PRINCIPLES
OF FLIGHT
MODULE 7 – PROPELLERS
Instructor: Oriol Lizandra i Dalmases
2
INTRODUCTION TO PROPELLER
A propeller converts the mechanical output power delivered by the engine at its
shaft to useful power for flight, this last being the product of thrust and true
airspeed of the aeroplane.
A propeller consist of several blades attached to a hub, and each blade produces
lift much pretty as a wing does, but unlike this last, blades rotate about the hub,
this way a relative airflow around the blades arises.
Similarly as in a wing, the cross section of a blade is designed to produce high lift
with as low as possible drag.
081 PRINCIPLES OF FLIGHT 081 07 PROPELLERS 081 07 01
3
VR r
Generic blade section at
V distance r from rotation axis
Spinner Chord direction
VR
V
081 PRINCIPLES OF FLIGHT 081 07 PROPELLERS 081 07 01
4
DEFINITIONS
Since a blade cross section is an airfoil, the same definitions of chord, camber,
thickness/chord ratio are applicable, and similarly the concept of aspect ratio of
wings is used for blades.
Blade Angle or Pitch is the angle (𝜷 in the figure) between the blade chord and
the plane of rotation.
Chord direction
VR
AIRCRAFT TAS
V +
Plane of rotation INDUCED FLOW
VT Tangential (or rotational) velocity
081 PRINCIPLES OF FLIGHT 081 07 PROPELLERS 081 07 01
5
Because of the tangential velocity increasing in proportion to the radius, the blade
angle is decreased from the root to the tip, smoothing out the lift variation along
the blade radius. The reference blade angle is that of the 75% of the blade radius.
0.75𝑅
Blade Twist refers to this variation of pitch angle along the blade radius.
081 PRINCIPLES OF FLIGHT 081 07 PROPELLERS 081 07 01
6
Geometric Pitch is the distance that a given blade section would travel forward in
a perpendicular direction to the plane of rotation after one complete revolution, if
it were moving through the air at the blade angle (in some sense, think of it as a
screw).
GEOMTERIC PITCH
081 PRINCIPLES OF FLIGHT 081 06 LIMITATIONS 081 07 01
7
Blade Twist refers to this reduction of pitch angle from root to tip, aiming at giving
constant geometric pitch along the length of the blade.
A small blade angle is called “fine pitch”, whereas a large blade angle is called
“coarse pitch”.
Really the propeller doesn’t advance through the air at the geometric pitch, but
the distance travelled forward depends on the aircraft’s flight speed.
Effective Pitch or advance per revolution is the actual distance a propeller moves
forward in each revolution.
Propeller Slip is the difference between the Geometric and the Effective Pitch
Helix Angle (ϕ) is the angle that the actual propeller path forms with the plane of
rotation, and is defined by the airplane (forward) velocity and the propeller
rotational velocity.
081 PRINCIPLES OF FLIGHT 081 06 LIMITATIONS 081 07 01
8
SLIP
EFFECTIVE GEOMTERIC
PITCH PITCH
081 PRINCIPLES OF FLIGHT 081 06 LIMITATIONS 081 07 01
9
Angle of Attack (𝜶) is the angle between the blade chord and the relative airflow
(the same as the propeller path but with opposite direction), and is just the
difference between the pitch and the helix angle
𝜶 𝜷 𝝓
For a fixed pitch angle, the greater the helix angle the smaller the angle of attack,
or equivalently:
• For constant propeller turn speed (rpm), the higher the airplane TAS the
smaller the angle of attack.
• For constant TAS, the higher the propeller turn speed (rpm) the greater the
angle of attack.
081 PRINCIPLES OF FLIGHT 081 06 LIMITATIONS 081 07 01
10
EFFECT OF INCREASING TAS IN A FIXED PITCH PROPELLER AT CONSTANT RMP
Chord direction
VR INCREASE OF
AIRCRAFT TAS
OLD 𝛼
AIRCRAFT TAS
V +
INDUCED FLOW
OLD ϕ
VT Tangential (or rotational) velocity
081 PRINCIPLES OF FLIGHT 081 06 LIMITATIONS 081 07 01
11
EFFECT OF INCREASING RPM IN A FIXED PITCH PROPELLER AT CONSTANT TAS
Chord direction
OLD 𝛼 VR
AIRCRAFT TAS
+
V INDUCED FLOW
OLD ϕ
VT
Increase of rotational
velocity (RPM)
081 PRINCIPLES OF FLIGHT 081 06 LIMITATIONS 081 07 01
12
AERODYNAMIC FORCES ON A PROPELLER
Each section of a propeller blade is an airfoil that produces a total reaction force,
similarly as in a wing, consequence of the difference of pressure between the two
sides of the blade. The side with greater pressure is known as “pressure face” or
“thrust face”. When the thrust is forward the “thrust face” is the rear, (flat)
surface. The total reaction force can be resolved into two components:
• Thrust, is a component at right angles to the plane of rotation, this force
varies along the length of the blade and is zero at the tip (where the
difference of pressure is zero) and at the root (where velocity is zero).
• Propeller torque, is a component contained in the plane of rotation, and
produces a moment equal and opposite to that from the engine driving
the propeller. Propeller torque also produces a bending moment on the
blades, in opposite direction to the blade motion.
081 PRINCIPLES OF FLIGHT 081 07 PROPELLERS 081 07 01
13
TOTAL
REACTION
LIFT
THRUST
VR
TORQUE
DRAG
V
VT
081 PRINCIPLES OF FLIGHT 081 07 PROPELLERS 081 07 01
14
CENTRIFUGAL TWISTING MOMENT
PITCH CHANGE
AXIS
F
F
The moment about the pitch
change axis acts in the
direction of ”fine” pitch. F
F
CENTRIFUGAL FORCE
(ON LEFT HALF) CENTRIFUGAL FORCE
(ON RIGHT HALF)
081 PRINCIPLES OF FLIGHT 081 07 PROPELLERS 081 07 01
15
AERODYNAMIC TWISTING MOMENT
PITCH CHANGE
AXIS
The moment about the pitch
change axis acts in the
direction of coarse pitch.
081 PRINCIPLES OF FLIGHT 081 07 PROPELLERS 081 07 01
16
PROPELLER EFFICIENCY
The propeller efficiency (𝜼𝒑 ) is just a measure of how good the propeller is
converting mechanical output power to useful power (the product of thrust and
true airspeed of the aeroplane) and is defined as:
𝑇·𝑉
η
𝑃
The efficiency of a particular propeller depends on its geometry and number of
blades, but also depend on turn speed and flight speed. Most small aeroplanes
are fitted with fixed pitch propellers, on which the pitch angle aims at maximizing
the efficiency in cruise.
However, high performance airplane are fitted with variable pitch propellers, that
improve propeller efficiency in a wide range of flight speeds.
081 PRINCIPLES OF FLIGHT 081 07 PROPELLERS 081 07 01
17
EFFICIENCY
AIRCRAFT FORWARD SPEED
081 PRINCIPLES OF FLIGHT 081 07 PROPELLERS 081 07 01
18
THRUST
AIRCRAFT FORWARD SPEED
081 PRINCIPLES OF FLIGHT 081 07 PROPELLERS 081 07 01
19
VARIABLE PITCH PROPELLERS
ADJUSTABLE PITCH PROPELLERS
These are fixed pitch propellers on which the pitch angle is adjusted on ground by
mechanically resetting the blades in the hub.
TWO PITCH PROPELLERS
These are propellers on which the pitch angle can be changed in flight in either of
two positions:
• Fine pitch for take‐off, climb and landing, or
• Coarse pitch for cruise.
The pitch angle can usually can be selected to feathered position (upon engine
failure).
081 PRINCIPLES OF FLIGHT 081 07 PROPELLERS 081 07 01
20
(VARIABLE PITCH) CONSTANT SPEED PROPELLERS
In these propellers the pitch angle is automatically adjusted so as to maintain the
propeller turn speed (RPM) constant.
OPEN INCR RICH
THROTTLE RPM MIXTURE
LEAN
CLOSE DECR CUT‐OFF
081 PRINCIPLES OF FLIGHT 081 07 PROPELLERS 081 07 02
21
FINE PITCH (“small” blade angle)
At the start of the take‐off roll.
Low forward speed
High rotational velocity (RPM)
081 PRINCIPLES OF FLIGHT 081 07 PROPELLERS 081 07 02
22
COARSE PITCH (“large” blade angle)
High forward speed
High rotational velocity (RPM)
081 PRINCIPLES OF FLIGHT 081 07 PROPELLERS 081 07 02
23
CRUISE SETTING (moderate blade angle)
Moderate power setting
Moderate rotational velocity (RPM)
081 PRINCIPLES OF FLIGHT 081 07 PROPELLERS 081 07 02
24
STEADY DESCENT (“small” blade angle)
Low power setting
Moderate rotational velocity (RPM)
081 PRINCIPLES OF FLIGHT 081 07 PROPELLERS 081 07 02
25
WINDMILLING (negative angle of attack)
Idle power
Low/moderate rotational velocity (RPM)
081 PRINCIPLES OF FLIGHT 081 07 PROPELLERS 081 07 02
26
FEATHERING (after engine failure)
Blades turned about their axis until
achieving zero lift angle of attack
(zero lift direction is aligned with
the relative flow (or flight direction).
Blade angle is close to 90°
081 PRINCIPLES OF FLIGHT 081 07 PROPELLERS 081 07 02
27
REVERSE OPERATION (on ground to reduce ground roll in landing)
Blades are turned until achieving some negative pitch angle, so not only the thrust
is negative, but also the torque opposes the blade motion, so that engine power is
required.
081 PRINCIPLES OF FLIGHT 081 07 PROPELLERS 081 07 02
28
POWER ABSORPTION
The propeller must be able to absorb all the shaft power delivered by the engine,
and do it as efficiently as possible within the required performance envelope of
the airplane.
Tip velocity must be prevented from approaching the local speed of sound, since
compressibility effects would decrease the thrust and increase rotational drag. If
the tip reached supersonic speeds, the efficiency would dramatically decrease and
the generated noise would greatly increase.
And this sets a limit on propeller diameter, RPM’s, and the TAS at which it can be
used.
081 PRINCIPLES OF FLIGHT 081 07 PROPELLERS 081 07 03
29
SOLIDITY
Propeller solidity is defined as the ratio of the frontal area of the blades to the
area of the propeller disc. For a given disc area, by increasing the propeller solidity
the power absorption is increased.
PROPELLER DISC
Propeller solidity increases by:
• Increasing the blade chord. But
the consequent reduction of
blade aspect ratio will reduce the
propeller efficiency.
• Increasing the number of blades.
Too much blades (above 5 or 6)
will reduce overall efficiency.
081 PRINCIPLES OF FLIGHT 081 07 PROPELLERS 081 07 03
30
MOMENTS AND FORCES GENERATED
As a consequence of its rotation, a propeller generates rolling, pitching and yawing
moments, due to several causes:
• Torque reaction.
• Gyroscopic precession.
• Spiral (asymmetric) slipstream effect.
• Asymmetric blade effect.
In most modern propeller driven airplanes propellers turn clockwise when viewed
from the rear, and are called “right‐hand” propellers.
081 PRINCIPLES OF FLIGHT 081 07 PROPELLERS 081 07 04
31
TORQUE REACTION
PROPELLER ROTATION TORQUE
081 PRINCIPLES OF FLIGHT 081 07 PROPELLERS 081 07 04
32
GYROSCOPIC EFFECT
A turning propeller works as a gyroscope, so that tends to maintain its turning
axis, what is known as gyroscopic rigidity.
The gyroscope opposes any attempt to change the direction of the turning axis,
what is known as gyroscopic precession.
Gyroscopic effect only occurs when the aircraft pitches and/or yaws:
• A pitch down force on the top of the propeller, produces a yawing
moment to the left.
• A left yaw force on the right, produces a nose‐up pitching moment.
• A right yaw force on the left, produces a nose‐down pitching moment.
Gyroscopic effect will be cancelled in contra‐rotating propellers.
081 PRINCIPLES OF FLIGHT 081 07 PROPELLERS 081 07 04
33
SPIRAL SLIPSTREAM EFFECT
Spiral slipstream effect refers to the swirl induced by the propeller rotation that
induces a side angle of attack on the vertical stabilizer from the left, and produces
a side lift force to the right.
As a consequence of the right force, a yawing moment to the left arises.
081 PRINCIPLES OF FLIGHT 081 07 PROPELLERS 081 07 04
34
ASYMMETRIC BLADE EFFECT
This effect occurs when the propeller disc is inclined with respect to relative free
stream (flight path). The propeller thrust on the right half (seen from the rear) of
the disc is greater than on the left half, producing a yawing moment to the left.
Propeller
seen from The effective point of application of
forward thrust is to the right of the turn axis
Asymmetric blade effect is greatest at full throttle and low airspeed (high angle of
attack)
081 PRINCIPLES OF FLIGHT 081 07 PROPELLERS 081 07 04
35
CRITICAL ENGINE (PROPELLER DRIVEN AIRPLANES)
The asymmetry of the point of application arises from the relative flow that of
the
Wing
Up flow
Because the up flow in front of wing, the relative flow on the down going blade
will increase the thrust produced by this blade, and the opposite occurs on the
up going blade.
081 PRINCIPLES OF FLIGHT 081 07 PROPELLERS 081 07 04
36
𝑑 𝑑
𝑑 𝑑
081 PRINCIPLES OF FLIGHT 081 07 PROPELLERS 081 07 04
37
𝑑
Inoperative left engine T 𝑑 𝑑
CG
Yawing moment: N d rightT
081 PRINCIPLES OF FLIGHT 081 07 PROPELLERS 081 07 04