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Understanding Structuralism in Literature

Structuralism originated from the linguistic theories of Ferdinand de Saussure and was an influential philosophical movement in mid-20th century France. It focused on underlying patterns or "structures" that exist independently of individual experiences. Claude Lévi-Strauss applied structuralism to anthropology and demonstrated how kinship systems are variations on basic structures. Structuralism was then applied to literary theory by arguing that texts have an underlying grammatical structure that can be analyzed, though some argue this risks oversimplifying works. Structuralism declined in popularity as post-structuralism and deconstruction emphasized ambiguity over rigid structures.

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787 views3 pages

Understanding Structuralism in Literature

Structuralism originated from the linguistic theories of Ferdinand de Saussure and was an influential philosophical movement in mid-20th century France. It focused on underlying patterns or "structures" that exist independently of individual experiences. Claude Lévi-Strauss applied structuralism to anthropology and demonstrated how kinship systems are variations on basic structures. Structuralism was then applied to literary theory by arguing that texts have an underlying grammatical structure that can be analyzed, though some argue this risks oversimplifying works. Structuralism declined in popularity as post-structuralism and deconstruction emphasized ambiguity over rigid structures.

Uploaded by

Naveed Akhter
Copyright
© All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Download as DOC, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
  • Structuralism

Structuralism

The term "structuralism" is a belated term that describes a particular


philosophical/literary movement or moment. The term appeared in the works of French
anthropologist Claude Lévi-Strauss and gave rise, in France, to the "structuralist
movement." Influencing the thinking of writers such as Louis Althusser, the
psychoanalyst Jacques Lacan, as well as the structural Marxism of Nicos Poulantzas,
most of whom disavowed themselves as being a part of this movement.

The origins of structuralism connect with the work of Ferdinand de Saussure on


linguistics, along with the linguistics of the Prague and Moscow schools. In brief, de
Saussure's structural linguistics propounded three related concepts. [1]

1. De Saussure argued for a distinction between langue (an idealized abstraction of


language) and parole (language as actually used in daily life). He argued that the
"sign" was composed of both a signified, an abstract concept or idea, and a
"signifier", the perceived sound/visual image.
2. Because different languages have different words to describe the same objects
or concepts, there is no intrinsic reason why a specific sign is used to express a
given signifier. It is thus "arbitrary".
3. Signs thus gain their meaning from their relationships and contrasts with other
signs. As he wrote, "in language, there are only differences 'without positive
terms.'"[4]

Structuralism in literary theory and criticism

In literary theory, structuralist criticism relates literary texts to a larger structure, which
may be a particular genre, a range of intertextual connections, a model of a universal
narrative structure, or a system of recurrent patterns or motifs.[12] Structuralism argues
that there must be a structure in every text, which explains why it is easier for
experienced readers than for non-experienced readers to interpret a text. Hence,
everything that is written seems to be governed by specific rules, or a "grammar of
literature", that one learns in educational institutions and that are to be unmasked. [13]

A potential problem of structuralist interpretation is that it can be highly reductive, as


scholar Catherine Belsey puts it: "the structuralist danger of collapsing all difference." [14]
An example of such a reading might be if a student concludes the authors of West Side
Story did not write anything "really" new, because their work has the same structure as
Shakespeare's Romeo and Juliet. In both texts a girl and a boy fall in love (a "formula"
with a symbolic operator between them would be "Boy + Girl") despite the fact that they
belong to two groups that hate each other ("Boy's Group - Girl's Group" or "Opposing
forces") (BINARY OPPOSITION))and conflict is resolved by their death.

Structuralist readings focus on how the structures of the single text resolve inherent
narrative tensions. If a structuralist reading focuses on multiple texts, there must be
some way in which those texts unify themselves into a coherent system. The versatility
of structuralism is such that a literary critic could make the same claim about a story of

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two friendly families ("Boy's Family + Girl's Family") that arrange a marriage between
their children despite the fact that the children hate each other ("Boy - Girl") and then
the children commit suicide to escape the arranged marriage; the justification is that the
second story's structure is an 'inversion' of the first story's structure: the relationship
between the values of love and the two pairs of parties involved have been reversed.

Structuralistic literary criticism argues that the "literary banter of a text" can lie only in
new structure, rather than in the specifics of character development and voice in which
that structure is expressed. Literary structuralism often follows the lead of Vladimir
Propp, Algirdas Julien Greimas, and Claude Lévi-Strauss in seeking out basic deep
elements in stories, myths, and more recently, anecdotes, which are combined in
various ways to produce the many versions of the ur-story or ur-myth.

History and background

Throughout the 1940s and 1950s, existentialism, such as that propounded by Jean-Paul
Sartre, was the dominant European intellectual movement. But Structuralism rose to
prominence in France in the wake of existentialism, particularly in the 1960s. The initial
popularity of structuralism in France led to its spread across the globe.

Structuralism rejected the concept of human freedom and choice and focused instead
on the way that human experience and thus, behavior, is determined by various
structures. The most important initial work on this score was Claude Lévi-Strauss's 1949
volume The Elementary Structures of Kinship. Lévi-Strauss had known Jakobson during
their time together at the New School in New York during WWII and was influenced by
both Jakobson's structuralism as well as the American anthropological tradition. In
Elementary Structures he examined kinship systems from a structural point of view and
demonstrated how apparently different social organizations were in fact different
permutations of a few basic kinship structures. In the late 1950s he published Structural
Anthropology, a collection of essays outlining his program for structuralism.

By the early 1960s structuralism as a movement was coming into its own and some
believed that it offered a single unified approach to human life that would embrace all
disciplines. Roland Barthes and Jacques Derrida focused on how structuralism could be
applied to literature.[citation needed][dubious – discuss]

The so-called "Gang of Four" of structuralism was Lévi-Strauss, Lacan, Barthes, and
Foucault.[15]

Interpretations and general criticisms

Structuralism is less popular today than other approaches, such as post-structuralism


and deconstruction. Structuralism has often been criticized for being ahistorical and for
favoring deterministic structural forces over the ability of people to act. In the 1980s,
deconstruction—and its emphasis on the fundamental ambiguity of language rather
than its crystalline logical structure—became popular. By the end of the century
structuralism was seen as an historically important school of thought, but the
movements that it spawned, rather than structuralism itself, commanded attention.

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Common questions

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Structuralism profoundly impacted subsequent movements like post-structuralism and deconstruction by providing a foundation to react against. While structuralism focused on stable structures underlying human experience, post-structuralism and deconstruction emphasized the fluidity and ambiguity of meaning. These newer movements critiqued structuralism's perceived rigidity and deterministic nature, instead highlighting the instability of language and the multiplicity of interpretations. This shift facilitated a broader intellectual movement towards exploring contextual meanings and subjective realities in philosophy and literary criticism .

Structuralism views human behavior as determined by underlying structures which are seen as stable and definitive. In contrast, post-structuralism focuses on the ambiguity and fluidity of language, emphasizing that meanings are not fixed but rather constantly shifting through interpretations. This significant shift to appreciating linguistic nuances undermined the deterministic assumptions of structuralist thought, leading to criticisms that structuralism overlooks individual agency and historicity .

Saussure's theory of structural linguistics centers on three core principles: the distinction between langue (an abstract system of language) and parole (language in use), the arbitrariness of the sign (the relationship between signifier and signified), and the idea that language is a system of differences without positive terms. These principles underpin structuralism in literary criticism by suggesting that texts can be understood through their structures and patterns rather than individual elements. This approach leads to interpreting texts based on recurring motifs, genres, and narrative structures, asserting that meaning arises from relationships and contrasts within the system .

Binary oppositions in literary texts exemplify the structuralist approach by highlighting how narratives are constructed from pairs of opposites (e.g., love/hate, good/evil). This method aids in revealing the underlying structure of a story and its thematic concerns. However, the limitation lies in its reductive nature; it can oversimplify complex narratives and ignore the nuances of character development and voice. By focusing solely on these oppositions, structuralism risks 'collapsing all difference,' reducing varied texts to formulaic expressions .

Structuralism has been criticized for being ahistorical due to its focus on universal structures that ignore historical contexts and the dynamic nature of cultural practices. This criticism impacts its relevance in contemporary thought as contemporary studies often emphasize context, change over time, and individual agency. The lack of historical consideration has pushed structuralism out of the mainstream in favor of approaches like post-structuralism and deconstruction, which account for variation and temporal dynamics .

Claude Lévi-Strauss influenced the structuralist movement by applying structural methods to the study of kinship systems. His major contribution lay in demonstrating that different social organizations could be viewed as permutations of a few basic kinship structures. This was articulated in his 1949 volume, 'The Elementary Structures of Kinship,' and further essays in 'Structural Anthropology,' illustrating how structuralism could reinterpret traditional anthropological data .

Structuralist criticism approaches the interpretation of multiple texts by identifying underlying structures or themes that unify them into a coherent system. This involves comparing stories to identify shared narrative patterns or motifs and understanding how these elements resolve narrative tensions within each text. Such analysis often relies on creating models or schemas, underlining that structural elements unify different works despite variations in specific content or execution .

Structuralism differed from existentialism in its focus on underlying structures that determine human experience, contrasting with existentialism's emphasis on individual freedom and choice. Structuralism's deterministic view appealed to those seeking a unified approach to understanding human life, which contributed to its initial popularity in France after existentialism's dominance waned. The inclination towards finding a systematic and objective method for analyzing human behavior was particularly influential in attracting intellectuals in the 1960s .

Roland Barthes extended the structuralist framework by exploring how it could apply to literature and linguistic signs, though he later moved toward post-structuralism by questioning the fixed nature of meaning and highlighting reader interpretation. Jacques Derrida challenged structuralism by introducing deconstruction, emphasizing the inherent instability and contradictions in texts, undermining the structuralist idea of stable meanings derived from fixed oppositions. Both thinkers were instrumental in the transition from structuralism to post-structuralism, highlighting the dynamic nature of interpretation .

The potential problem of reductiveness in structuralist interpretation is illustrated by comparing West Side Story to Romeo and Juliet. Structuralism might focus on their shared narrative framework—tragic love between individuals from opposing groups—thus concluding the newer work offers nothing original. This narrow focus on structural elements can overlook unique thematic explorations or cultural context of each version. The critique highlights structuralism's risk of ignoring the depth created by character development and specific contextual nuances, simplifying complex stories to basic formulaic structures .

Structuralism The term "structuralism" is a belated term that describes a particular philosophical/literary movement or mome
two friendly families ("Boy's Family + Girl's Family") that arrange a marriage between their children despite the fact that
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