treatment mainly
by graphics instead of analysis.
Barr, John H. Kinematics of Machinery. 2nd ed., 264 pp.,
6x9. $2.50.
"
Wiley, 1911.
A brief treatise on constrained motion of machine elements."
(Revised by Edgar H. Wood.)
Dunkerley, S. Mechanism. 2nd ed., 448 pp., 6x9. $3.00.
Longmans, Green &
Co., 1907.
A modern text-book on the kinematics of machines, used in
English colleges.

Perspective.
Ware, Wm. R. Modern Perspective, a Treatise upon the
Principles and Practice of Plane and Cylindrical Perspective,
6th ed., 336 pp., 5x7 1/2 and atlas of plates. $4.00. MacMillan,
1900.
An exhaustive work.

Longfellow, Wm. P. P. Applied Perspective for Architects

and Painters. 8x11, 95 pp., 33 pi. $2.50 net. Houghton,
Mifflin & Co., 1901.
A practical book on architectural perspective.
Fuchs, Otto. Handbook on Linear Perspective, Shadows
and Reflections. 8x10, 34 pp., 13 folding pi. $1.00 Ginn & Co.,
1902.
An elementary presentation in problem form, for artists and
architects.

Wilson, Victor T. Freehand Perspective. 5 1/2x9, 257 pp.

$2.50. Wiley, 1900.
A thorough discussion of the principles and their application
in freehand sketching.

Mathewson, Frank E. Perspective Sketching from Work-

ing Drawings. 5x8, 77 pp. $1.00. The Taylor-Holden Co.,
1908.
A
good elementary book on freehand perspective.
Frederick, Frank Forrest. Simplified Mechanical Perspec-
tive, 54 pp., 7x10, 75 cents. The Manual Arts Press, 1909.
An elementary explanation of linear perspective.

Rendering.
Maginnis, Charles D. Pen Drawing. An Illustrated Treat-
ise. 130 pp., 5x7 1/2. $1.00 net. Bates & Guild, 1904.
By a well-known architect. Should be in the library of every
architectural draftsman.
 BIBLIOGRAPHY OF ALLIED SUBJECTS 279

Frederick, Frank F. The Wash Method of Handling Water

Color. 16 pp., 7x10. 50 cents. Manual Arts Press, 1908.
A helpful little guide in the use of water color.
Shades and Shadows.
McGoodwin, Henry. Architectural Shades and Shadows.
118 pp., 9 1/2x12. $3.00. Bates & Guild, 1904.
The principles of casting shadows, and their application on
architectural forms.

Sheet Metal.
Kittredge, Geo. W. The New Metal Worker Pattern Book.
429 pp., 9x11 1/2. $5.00. David Williams, N. Y., 1911.
An exhaustive treatise on the principles and practice of pattern
cutting as applied to sheet metal work.

Stereotomy.
French (A. W.) and Ives (H. C.). Stereotomy. 119 pp.,
21 folding pi., 6x9. $2.50. Wiley, 1902.
Contains practical examples of the application of stone cut-
ting in architectural and engineering structures.

Warren, S. E. Stereotomy, Problems in Stone Cutting.

126 pp., 10 folding pi.,6x9. $2.50.' Wiley, 1893.
For civil engineering students.

Structural Drawing.
Morris, Clyde T. Designing and Detailing of Simple Steel
Structures. 201 pp., 6x9. $2.75. Eng. News, N. Y., 1909.
A clear and concise text for both students and practical men.

Surveying.
Johnston, J. B. The theory and Practice of Surveying.
17th ed. Rewritten by L. S. Smith, 921 pp., 5 1/2x8. $3.50 net.
Wiley, 1911.
A standard work on surveying.
Breed and Hosmer. ThePrinciples and Practice of Sur-

veying. 2 v., 6x9. Wiley, 1908.

I, 546 pp., Plane and Topographic Surveying.
V. $3.00.
V. II, 432 pp., Higher Surveying. $2.50.
Another standard work with very full discussion of drafting-
room practice.

Tracy, John C. Plane Surveying. 792 pp., 4x7. $3.00.

Wiley, 1907.
A text-book and manual in convenient handbook form. A
thorough and practical book on plane surveying.
280 ENGINEERING DRAWING

Technic and Standards.

Follows, Geo. H. Universal Dictionary of Mechanical
Drawing, 60 pp., 8x11. $1.00. Eng. News, N. Y., 1906.
A book of proposed standards and conventions to introduce
better uniformity.

Reinhardt, Charles W. The Technic of Mechanical Draft-

ing. 3rd ed., 42 pp., 11 pi. $1.00. Eng. News, N. Y., 1909.
A guide to good technic, particularly for drawing for
reproduction, with excellent examples of work.

Topographical Drawing.
Reed, Lieut. H. A. Topographical Drawing and Sketching,
Including Applications of Photography. 2 v. in one, 140 + 88
pp., 26 folding pi., 9x12. $5.00. Wiley, 1890.
An exhaustive text and reference book on the subject.
Daniels, Frank T. A Text-book of
Topographical Drawing.
144 pp., 6x7 1/2. $1.50. D. C. Heath & Co., 1908.
A well arranged book on ink and color topography, with
practical problems.

Wilson, H. M. Topographic Surveying. 3rd ed., 910 pp.,

6x9. $3.50. Wiley, 1908.
A complete work on topographic surveying, containing a
chapter on topographical drawing.
INDEX
 INDEX
A. Blue printing, 249
Acme threads, 159 Bolts, 162
A. L. A. M. standard, 165
Adjustable head T-square, 10
Air-brush, 255 table of U. S. standard, 163
A. L. A. M. standard bolts, 165 Books, 274
Alignment, profile, 246 Border pen, 17
test for, 7 Bottle holders, 22
Allen set screw, 167 Bow instruments, 8
39 use of, 33
Alphabet of lines,
Alteneder, Theo., 5 Breaks, conventional, 176
bottle holder, 22 Briggs pipe thread, 168
Bristol board, 15, 270
Arc, to rectify, 49
through three points, 48 patent office, 263
tangent to two lines, 48 Broken section, 79
Architectural drawing, 214 Brown prints, 251
books on, 274 Buttress thread, 159

symbols, 220 C.
Architect's scale, 11
Arkansas oil stone, 257
Cabinet projection, 133
Artist, 1, 66 Cap screws, 165
Castellated nut, 165
Assembly drawing, 147
Auxiliary views, 74, 75, 76 Cautions, 46
Cavalier projection, 129
problems, 91
Axes, of revolution, 82, 83 Checking, 178
isometric, 124
Chinese white, 248, 255
reversed, 127 Circle, involute of, 56

Axonometric projection, 133 isometric, 125, 126

sketching, 207 oblique, 132

to draw, 32
B.
to shade, 86
Babbitt metal, 174 Circular arc through three points,
Beam compass, 18 48
Bill of material, 152, 181 City plat, 254
examples of, 154 Clinographic projection, 134
Black prints, 251 Colored inks, 248, 267
Blue line prints, 251 Commercial sizes, 177
Blue print paper, 250 Compass, 7
frame, 250 beam, 18
from typewritten sheet, 251 use of, 31
machines, 251 Cones, development of, 105
mounting, 272 development of oblique, 108
to change, 251 intersection of, 114
283
284 INDEX

Cones, intersection with cylinder, Development, elbow, 103

112 hexagonal prism, 102
shading, 260 oblique cone, 108
Conic sections, 50 octagonal dome, 105
Conical helix, 157 pyramid, 105
Conjugate axes, 52 sphere, 107
Contour map, 230, 237 truncated cone, 105
Contour pen, 17 Dimensions, 150
Contours, 235 architectural, 226
Conventional symbols, see Symbols of threads, 162
threads, 159, 160 on sketches, 204
Copying drawings, on structural drawings, 180
by pantograph, 270 problems for, 185
by pricking, 268 Dimetric projection, 133
by proportional squares, 271 Display drawings, 215
by rubbing, 268 maps, 232
by tracing, 248 Dividers, 7
by transparent drawing board, hairspring, 7
269 plain, 7
Cross-hatching, 80 proportional, 17
conventional, 175 use of, 27
instruments for, 19 Dotted section, 80
on patent drawings, 264 Dotting pen, 21
Cross-section paper, 206 Double curved surfaces, 100
Crystallography, 134, 135 development of, 107
Culture, symbols for, 240 shading, 262
Curve, ogee, 48 Drafting machine, 20
to ink with circle arcs, 54 Drawing boards, 9
Curve pen, 17 patent office, 265
Curves, 14 steel edge for, 273
use of, 41 transparent, 269
Cycloid, 55 Drawing from description, problems,
Cylinders, development of, 102 98
intersection of, 111 Drawing paper, 15
intersection with cones, 112 pencils, 13
shading, 260 Drop pen, 19, 180
Duplication, 248
D.
E.
Design drawing, 147
Details, architectural, 226 Elbow, development of, 103
Detail drawing, 147 Electrical symbols, 176
papers, 16 for wiring, 221
pen, 8 Elevations, 223
Descriptive geometry, 66 Ellipse, 50
books on, 274 approximate, four centers, 53,
Development, 101 54
cone, 101 eight centers, 53
cylinder, 102 conjugate axes, 52
 INDEX 285

Ellipse, parallelogram method, 52 Heart cam, 57

pin and string method, 52 Helical spring, 158
trammel method, 51 Helix, 157
Ellipsograph, 51 Hill shading, 236
Engineers' scale, 11, 35 Hook-spring bows, 8
English T-square, 10 Hot mounting, 268
Epicycloid, 55 Hyperbola, 50, 55
Erasing shields, 22 Hypocycloid, 55
Exercises, in orthographic projec-
I.
tion, 73
in reading, 144 Ink, drawing, 13
in sketching, 213 for printing on cloth, 272
in use of instruments, 42 frozen, 46
stick, 13
F.
to remove, 249, 271
Farm survey, 230 Inking, 35, 36, 37, 248
Fastenings, 156 order of, 149
Faulty lines, 38 Instruments, list of, 4, 5
Finish mark, 152 patterns of, 7
First angle projection, 70 selection of, 4
Five-centered arch, 53 spring bow, 8
Flat scales, 12 use of, 23
Flexible curves, 15 Intersection of surfaces, 111
Floating, 267 Involute, 56
Floor plans, 222, 223 Irregular curves, 14, 41
Form in drawing, 23 Isometric details, 226
Forms of threads, 158 drawing, 122
Freehand drawing, 2, 201, 214
French curve, 14, 41 K.

Kelsey triangle, 22
G.
Knuckle thread, 159
Gardener's ellipse, 52
L.
Gears, 173
books on, 275 Lengthening bar, 33
Geometry, applied, 47 Left-handed person, 25
descriptive, 66 Lettering, 58
Good form, 23 architectural, 227
Gore method of development, 107 books on, 276
Grouping, 148 on maps, 242
on working drawings, 153
H.
pen, to make, 258
Hachuring, 237 pens, 13, 17, 59
Half section, 79 single stroke, 58
isometric, 129 triangle, 10
problems, 95 Line shading, 88, 259
Half-tones, 255 Lines, alphabet of, 39
Handbooks, 275 faulty, 38
Headless set screw, 167 tangent, 38
286 INDEX

Lines, to divide by trial, 28 Paper, bond, 248

to divide geometrically, 47 Bristol board, 15
to draw parallel, 30 detail, 16
to draw perpendicular, 30 drawing, 15
Lithography, 256 profile, 245
Logarithmic spiral curves, 14 to mount, 268
Lock nuts, 164 to stretch, 265
248
tracing, 220,
M.
Whatman's, 15
Machine drawing, 145 Parabola, 50, 54
books on, 277 Patent office drawing, 263
screws, 167 example of, 265
Maltese cross, 44 Patterns, 100
Mapping pens, 14 Payzant pen, 18
Maps, classification of,229 Pencil, 24
reproduction of, 256 for sketching, 202
Mechanical drawing, 2 to sharpen, 24
Mechanigraph, 252 compass, 32
Mechanism, books on, 277 eraser, 15
Millwork details, 226
pointer, 13
Mosaic, 215 Penciling, order of, 148
Mounting on cloth, 268 Pencils, 13
tracing paper, 267 Pens, border, 17
N. curve, 17
dotting, 21
National Electrical Contractors
drop or rivet, 19
Association Symbols, 221
double, 16
Negative prints, 251 for lettering, 13, 59
Notes and specifications, 152, 227
Payzant, 18
Non-isometric lines, 124
railroad, 17
O. ruling, 7
to sharpen, 257
Oblique projection, 129
use of, 36
sketching in, 207
Octagon, to inscribe in square, 48 Shepard, 18
Octagonal dome, development of, Swede, 8
105 Perspective, 65, 122
"Official Gazette," 265 angular, 212 p
Offset construction, 125, 131 books on, 278
measuring, 205 parallel, 210

Ogee curve, 48 rendering, 215

Old Roman letters, 228 sketching in, 207
Order of penciling, 148 Photo-mechanical processes, 252
Order of inking, 149 Pipe, dimensions of, 169
fittings, 170
Orthographic projection, 66, 122,
145 threads, 168
Pivot joint, 5, 6
P.
Plans, architectural, 220
Pantograph, 270 Plate girder, 182
 INDEX 287

Plats, 230 Projection, sectional, 77

city, 234 Protractor, 19
subdivisions, 231 Pyramid, development of, 105
Poch6 rendering, 215
R.
Polygon, to transfer, 48
Potassium bichromate, 251 Railroad pen, 17
Preparation for drawing, 24 Record strip, 153
Prism, development of, 102 Red ink, 248, 273
Problems, Reducing glass, 254
Assembly and detail drawings, Reinhardt letters, 63, 228, 242
195 Relief,236
Auxiliary projections, 91 symbols for, 240
Bolts, screws and pipes, 181 Rendering, 215
Cabinet projection, 142 Reproduction, 252
Checking, 197 Reversed axes, 127
Development of cones, 117 Revolution, 81
cylinders, 116 problems, 96
prisms, 115 to isometric position, 122
pyramids, 116 Revolved section, 79, 226
Dimensioning, 185 Reynolds Bristol board, 15, 263
Drawing from description, 98 Rib, section through, 146
Drawing from sketches, 186 Rivet pen, 19
Half sections, 95 Rivets, 180
Intersection of cylinders, 118 Rondinella triangle, 22
cylinder and cone, 119 Roof truss, 183
prisms, 118 Rubbing a copy, 268
surfaces and planes, 121 Ruling pens, 7
surfaces and planes, 121 to sharpen, 257
two cones, 121 use of, 35, 36, 37
Isometric drawing, 137 Ruled surfaces, 100
Isometric sections, 138 Rules for dimensioning, 150, 151
Machine parts, 187 for oblique drawing, 130
Miscellaneous, 197
S.
Oblique drawing, 139
Orthographic projection, 88 Scales, architects', 11
Sectional views, 93 engineers', 11
Triangulation, 117 flat, 12
True length of lines, 97 triangular, 12
Use of instruments, 42 use of, 34
Profiles, 245, 246 Screws, machine, 167
Projection, axonometric, 133 various, 168
cabinet, 133 Screw threads, 157
clinographic, 134 Section, architectural, 225
dimetric, 133 isometric, 129
first angle, 70 through rib, 146
isometric, 123 wall, 224
oblique, 129 Sectional views, 77, 78, 79, 80
orthographic, 66 problems, 93
288 INDEX

Section liners, 19 Swede pen, 8

lining, 80 Swivel pen, 17
conventional, 175 Symbols, for materials, 175
on patent drawings, 264 architectural, 220
Set screws, 167 culture, 240
Sewer map, 234 electrical, 176, 221
Shades and shadows, book on, 279 oil and gas, 242

Shade lines, 86 relief, 240

isometric, 129 riveting, 180
on maps, 232 topographic, 239
on patent drawings, 264 vegetation, 242
Sheet metal, 101 water features, 241
book on, 279 wiring, 221
Shepard pen, 18
T.
Single curved surfaces, 100
to shade, 260 T-square, 9, 10, 11
Single stroke inclined letters, 61 use of, 25
vertical letters, 59 Table, A. L. A. M., bolts, 165
Sketching, 201 cap screws, 166
architectural, 215 cast iron pipe fittings, 170
by pictorial methods, 206 malleable pipe fittings, 171
from memory, 203 standard pipe dimensions, 169
in orthographic, 203 U. S. standard bolts, 163
on cross-section paper, 206 Tapped holes, 160
Specifications, 152, 214, 227 Technic and standards, books on,
Spiral of Archimedes, 57 280
Sphere, development of, 107 Technical sketching, 2, 201
in isometric drawing, 127 Test for alignment, 7
shading, 262 Test for triangles, 11
Spring bow instruments, 8 Threads, forms of, 158
use of, 33 Thumb tacks, 12
Stages, in drawing bolt head, 164 Tinting, 267
in drawing threads, 160 Tipping, 267
in inking, 149 Titles, 64
in penciling, 148 228
architectural,
Stair details, 226 on maps, 242
Stereotomy, books on, 279 on working drawings, 153, 155
Stick ink, 13
printed, 155, 156
Structural drawing, 179, 180 Tit quill pen, 14
book on, 279 Tongue joint, 5
examples of, 182, 183 Topographic symbols, 239
Street paving intersection, 43
Topographical drawing, 235
Studs, 166 books on, 280
Style in drawing, 148 Tracing cloth, 248
Subdivision maps, 231 Tracing paper, 220, 269
Surfaces, classification of, 100 to mount, 267
Surveying, books on, 279 Tracings, 249, 271
Swastika, 43 filing, 272
 INDEX 289

Transfer by rubbing, 268 Vertical drawing board, 21

Transition pieces, 209 Violation of rules, 145
Transparentizing, 251
Trial method of dividing a 28
W.
line,

Triangles, 10 Warped surfaces, 100

special forms, 21 Wash drawings, 215
test for, 11 reproduction of, 255
use of, 29 Water color tinting, 267
Triangular scales, 12 Water symbols
features, for, 241
Triangulation, 107 Water 238
lining,
True length of lines, 84, 85 Wax process, 255
problems, 97 Wedge point pencil, 24
True size of inclined surfaces, 74 Whatman paper, 15
Turned section, 79, 226 Whitworth thread, 159
Wiring symbols, 221
U.
Working drawings, 145
Universal drafting machine, 20 architectural, 220
classes of, 147
U. S. Geological survey maps, 245
U. S. N. Conventional symbols, 175 Worm thread, 159

V. Z.

Van Dyke paper, 251 Zange triangle, 22

Vanishing points, 209 Zinc etching, 252
of oblique lines, 213 cost of, 255
Vegetation symbols, 242 Zone method of'development, 107
 GENERAL LIBRARY
UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIABERKELEY
RETURN TO DESK FROM WHICH BORROWED
This book is due on the last date stamped below, or on the
date to which renewed.
Renewed books are subject to immediate recall.

LD 21-100m-l,'54(1887sl6)476

1930
 16057

vy UNIVERSITY QF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY

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