ELECTRIC VEHICLES

Report

Industrial Training

Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for

the award of the degree of

Bachelor of Technology
in
Electrical Engineering

by

JAYESH CHHAWACHHARIA (University Roll No.: 20ESKEE046)

Academic Session: 2021-2022

 Department of Electrical Engineering

Swami Keshvanand Institute of Technology,

Management & Gramothan, Jaipur

Certificate

I hereby certify that the dissertation work entitled

“NANOTECHNOLOGY” is the work done by Mr. Jayesh
Chhawachharia is submitted in partial fulfillment for the award
of Degree of “BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY” in Electrical
Engineering and submitted in the DEPARTMENT OF
ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING of the Swami Keshvanand
Institute of Technology, Management & Gramothan, Jaipur is
an authentic work under my supervision.
 Dr. Dhanraj Chitara
(H.O.D EE
Department)

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The satisfaction and euphoria that accompany the successful

completion of any work will be incomplete unless we mention the
names of those people who made it possible, whose valuable
guidance and encouragement served as a beacon light and
crowned the efforts with success.

Much appreciation is due to Dr. Dhanraj Chitara (H.O.D EE

Department) SKIT Jaipur for providing me the moral support to
go ahead with my presentation.

I express my sincere gratitude to all faculty members of the

Department of Electrical Engineering, SKIT Jaipur to spare their
valuable time from their busy schedule and extend their valuable
guidance, Expertise and Vision to guide me through the
preparation of this presentation.

I sincerely acknowledge them for their technical insights, support

for literature, critical review and constructive criticism and above
all the moral support they provided me at all the stages of this
endeavor, without which I would not have been able to prepare
this presentation.

I wish to thank my friends who gave their precious guidelines for

my presentation. Their advice, suggestions and questions will
continue to enhance my knowledge and understanding. Once
again I thank my friends who have directly or indirectly
contributed by giving their valuable suggestions.
JAYESH CHHAWACHHARIA

A Review on Electric Vehicles: Technologies and Challenges

Abstract: Electric Vehicles (EVs) are gaining momentum due to several

factors, including the price reduction as well as the climate and
environmental awareness. This paper reviews the advances of EVs
regarding battery technology trends, charging methods, as well as new
research challenges and open opportunities. More specifically, an
analysis of the worldwide market situation of EVs and their future
prospects is carried out. Given that one of the fundamental aspects in
EVs is the battery, the paper presents a thorough review of the battery
technologies—from the Lead-acid batteries to the Lithium-ion.
Moreover, we review the different standards that are available for EVs
charging process, as well as the power control and battery energy
management proposals. Finally, we conclude our work by presenting
our vision about what is expected in the near future within this field, as
well as the research aspects that are still open for both industry and
academic communities
1. Introduction The automotive industry has become one of the
most important world-wide industries, not only at economic level,
but also in terms of research and development. Increasingly, there
are more technological elements that are being introduced on the
vehicles towards the improvement of both passengers and
pedestrians’ safety. In addition, there is a greater number of
vehicles on the roads, which allows for us to move quickly and
comfortably. However, this has led to a dramatic increase in air
pollution levels in urban environments (i.e., pollutants, such as
PM, nitrogen oxides (NOX), CO, sulfur dioxide (SO2), etc.). In
addition, and according to a report by the European Union, the
transport sector is responsible for nearly 28% of the total carbon
dioxide (CO2) emissions, while the road transport is accountable
for over 70% of the transport sector emissions [1]. Therefore, the
authorities of most developed countries are encouraging the use
of Electric Vehicles (EVs) to avoid the concentration of air
pollutants, CO2, as well as other greenhouse gases. More
specifically, they promote sustainable and efficient mobility
through different initiatives, mainly through tax incentives,
purchase aids, or other special measures, such as free public
parking or the free use of motorways. EVs offer the following
advantages over traditional vehicles: • Zero emissions: this type of
vehicles neither emit tailpipe pollutants, CO2, nor nitrogen
dioxide (NO2). Also, the manufacture processes tend to be more
respectful with the environment, although battery manufacturing
adversely affects carbon footprint. • Simplicity: the number of
Electric Vehicle (EV) engine elements is smaller, which leads to a
much cheaper maintenance. The engines are simpler and more
compact, they do not need a cooling circuit, and neither is
 necessary for incorporating gearshift, clutch, or elements that
reduce the engine noise.
2. • Reliability: having less, and more simple, components makes
this type of vehicles have fewer breakdowns. In addition, EVs do
not suffer of the inherent wear and tear produced by engine
explosions, vibrations, or fuel corrosion. • Cost: the maintenance
cost of the vehicle and the cost of the electricity required is much
lower in comparison to maintenance and fuel costs of traditional
combustion vehicles. The energy cost per kilometer is significantly
lower in EVs than in traditional vehicles, as shown in Figure 1. •
Comfort: traveling in EVs is more comfortable, due to the absence
of vibrations or engine noise [2]. • Efficiency: EVs are more
efficient than traditional vehicles. However, the overall well to
wheel (WTW) efficiency will also depend on the power plant
efficiency. For instance, total WTW efficiency of gasoline vehicles
ranges from 11% to 27%, whereas diesel vehicles range from 25%
to 37% [3]. By contrast, EVs fed by a natural gas power plant show
a WTW efficiency that ranges from 13% to 31%, whereas EVs fed
by renewable energy show an overall efficiency up to 70%. •
Accessibility: this type of vehicle allows for access to urban areas
that are not allowed to other combustion vehicles (e.g., low
emissions zones). EVs do not suffer from the same traffic
restrictions in large cities, especially at high peaks of
contamination level. Interestingly, there was a recent OECD study
that suggests that, at least in terms of Particulate Matter (PM)
emissions, EVs will unfortunately not improve the air quality
situation [4].
2. Existing EV-Related Surveys
In the last decade, there has been a significant progress in several
aspects that are related to the production of electric vehicles, and the
use of new technologies as well as their sales. Similarly, the research
efforts have also increased, which has caused a significant increase of
new jobs and proposals that are related to electric vehicles. Within
this section, a short compilation of the most relevant topics related to
EVs, which have been addressed by previously available works in the
literature, are introduced. In addition, the more notable differences
with this survey are highlighted.
Some of the studies published to date deal with general aspects, such
as the evolution of electrical vehicles throughout history, give diverse
classifications according to the manner in which they have been
designed and the characteristics of their engines, or analyze their
impact on the electrical infrastructure. For instance, Yong et al. [9]
review the history of EVs from their creation, in the middle of the
nineteenth century, until present. Additionally, they carry out a
classification of the vehicles according to their powertrain settings.
Finally, their work analyzes the impact of charging electric vehicles on
the electric grid. Likewise, Richardson [10] studies the effects that EVs
can produce in the required productivity, efficiency, and capacity of
the electric grid. Furthermore, he reviews the economical and
environmental impact of electric vehicles. Habib et al. [11] present a
review of charging methods for electric vehicles and analyze their
impact in the power distribution systems. Additionally, the authors
carry out an analysis of coordinated and non-coordinated charging
methods, delayed loading, and intelligent planning of charges. Finally,
they study the economic benefits of the vehicle-to-grid (V2G)
technology according to the charging methods.
Another aspect also dealt with in diverse works has been the use of
renewable energy sources (i.e., wind power, solar, and biomass) and
their incorporation in the electric vehicles field. Liu et al. [12] present a
general vision about electric vehicles and renewable energy sources.
They specifically focus on solar and wind power, and present a set of
works that are classified into three categories: (i) those works which
study the interaction between EVs and the renewable energy sources
for reducing the energy cost, (ii) those works focused on improving the
energy efficiency, and (iii) the proposals that are mainly seeking to
reduce emissions. On the other hand, Hawkins et al. [13] analyze the
existing studies about the environmental impact of the Hybrid Electric
Vehicles (HEVs) and the Battery Electric Vehicles (BEVs). For that
purpose, they present a study of 51 environmental evaluations during
the life span of the two kinds of vehicles (i.e., BEVs and HEVs). In their
work, the authors take aspects, such as greenhouse gas emissions, the
production, transmission, and distribution of electricity, as well as the
production of vehicles, batteries, and their life span, into account.
Vasant et al. [14] analyze the daily usage of PHEVs, and state that the
appropriate deployment of daytime charging stations along with
suitable charging control and management of this infrastructure can
lead to a wider deployment of PHEVs.
Unlike the previous works, Shuai et al. [15] provide a general vision of
the new economic model that is present in electric vehicles, bearing in
mind the unidirectional and bidirectional flows of energy (in which the
EVs themselves are capable of providing energy to the electric grid). To
do this, they analyze different charging facilities for EVs, as well as
different methods for unidirectional charging and bidirectional energy
commercialization. Finally, they study the use of these vehicles as a
feasible storage for the energy that is generated from renewable
sources.
Other authors have focused on the different strategies that have been
proposed for charging EVs. Tan et al. [16] revise the benefits and
challenges of vehicle technology to the grid (V2G), in both the
unidirectional and bidirectional charging. Besides advantages, they
analyze the challenges, such as the battery deterioration and the high
investment cost. Lastly, they complete a compilation of strategies for
optimizing V2G, by grouping them according to the technique
employed (e.g., genetic algorithms (GAs) and Particle Swarm
Optimization (PSO)), as well as according to the objectives: (i)
operation costs, (ii) carbon dioxide emissions, (iii) profit, (iv) support
for renewable energy generation, (v) load curve, and (vi) power loss.
Similar to the previous work, Hu et al. [17] present a revision and
classification of methods for the intelligent charging of electric
vehicles, but, in this case, focused on the fleet operators. In particular,
they present works regarding battery modeling, charging and
communications standards, as well as driving patterns. Lastly, they
showcase a set of different control strategies to manage EV fleets, as
well as mathematical algorithms for its modeling. Rahman et al. [18],
present a set of employed methods for solving different problems that
are related with the charging infrastructure of PHEVs and BEVs.
Additionally, they assess the different charging systems in different
environments, such as domestic garages, apartment complexes, and
shopping centers.
Because the massive EV deployment will introduce negative impacts
on the existing power grid, some works review the different issues and
the potential opportunities that EV integration in the smart grid can
bring. Yong et al. [9] study the impact of EV deployment from the
perspective of vehicle-to-grid technology, and especially for mitigating
the renewable energies intermittency. Mahmud et al. [19] discuss all of
the aspects related to EV charging, energy transfer, and grid integration
with distributed energy resources in the Internet of Energy (IoE). More
recently, Das et al. [20] present an evaluation on how future connected
EVs and autonomous driving would affect EV charging and grid
integration.
Other important EV charging issues are those that are related to
battery management, as well as battery health and lifetime
estimations, since they are key factors in increasing the battery
lifetime. Li et al. [21] review recent advancements in Big Data analytics
to allow for data-driven battery health estimation. More specifically,
they classify them in terms of feasibility and cost-effectiveness, and
discuss their advantages and limitations. Liu et al. [22] go one step
further and propose a machine learning-enabled system that is based
on Gaussian process regression (GPR) to predict lithium-ion batteries
aging. Finally, other approaches instead explore advanced fault
diagnosis techniques, since battery faults can potentially cause
performance degradation [23].
As previously shown, in general, most of the studies that deal with
EVs have focused on: (i) the impact of EV charging in the electric
 demand, (ii) the use of renewable energy sources in the charging
process, and (iii) the proposal of new methods for optimizing the
charge of electric vehicles, including grid solutions. However, in this
paper, we present the current situation of the market of electric
vehicles, the main characteristics of the batteries, their technologies,
and charging processes.
In particular, besides carrying out a comparison between the different
standards, we display the different charging methods that are defined
by these standards, and the connectors used by each of them. Finally,
we also discuss the challenges that EVs have to face, and the research
lines that we consider are left to explore yet.
3. Electric Vehicles
In this section, we present a classification of the different types of
electric vehicles, commenting on their main characteristics. We also
discuss the current market situation, analyzing the sales data of this
kind of vehicles and sales forecast in different countries in the world.
3.1. Electric VEHICLES Taxonomy
Nowadays, we can encounter different types of EVs, according to their
engines technology. In general, they are sorted in five types (See
Figure 3):
• Battery Electric Vehicles (BEVs): vehicles 100% are propelled by
electric power. BEVs do not have an internal combustion engine and
they do not use any kind of liquid fuel. BEVs normally use large packs
of batteries in order to give the vehicle an acceptable autonomy. A
typical BEV will reach from 160 to 250 km, although some of them can
travel as far as 500 km with just one charge. An example of this type of
vehicle is the Nissan Leaf [24], which is 100% electric and it currently
provides a 62 kWh battery that allows users to have an autonomy of
360 km.
• Plug-In Hybrid Electric Vehicles (PHEVs): hybrid vehicles are propelled
by a conventional combustible engine and an electric engine charged
by a pluggable external electric source. PHEVs can store enough
electricity from the grid to significantly reduce their fuel consumption
in regular driving conditions. The Mitsubishi Outlander PHEV [25]
provides a 12 kWh battery, which allows it to drive around 50 km just
with the electric engine. However, it is also noteworthy that PHEVs
fuel consumption is higher than indicated by car manufacturers [26].
• Hybrid Electric Vehicles (HEVs): hybrid vehicles are propelled by a
combination of a conventional internal combustion engine and an
electric engine. The difference with regard to PHEVs is that HEVs
cannot be plugged to the grid. In fact, the battery that provides energy
to the electric engine is charged thanks to the power generated by the
vehicle’s combustion engine. In modern models, the batteries can also
be charged thanks to the energy generated during braking, turning the
kinetic energy into electric energy. The Toyota Prius, in its hybrid
model (4th generation), provided a 1.3 kWh battery that theoretically
allowed it an autonomy as far as 25 km in its all-electric mode [27].
• Fuel Cell Electric Vehicles (FCEVs): these vehicles are provided with an
electric engine that uses a mix of compressed hydrogen and oxygen
obtained from the air, having water as the only waste resulting from
this process. Although these kinds of vehicles are considered to
present “zero emissions”, it is worth highlighting that, although there
is green hydrogen, most of the used hydrogen is extracted from
natural gas. The Hyundai Nexo FCEV [28] is an example of this type of
vehicles, being able to travel 650 km without refueling.
• Extended-range EVs (ER-EVs): these vehicles are very similar to those
ones in the BEV category. However, the ER-EVs are also provided with
a supplementary combustion engine, which charges the batteries of
the vehicle if needed. This type of engine, unlike those provided by
PHEVs and HEVs, is only used for charging, so that it is not connected
to the wheels of the vehicle. An example of this type of vehicles is the
BMW i3 [29], which has a 42.2 kWh battery that results in a 260 km
autonomy in electric mode, and users can benefit an additional 130
km from the extended-range mode.

Figure 3. Electric vehicles classification according to their engine

technologies and settings.
3.2. Subsidies and Market Position
Despite the fact that the purchase price of electric vehicles is higher,
when considering the internal combustion engine edition of the same
vehicle model, the EV sales volume has experienced a significant
growth, especially in the last years [30]. Additionally, many countries
are preparing the mobility transition, discouraging the use of fossil fuel
based cars, and stimulating electric mobility. Evidence of this is the
fact that, after the Paris Agreement [31], there has been an increase of
the public aids to this kind of vehicles.
In fact, practically all of the governments of the developed countries
are continuously applying new support and fostering policies for the
use of electric vehicles in order to promote sustainable and
environment-friendly mobility.
Based on the report from [32–34], for instance, Belgium offers 4000 e
of purchase aid, and these types of vehicles pay a road tax of only 74
e, instead of the 1900 e that traditional vehicles pay. In France, the
users who purchase an EV receive a bonus of between 4000 e and
6000 e in the case of BEVs, and of 3500 e in the case of purchasing an
PHEV. A discount between 50% and 100% is also offered in the
registration fee. In the United Kingdom, an incentive of a maximum of
£4500 will be offered with the purchase of an EV and, if its worth is
less than £40,000, the vehicle is exempted of circulation taxes. In
Germany, buyers receive a bonus of 4000 e to purchase a BEV, and of
3000 e in the case of PHEVs. Additionally, BEVs do not pay property
taxes, while PHEVs have a reduction of 50%. In the case of Spain, an
aid of between 1300 e and 5500 e is offered to purchase BEVs and
HEVs, according to their autonomy. In Norway, the property tax for
BEVs and PHEVs is of 47 e, while, for petrol-driven cars, such tax varies
from 290 e to 340 e. In addition, BEVs do not pay circulation fees or
tolls, and they do not pay for parking in the preferred parking areas.
Finally, in the USA, the federal government provides $2500 for
purchasing electric vehicles and an additional $417 for every kWh of
their batteries from 4 kWh, to a maximum of $7500.
All of these subsidies and policies (e.g., car purchasing tax
exemption, VAT exemption, reduced license tax, tolls exemption, and
free parking) are causing a noteworthy increase of the number of sales
every year (especially in the last two years), as can be appreciated in
Figure 4 and Table 1. As we can observe, China and USA are, by far, the
countries that have the most EV sales, although Norway stands out as
the country in the world, in which EVs have a higher market share as
almost three out of four vehicles sold in 2020 are electric.

Table 1. Electric Vehicle (EV) market share of total new car sales
between 2013 and 2020 [35–41].
Figure 4. Evolution of the number of electric vehicle sales worldwide
[35–41].
According to [42–48], these numbers are expected to keep increasing
within the next years, since several countries have expressed their
desire to ban internal combustion engine vehicles in the near future.
An example of this is Norway, which has announced that all the cars
and vans sold in 2025 should be zero-emissions. For their part, India,
Israel, and The Netherlands have announced that all of the vehicles
sold in 2030 will be electric. Germany and United Kingdom delay this
date to 2040, the same year in which combustion vehicles will also be
banned in the state of California. In a more restrictive way, in Germany
they are considering banning the circulation of diesel vehicles in the
cities, and Paris has announced that they will forbid diesel vehicles to
circulate in the city from 2024 and those of internal combustion from
 2030. Rome will ban the circulation of diesel vehicles from 2024,
whereas Madrid, Athens, and Mexico city will do it from 2025.
However, besides the positive data of sales registered worldwide, it is
also noteworthy that 95% of the electric vehicles were sold in only 10
countries (i.e., China, USA, Japan, Canada, Norway, United Kingdom,
France, Germany, The Netherlands, and Sweden).
Finally, it should also be emphasized that there are currently several
models of BEVs and PHEVs for sale. Regarding the most sold models,
the Tesla Model 3 (BEV), Toyota Prius Prime (PHEV), Chevrolet Volt,
Nissan Leaf (BEV), Tesla model S (BEV), Ford Fusion Energi (PHEV), and
BMW i3 (BEV) stand out [30,49].
4. Batteries
In this section, interesting facts that are related to batteries are
presented, such as the worldwide production increase, cost reduction,
main characteristics, as well as the different existent technologies in
the manufacturing process. In the last years, there have been great
advancements in the development of batteries. In addition, the
worldwide production of batteries for EVs has increased 66% [50],
which is undoubtedly directly related to the rise of number of sales of
the vehicles, with the forecast predicting the demand of batteries
keeps growing. In fact, it is predicted that the offer and the demand of
EVs will be even bigger in the coming years.
4.1. Characteristics of the Batteries
Concerning the main characteristics of batteries, we can highlight the
following:
• Capacity. The storage difficulty and cost is one of the main problems of
electric power. Currently, this results in the allocation of great
 amounts of money in the development of new batteries with higher
efficiency and reliability, thus improving batteries’ storage capacity.
The battery capacity represents the maximum amount of energy that
can be extracted from the battery under certain specified conditions.
This unit can be expressed in ampere hour (Ah) or in watt hour (Wh),
although the latter one is more commonly used by electric vehicles.
When considering that, in EVs, the capacity of their batteries is a
critical aspect, since it has a direct impact in the vehicles’ autonomy,
the emergence of new technologies that enables the storage of a
greater energy quantity in the shortest possible time will be a decisive
factor in the success of this kind of vehicles. Table 2 shows data that
are related to the battery capacities of EVs. As shown, the capacity of
batteries is continuously growing and vehicles with more that 100 kWh
batteries are expected very soon.
• Charge state. Refers to the battery level with regard to its 100%
capacity.
• Energy Density. Obtaining the highest energy density possible is
another important aspect in the development of batteries, in other
words, that with equal size and weight a battery is able to accumulate
a higher energy quantity. The energy density of batteries is measured
as the energy that a battery is able to supply per unit volume (Wh/L).
• Specific energy. The energy that a battery is able to provide per unit
mass (Wh/kg). Some authors also refer to this feature as energy
density, and it can be specified in Wh/L or Wh/kg.
• Specific power. The power that a battery can supply per unit of weight
(W/kg).
• Charge cycles. A load cycle is completed when the battery has been
used or loaded 100%.
• Lifespan. Another aspect to consider is the batteries lifespan, which is
measured in the number of charging cycles that a battery can hold.
 The goal is to obtain batteries that can endure a greater number of
loading and unloading cycles.
• Internal resistance. The components of the batteries are not 100%
perfect conductors, which means that they offer a certain resistance to
the transmission of electricity. During the charging process, some
energy is dispelled in the form of heat (namely, thermal loss). The
generated heat per unit of time is equal to the lost power in the
resistance, so the internal resistance will have a greater impact in high
power charges [51]. Thus, more energy will be lost during quick
charging processes when compared to slow ones.
Therefore, it is highly important that batteries can support quick
charging and higher temperatures induced due to the internal
resistance. In addition, the decrease of this resistance can reduce the
charging time that is required, which is one of the most important
drawbacks of this type of vehicles today.
• Efficacy. It is the percentage of power that is offered by the battery in
relation to the energy charged.
Table 2. Battery capacities of different electric vehicles [35–41].
Vehicle Year Capacity
(kWh)
Audi duo 1983 8
Volkswagen Jetta citySTROMer 1985 17.3
Volkswagen Golf 1987 8
Škoda Favorit 1988 10
Fiat Panda Elettra 1990 9
General Motors EV1 1996 16.5
Tesla Roadster 2014 80
Chevrolet Spark EV 2015 19
Mercedes Clase B ED 2015 28
 Tesla Model S 2015 70, 90
BYD e6 2016 82
Chevrolet Volt 2016 18.4
Kia Soul EV 2016 27
Nissan Leaf 2016 30
Renault Zoe 2016 41
Tesla Model 3 2016 50, 75
Tesla Model X 2016 90, 100
BMW i3 2017 33
Ford Focus Electric 2017 33.5
Honda Clarity EV 2017 25.5
Table 2. Cont.
Vehicle Year Capacity
(kWh)
Jaguar I-Pace 2017 90
Nissan Leaf 2017 40
Tesla Model S 2017 75, 100
Volkswagen e-Golf 2017 35.8
Audi e-tron 2018 95
Kia Soul EV 2018 30
Nissan Leaf 2018 60
Renault ZOE 2 2018 60
Renault ZOE 2 rs 2018 100
Tesla Model 3 2018 70, 90
Mercedes-Benz EQ 2019 70
Nissan Leaf 2019 60
Volvo 40 series 2019 100
Audi e-tron 2020 95
BMW i3 2020 42
 Hyundai Kona e 2020 64
Mercedes EQC 2020 93
Mini Cooper SE 2020 32.6
Peugeot e-208 2020 50
Volkswagen ID.3 2021 77
Ford Mustang Mach-E 2021 99
Tesla Roaster 2022 200
4.2. The Cornerstones: Cost, Capacity, and Charging Time
Currently, the batteries are the main obstacle to EV wider adoption.
The development of better, cheaper, and higher capacity batteries will
extend vehicles autonomy, and the users view them as a true
alternative to the internal combustion engine vehicles.
In fact, batteries are a key component in EVs and therefore, there are
increasing manufacturers (e.g., LG, Panasonic, Samsung, Sony, and
Bosch) that invest to develop improved and cheaper batteries.
The most expensive component, in any EV, is the battery pack [52]. For
instance, lithium-ion batteries of the Nissan LEAF initially represented
a third of the cost of the whole vehicle. However, it is expected that
this cost will be progressively reduced; at the end of 2013, the battery
pack costs around $500 per kWh (up to half the price per kWh it cost
in 2009); currently, the price per kWh is of $200, and it is expected to
fall around $100 in 2025. Another fact that reinforces the battery cost
reduction trend is that Tesla Motors is building a “Gigafactory” in
order to cut down on the production costs and raise the
manufacturing of batteries. The Gigafactory is designed to produce
more lithium-ion batteries annually than the produced worldwide in
2013 [53]. The lower battery cost would have an obviously direct
impact on EV price drop, which makes them more competitive
with regard to traditional vehicles.
 Regarding the capacity, Figure 5 shows the capacity of the batteries
of different EVs from 1983, the date on which the Audi Duo was
marketed with an 8 kWh battery until 2022, the date on which Tesla
announced that will market a Tesla Roadster with a 200 kWh battery
[54].
When traveling with an EV, the key factor is the autonomy, but
another limiting factor is the time that is required for charging the
batteries. The standard power outlets provide around 3 kW power,
which would imply a 10 h load on average for charging a maximum of
30 kWh energy in a battery [55]. Even in the case of using fast charging
systems, charging a vehicle may require between 1 and 3 h. In order to
solve this problem, an alternative is the creation of Battery Exchange
Stations (BESs), which are also known as Battery Swap Stations (BSSs),
where batteries are exchanged by similar ones already charged. Israel
initially located 33 BESs [56], although Better Place (the company that
developed battery-switching services for EVs) filed for bankruptcy in
May 2013. However, this approach was extended to the city of Nanjing
in 2015 [57], a city of eight million people, which has thousands of
electric buses operating. BESs were also tested by taxi vehicles in
Tokyo in 2010 [58]. Thinking about this strategy, Tesla created a
system in their Model S, in which batteries can be exchanged in only
90 s [59]. Denmark is studying the possibility of creating a sufficient
number of BESs with the purpose of providing an infrastructure with
900 charging points and charging batteries stations that are operated
by robots [60].
Figure 5. Evolution of the battery capacity since the mid 80s until now.
Concerning the approaches that are related to battery exchange
proposed on a scientific level, Adler and Mirchandani [61] suggested
an in-line routing method for electric vehicles that allows for changing
the batteries in BEs using Markov’s random decision processes. Such a
method would reduce the waiting time more than 35%. Mak et al. [62]
proposed robust optimization models that help the process of the
battery exchange planning. The authors also analyzed the possibility of
battery standardization and technological development in the optimal
strategy for deploying the infrastructures. Yang et al. [63] presented a
dynamic operation model of BSSs in the electric market, acquiring
extra incomes when actively responding to the price fluctuation in the
electricity market. Storandt and Funke [64] approached the EVs
routing problem with the aim of finding out what destinations are
accessible from a particular location according to the current battery
 level of the vehicle and the availability of charging or exchange battery
stations.
4.3. Different Components and Battery Types
However, the increase of the number of EV models, as well as the
different types of batteries and the lack of standardization, are not
making the use of BESs a feasible process, since all of the vehicles
served by BES should use identical batteries [65]. In fact, although
lithium-ion batteries (Li-ion) are increasingly used in EVs, there exists a
great variety of batteries, among which the following stand out:
• Lead-acid batteries (Pb-PbO2). These batteries were invented in 1859
and are the oldest kind of rechargeable battery. Although this kind of
battery is very common in conventional vehicles, it has also been used
in electric vehicles. It has very low specific energy and energy density
ratios. The battery is formed by a sulfuric acid deposit and a group of
lead plates. During the initial loading process, the lead sulfate is
reduced to metal in the negative plates, while, in the positives, lead
oxide is formed (PbO2). The GM EV1 and the Toyota RAV4 EV, are
examples of vehicles that used this kind of batteries.
• Nickel-cadmium batteries (Ni-Cd). This technology was used in the 90s,
as these batteries have a greater energy density [66], but they present
high memory effect, low lifespan, and cadmium is a very expensive
and polluting element. For these reasons, nickel-cadmium batteries
are currently being substituted by nickel-metal-hydride (NiMH)
batteries.
• Nickel-metal-hydride batteries (Ni-MH). In this type of batteries, an
alloy that stores hydrogen is used for negative electrodes instead of
cadmium (Cd) [67]. Although they present a higher level of self
discharge than those of nickel-cadmium, these batteries are used by
many hybrid vehicles, such as the Toyota Prius and the second version
 of the GM EV1. The Toyota RAV4 EV, apart from having a lead-acid
version, also had another with nickel-metal-hydride.
• Zinc-bromine batteries (Zn-Br2). These kinds of batteries use a zinc-
bromine solution stored in two tanks, and in which bromide turns into
bromine in the positive electrode. This technology was used by a
prototype, called ”T-Star”, in 1993 [68].
• Sodium chloride and nickel batteries (NA-NiCl). Also being referred to
as Zebra, they are very similar to sodium sulfur batteries. Their
advantage is that they can offer up to 30% more energy in low
temperatures, although its optimum operating range is between 260
◦
C and 300 ◦C. These kinds of batteries are ideal for its use in electric
vehicles [69]. The disappeared Modec company used them in 2006.
• Sodium sulfur batteries (Na-S), which contain sodium liquid (Na) and
sulfur (S). This type of battery has a high energy density, high loading
and unloading efficiency
(89–92%), and a long life cycle. In addition, their advantage is that
these materials have a very low cost. However, they can reach
functioning temperatures of between 300 and 350 ◦C [70]. This type of
batteries is used in the Ford Ecostar, the model that was launched in
1992–1993.
• Lithium-ion batteries (Li-Ion). These batteries employ, as electrolyte, a
lithium salt that provides the necessary ions for the reversible
electrochemical reaction that takes place between the cathode and
anode. Lithium-ion batteries have the advantages of the lightness of
their components, their high loading capacity, their internal resistance,
as well as their high loading and unloading cycles. In addition, they
present a reduced memory effect.
Lithium-ion batteries must operate within a safe and reliable operation
area, which is restricted by the temperature and voltage windows.
Exceeding the restrictions of these windows will cause a quick
mitigation of the battery performance and even result in a security
hazard (e.g., catch fire or even explode), as from 150 ◦C electrolytes
start to destroy themselves [71]. This type of battery is the most used
today by the majority of EVs and PHEVs.
Table 3 and Figure 6 include a comparison of the most relevant
characteristics of the different technologies introduced. An important
aspect when comparing the different technologies is their working
temperature, since it can limit their adoption. In that regard, lead-acid
and lithium batteries are the best that put up with low temperatures,
as they can load temperatures up to −20 ◦C, although, in the case of Li-
Ion batteries, low temperatures seriously affect its capacity, causing
self-discharge [72]. In fact, this type of battery has an optimum
functioning temperature of 40 ◦C. As we can also observe, batteries
that are formed by sodium (Na-NiCl y Na-S) have higher functioning
temperatures. Regarding the specific energy and the energy density,
lead-acid (Pb-PbO2) and Nickel (Ni-Cd, Ni-MH) batteries stand out
negatively, while the more valuable batteries are, by far, the
lithiumion ones.
Table 3. Characteristics of EV batteries [35–41].
Pb- Ni-Cd Ni-MH Zn-Br2 Na-NiCl Na-S Li-Ion
PbO2
Working −20–45 0–50 0–50 20–40 300– 300– −20–
Temperature (◦C) 350 350 60
Specific Energy 30–60 60–80 60–120 75– 160 130 100–
(Wh/kg) 140 275
Energy Density 60–100 60– 100– 60–70 110– 120– 200–
(Wh/L) 150 300 120 130 735
Specific Power 75–100 120– 250– 80– 150– 150– 350–
(W/kg) 150 1000 100 200 290 3000
Cell Voltage (V) 2.1 1.35 1.35 1.79 2.58 2.08 3.6
Cycle Durability 500– 2000 500 >2000 1500– 2500– 400–
800 2000 4500 3000

Figure 6. A comparison of battery technologies in terms of their Cycle

Durability (x-axis), Energy Density (y-axis), Specific Energy (bubble
size), and Working Temperature (bubble color). Note that warm colors
represent higher working temperatures.
Concerning the specific power, lead and zinc batteries offer worse
results (up to
100 W/kg), while the kinds of batteries with the best scores are those
of Ni-MH (with a maximum of 1000 W/kg), and Li-ion, which offer up
to 3000 W/kg. As far as the cells voltage, batteries that are formed by
nickel and zinc are the ones with lower voltage, while sodium batteries
(Na-S y Na-NiCl) and Li-ion use a higher voltage. On the other hand,
with respect to the life cycles, the batteries that offer worse results are
those of Ni-MH and lead-acid. Lastly, lithium batteries are able to
support up to 3000 cycles, and those of Na-S are those that offer better
results, supporting up to 4500 cycles.
When considering all of the above parameters, current electric
vehicles rely on lithium ion technology for their batteries, as this
technology presents the best performance in almost all of the
analyzed characteristics.
5. Charging of Electric Vehicles
Besides the autonomy, another important aspect is the duration
and the characteristics of the charging process of the batteries. In order
for the EVs to definitely succeed, it will be necessary that the users can
charge their vehicles in a fast and simple way. To do so, it will be
fundamental to have an infrastructure deployment that allows such
fast and simple charge. This implies charging at homes, and the
creation of electric charging stations that provide quick charges during
long commuting. Below, the different standards or rules that are
created for electric vehicles charging technology are presented. In
particular, we detail the different charging modes that are defined in
the current standards, as well as the connectors.
When charging electric vehicles, we can find different standards,
which are determined, mainly, by the region in which they are being
used or applied. More specifically, in North America, and in the Pacific
zone, the SAE-J1772 standard for loading electric vehicles is used.
However, in China, the GB/T 20234 standard is used, whereas, in
Europe, the IEC-62196 standard was introduced. The main difference
between these three standards is that while the two former ones
classify the charging modes according to the power type (DC or AC
power), the latter one classifies such modes by the charging power
involved.
 The SAE-J1772 [73] mode is a North American standard of electric
connectors for electric vehicles created in 1996, and supported by SAE
International. This standard is common in USA and Japan, and it
establishes the following charging modes (see Table 4):
• AC Level 1. Standard electrical outlet that provides voltage in AC of
120 V offering a maximum intensity of 16 A, which serves a maximum
power of 1.9 kW.
• AC Level 2. Standard electrical outlet with 240 V AC and a maximum
intensity of 80 A, so it offers a maximum power of 19.2 kW.
• DC Level 1. External charger that by inserting a maximum voltage of
500 V DC with a maximum intensity of 80 A, it provides a maximum
power of 40 kW.
• DC Level 2. External charger that, by inserting a maximum voltage of
500 V DC with a maximum intensity of 200 A, provides a maximum
power of 100 kW.

Table 4. Charge ratings of the SAE-J1772 [73].

5.1. Charging Modes
The IEC-62196 standard [74] is an international standard created by
the International
Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) in 2001 for charging electrical
vehicles in Europe and China. The IEC-62196 establishes the general
characteristics of the charging process, as well as the way in which the
energy is supplied. This norm derives from the IEC-61851 and it
provides a first classification of the charging type according to its
nominal power and, thus, of the charging time [74,75]. Users are
provided with four modes in order to charge the vehicles (see Table 5).
• Mode 1 (Slow charging). It is defined as a domestic charging mode,
with a maximum intensity of 16 A, and it uses a standard single-phase
 or three-phase power outlet with phase(s), neutral, and protective
earth conductors. This mode is the most used in our homes.
• Mode 2 (Semi-fast charging). This mode can be used at home or in
public areas, its defined maximum intensity is of 32 A, and, similar to
the previous mode, it uses standardized power outlets with phase(s),
neutral, and protective earth conductors.
• Mode 3 (Fast charging). It provides an intensity between 32 and 250 A.
This charging mode requires the use of an EV Supply Equipment
(EVSE), a specific power supply for charging electric vehicles. This
device (i.e., the EVSE) provides communication with the vehicles,
monitors the charging process, incorporates protection systems, and
stops the energy flow when the connection to the vehicle is not
detected.
• Mode 4 (Ultra-fast charging). Published in the IEC-62196-3, it defines a
direct connection of the EV to the DC supply network with a power
intensity of up to 400 A and a maximum voltage of 1000 V, which
provides a maximum charging power up to 400 kW. These modes also
require an external charger that provides communication between the
vehicle and the charging point, as well as protection and control.

Table 5. Charge ratings of the IEC-62196 [74].

Guobiao Standards (GB) created the GB/T-20234 standard for charging
infrastructures of electric vehicles in China. Although China initially
adopted the European standard IEC-62196, the use of their own
standard, such as the GB/T-20234, is being promoted. This standard
classifies the charging modes between AC and DC, as shown in Table 6.
Based on the survey performed, the SAE-J1772 standard is the only
one that includes a 120 V charging mode (see Table 4). The rest of
standards, even in their lowest charging modes, work at a higher
voltages. As for their most powerful modes, the SAE-J1772 is also the
standard that offers a lower voltage (i.e., 500 V) when compared to the
1000 V offered by both the IEC-62196 and the GB/T-20234.
Regarding the amperage, the standard that offers a lower current
intensity is the GB/T-20234 with 10 A against the 16 A offered by the
other two standards. However, in their most powerful modes, the SAE-
J1772 only supports a 200 A maximum intensity, as compared to 250 A
of the GB/T-20234 and 400 A of the IEC-62196.
Concerning the charging modes that are based on AC power, the
standard that offers a lower power load is the SAE-J1772 with 1.9 kWh
when compared to the 2.5 kWh of the GB/T-20234 and the 3.8 kWh
supported by the IEC-62196. The standard that offers higher power is
the IEC-62196 with 120 kWh, against the 27.7 kWh of the GB/T-20234
and the 19.2 kWh of the SAE-J1772. Something similar occurs in the
loading modes based on DC power, in which the IEC-62196 is the
standard that offers higher power with 400 kWh, against the 250 kWh
of the GB/T-20234 and the 100 kWh offered by the SAE-J1772.
It is also worth noting the case of Tesla Company, which, although it is
not an international standard itself, it has its own fast charging points,
called Supercharger Stations. Tesla’s superchargers work in DC and use
their own system, whose patents have been mostly released. Although
they have a maximum charging power of 145 kWh, such power is
currently limited to 120 kWh, which allows for charging half of the
battery of a Model S in only 20 min., or 80% in half an hour [7].
Although Tesla affirms that its superchargers are ultra-fast charging
points, if we consider the IEC-62196 criterion (see Table 5), these
charging points would be equal to a Mode 3 (fast charging).
Tesla’s Supercharger Stations are being installed in main routes every
200 km. Currently, there are 1604 stations and a total of 14,081
superchargers around the world [7]. Additionally, the users of these
 vehicles have 400 kWh of free charging, which is enough for driving
about 1600 km, a strategy that seeks to encourage users to purchase
Tesla vehicles.
Table 6. Charging classification of the GB/T-20234 [76].

5.2. Connectors
Electric vehicles have an AC/DC converter that allows charging their
batteries at home through the use of traditional outlets (e.g., the
Schuko in Europe). However, when requiring faster charges, Electric
Vehicle Charging Stations must be used, since they can directly supply
DC power to the batteries. Charging Stations can supply electricity
through different connectors, depending on the standard supported,
and they present the following advantages:
• They are sealed solutions (not affected by water or humidity).
• They carry a mechanic or electronic blockage. • They enable
communication with the vehicle.
• Electricity is not supplied until the blockage system is not activated.
• While the blockage system is activated, the vehicle cannot be set in
motion, so that a vehicle cannot leave while plugged.
• Some connectors are able to charge in three-phase mode.
There currently exists a wide range of connectors for charging electric
vehicles. These connectors are defined by the different standards: the
Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) is in charge of its normalization
in the US and in part of the Pacific countries; the IEC is responsible for
its standardization in a great part of the countries in the world, mainly
in Europe; and, the Guobiao Standards (GB) manages the
standardization in China.
J1772-2009 connectors include different protection levels, and they
can even be used in rainy conditions. The AC version (see Figure 7a)
 was designed for single-phase electric systems with 120 V or 240 V, and
they consist of five pins:
• AC pins, two pins to provide power to the vehicle (phase and neutral).
• Ground connection, a security measure, which connects the electrical
system to the ground.
• Proximity detection, which avoids the vehicle to move while plugged.
• Pilot Control, which allows communication with the vehicle.

References
1. European Commission. Transport in Figures’—Statistical
Pocketbook. 2011.
2. Chan, C.C. The state of the art of electric, hybrid, and fuel cell
vehicles. Proc. IEEE 2007, 95, 704–718.
3. Albatayneh, A.; Assaf, M.N.; Alterman, D.; Jaradat, M. Comparison
of the Overall Energy Efficiency for Internal Combustion Engine
Vehicles and Electric Vehicles. Environ. Clim.
4. OECD iLibrary. Non-Exhaust Particulate Emissions from Road
Transport