Chapter 2

Steels and Properties

2.1 STRUCTURAL STEELS

During most of the period from the introduction of structural steel as a major building
material until about 1960, the steel used was classified as a carbon steel with the
ASTM (American Society for Testing and Materials) designation A 7, and had a
minimum specified yield stress of 33 ksi. Most designers merely referred to "steel"
without further identification, and the AISC Specification prescribed allowable
stresses and procedures only for A7 steel. Other structural steels, such as a special
corrosion resistant low alloy steel (A242) and a more readily weldable steel (A373),
were available but they were rarely used in buildings. Bridge design made occasional
use of these other steels.
Today ( 1995) the many steels available to the designer permit use of increased
strength material in highly stressed regions rather than increase the size of members.
The designer can decide whether maximum rigidity or least weight is the more desir­
able attribute. Corrosion resistance, hence elimination of frequent painting, may be a
highly important factor. Some steels oxidize to form a dense protective coating that
prevents further oxidation (corrosion), acquiring a pleasing even-textured dark red­
brown appearance, Since painting is not required, it may be economical to use these
"weathering steels" even though the initial cost is somewhat higher than traditional
carbon steels.
Certain steels provide better weldability than others; some are more suitable
than others for pressure vessels, either at temperatures well above or well below room
temperatures.
Structural steels are referred to by ASTM designations. and also by many
proprietary names. For design purposes the yield stress in tension is the material
property that specifications, such as AISC, use to establish &trength or allowable
stress. The term yield stress is used to include either "yield point," the well-defined
deviation from perfect elasticity exhibited by most of the common strucrnral steels; or
"yield strength", the unit stress at a certain offset strain for steels having no well­
defined yield point, Today (1995) steels are readily available having yield stresses
from 24 to 100 ksi ( 170 to 690 MPa).

41
42 CHAPTER 2 STEELS AND p:::;Q;>E:::;T.E'S

John Hancock Center. Chicago. showing exterior diagonal

bracing. ( Photo by C. G. Salmon)

Steels for s tructural use in hot-rolled applicalions may be dassified as carbon

steels, high-strength low-alloy stc,:ls, and alloy steels. The general requirements for
such steels are covered under ASTM A6/A6M Specification [ l.8]. Table 2 .1.1 lists the
common steels, their minimum yield stresses, and tensile strengths. Their common
uses are given in Table 2.1.2.

Carbon Steels
Carbon steels are divided into four categories based on the percentage of carbon: low
c arbon (less than 0.15%); mild carbon (0.15-0.29%): medium carbon (0.30-0.59%);
and high carbon ( 0.60-1.709c). Structural carbon steels are in the mild carbon cate­
gory; a steel such as A36 has maximum carbon varying from 0.25 to 0.29% depending
on thickness. Structural carbon steels exhibit definite yield points as shown on curve
(a) of Fig. 2.1. l. Increased carbon percent mises the yield stress but reduces ductility.
making welding more difficult.
 2.1 STRUCTURAL STEELS 43
The cctrbon steeb gi,en in Table 2.1.1 are A36 [2.1]. A53 [2.2]. A500 [2.9].
,\501 [2.10]. A529 [2.12]. A570 [2.13]. A611 [2.18]. and A709 [2.20]. Grade 36.

High-Strength Low-Alloy Steels

This category includes steels hming yield stresses from 40 to 70 ksi (275 to 480 MPaJ.
exhibiting the well-defined yield point shown in curve (b) of Fig. 2.l . l . the same as
shown by carbon steels. The addition to carbon steels of small amounts of alloy
elements such as chromium. columbium, copper, manganese, molybdenum. nickel.
phosphorus. vanadium, or zirconium, improves some of the mechanical properties.
Whereas carbon steels gain their strength by increasing carbon content, the al Joy
elements create increased strength from a fine rather than coarse microstructure
obtained during cooling of the steel. High-strength low-alloy steels are used in the
as-rolled or normalized condition; i.e., no heat treatment is used.
The high-strength low-alloy steels of Table 2.1.1 are A242 [2.3]. A44 l [2.6].
A572 [2.14], A588 [2.15]. A606 [2.16]. A607 [2.17], A618 [2.19], and A709 [2.20],
Grades 50 and 50 W.

Alloy Steels
Low-alloy steels may be quenched and tempered to obtain yield strengths of 80 to
1 10 ksi (550 to 760 MPa). Yield strength is usually defined as the stress at 0.2% offset
strain, since these steels do not exhibit a well-defined yield point. A typical stress­
strain curve is shown in Fig. 2.1. l , curve (c). These steels are weldable with proper
procedures, and ordinarily require no additional heat treatment after they have been
welded. For special uses, stress relieving may occasionally be required. Some carbon
steels, such as certain pressure vessel steels, may be quenched and tempered to give
yield strengths in the 80 ksi (550 MPa) range, but most steels of this strength are
low-alloy steels. These low-alloy steels generally have a maximum carbon content of
about 0.20% to limit the hardness of any coarse-grain microstructure (martensite) that
may form during heat treating or welding, thus reducing the danger of cracking.
The heat treatment consists of quenching [rapid cooling with water or oil from
at least l 650°F (900°C) to about 300-400°F]; then tempering by reheating to at least
l l 50°F ( 620°C) and allowing to cool. Tempering, even though reducing the strength
and hardness somewhat from the quenched material, greatly improves the toughness
and ductility. Reduction in strength and hardness with increasing temperature is
somewhat counteracted by the occurrence of a secondary hardening, resulting from
precipitation of fine columbium, titanium, or vanadium carbides. This precipitation
begins at about 950°F (510°C) and accelerates up to about 1 250°F (680° C). Tempering
at or near l 250°F to get maximum benefit from precipitating carbides may result in
entering the transformation zone, thus producing the weaker microstructure that
would have been obtained without quenching and tempering.
In summary, the quenching produces martensite, a very hard, strong, and brittle
microstructure; reheating reduces the strength and hardness somewhat while increas­
ing the toughness and ductility. For more detailed information concerning the metal­
lurgy of the quenching and tempering process, the reader is referred to the Welding
Handbook [2.23]. The quenched and tempered alloy steels of Table 2.1.1 are A514
[2.11], A709 [2.20], Grades 100 and 100 W, A852 [2.22], and A913 [2.46].
44 CHAPTER 2 STEEl.S AND PROPERTIES
TABLE 2.1.1 PROPc:RT:ES OF STEEl.S LSEC FO9 BU,LD:NGS
NJD BRIDGES

Fy
Min:,num f,,,�2x!murn
yield Tenslle �h,ckness ASTM A6
stress strength for plates groups'
ASTM' ksi ksi n. tor
des·gnation (Mpa;' (MPa)T (rrim) sr1a:J2s

A36 ·'-
' ) 58-80 On;r 8
{220) (�00--550) (2CO)
36 58-80 To S All
l 250) {...;00--550; ( 200!

A53 GcaJe B 35 ( 2Wl

- 60 (415)

A242 42 63 Over 1 ½ to 4 4. 5
(290: f 4-35 l (40 to 100)
4-6 67 O\>c; j to I } 3
( 3 l 5) ( -160 I (20 to 40)
50 70 To j I. 2
(3-15) 1480) 120)

A441 Discontinued l 989; replaced by A572

A500 Grade A 33 (228) 45 (31ll) Round

Grade B 42 (290) 58 ( 400) Round
Gradi.; C 46 (317) 62 (427) Round

Grnde A 39 (269) 45 (310) Shaped

Grade: B 46 ;317) 58 (400) Shaped
Grade C 50 (345) 62 (427) Shaped

A510 36 (250) 58 (400)

A514 90 100-130 Over 2} to 6

(620) (690-895) (65 to 150)
JOO I 10-130 To 2½
( 69ll) (760-895) (65)

A529 Grade 42 42 60 85 To{.

(291)) (415 585) ( 13J
Grade 50 50 70-100 To l L2
(345) (485-690) (25)
A570 Grade 40 40 (275) 55 ( 380)
Grade 45 451310) 60 (415)
Grade 50 50 (345) 65 (450)

A572 Grade 42 42 60 To 6 All

(290) (415) ( 150)
Grade 50 50 65 To 4 All
(345) (4501 I iOO)
Grade 60 60 75 To I= l. 2. 3
(415) (520) (32)
Grade 65 65 80 To 1 j I. 2. 3
1450: 1 (550) (32)

1
 2.1 STRUCTURAL STEELS 45
TABLE 2.1.1 ( Continued}
F,
Minimum Fu Maximum
yield Tensile thickness ASTM A6
stress slrength for pla:es grouas"
ASTM' ksi ksi for
des,gnation (Mpa} 1 (MPa)" shapes
A588 42 63 Qyer 5 to 8
(290) 1435 ) { l :25 to 200}
46 67 OYer 4 to S
(3:51 (...:60; ( [00 to 1 25)
50 70 To 4 All
( 3 45 � (4851 I 100)
A606 45 (310) 65 (450)
50 (345) 70 (480)
A607 G,ade 45 45 ( 3 1 0) 60 ( 4 1 0)
Grade 50 50 (340) 65 (450)
Grade 55 55 (380) 70 ( 480)
Grade 60 60 (4 1 0) 75 (520)
Grade 65 65 (450) 80 (550)
Grade 70 70 ( 480) 85 (590)
A6 I I Grade C 33 (230) 48 ( 3 30)
Grade D 40 (275) 52 (360)
Grade E 80 (550) 82 (565)
A6 I 8 Grade, !&II 50 (345) 70 (485) To ¾ [Link]
Grade Ill 50 (345) 65 (450)
A709 Grade 36 36 58-80 To 4 All
(250) (400-550) ( 1 00)
Grade 50 50 65 To 4 All
(345) (450) ( 1 00 )
Grade SOW 50 70 To 4 All
(345) (485) { !00)
Grade 70W 70 90- 1 1 0 To 4
(485) (620-760) ( 1 00)
Grade 100 90 l00- 1 30 Over 2! to 4
& IOOW (620) (690-895) (64- 1 02 )
Grade 1 00 1 00 l l 0- 1 30 To 2 ½
& I OOW ( 690) (760-895) (64)
A852 70 90- 1 J O To 4
(485) (620-760) ( 1 00)
A9 I 3 Grade 60 60 (4 1 5) 75 (520) All
Grade 65 65 (450) 80 (550)
Grade 70 70 (485) 90 (620)
� All steel,,,; listed are approved under the AISC Specification [ ! .:'i, I 1 6: except A61 l and A709.
�'A STM A61A6M ( 1 .8] places structural rolled :-.hapes { W, ,\1, S, HP, C YJC, and L) ln Groups
I through 5 according to [Link] for tensile property chissification. AH rnHed :'longed sections h;.iving
at least one cros�-section dimension 3 in. (75 mmJ Of greater ure included. T?1e size basis for
group� is approximately the web thicknes.,; correspond!ng lo the- maximum thickne;-,s for plates,
with the thinnest web sections in Group ; . The �peci fk sections included ln each group are giv.:n
in ASTM A6iA6M [ J .81 and ic1 the- AISC fvfanuab [1.7. 1 . 1 8].
t All SI values ar� those given in the panicu'.ar ASTM Specifa.:,nlon
 46 CHAPTER 2 STEELS A N D PROPERTIES
TABLE 2.1.2 USES OF VARIOUS STEELS

ASTM· designation Common usage

A36 Carbun �tee! G<:ener:.il �tructural purpo�es: bolteJ and \\·elded. [Link]) for buildings

A53 Carbon steel \Yelded and seamle�-� pipe

.--\2-1-2 High-,,trength \Yclded and bolted bridge construction \\·here corrosion resistance is de,,ired:
lo\\ allo:- steel ec,c,entially super�eded by A 709. Grnde 50\\

A500 Cold-formed \\·cldcd and seamless round. square. rectangular. or special

Carbon steel shape structural tubing for bolted and \\ eldeJ general structural purpmes

A5(11 Hot-formed \\elded and seamless square. rectangular. round. or special shape
Carbon steel structural tubing for bolted and welded general structural purposes

A5 l-l- Alloy steel. quenched Plates in thickm:.�ses of 6 in. ( 1 5 0 mm) and under. primarily for welded
and tempered bridges; largely superseded by A 709 for bridges

A529 Plates and bars { in. ( 13 mm) and less in thickness or diameter and Group 1
-
Carbon steel shapes [ l .8] for use in bolted and welded metal building system frames and
trusses

A570 Hot-rolled sheet and strip cut in length,� or coils; for cold-formed sections
Carbon steel [maximum thickness 0.229 in. (6 mm)]

A572 High-strength. Structural shapes. plates. sheet piling. and bars for bolted and welded
low-alloy, columbium buildings: welded bridges in Grades 42 and 50 only; essentially superseded
or vanadium steel by A 709, Grade 50

A588 Stuctural shapes, plates.. and bars for welded buildings and bridges where
High strength weight savings or added durability are needed; atmospheric corrosion
low-alloy steel resistance is about four times that of A36 steel: essentially superseded
by A709. Grade 50 for bridges

A606 Hot- and cold-rolled sheet and strip in lengths or coils; for cold-formed
High-strength low-alloy swcl sections. where enhanced durability is desired; atmospheric corrosion
resistance for Type 2 at least twice that of carbon steel; and for Type 4 at
least four times that of carbon steel

A607 Hot- and cold-rolled sheet and strip in lengths or coils; for cold-formed
High strength low-alloy sections, where greater strength and weight savings are important;
columbium or vanadium steel atmospheric corrosion resistance (without copper) is the same as carbon
steel; with copper. corrosion resistance is twice that of carbon steel

A6 l l Carbon steel Cold-rolled sheet in cut lengths or coils for making cold-formed sections

A6 1 8 Hot-formed welded and seamless square, rectangular, round, or special

High strength low-alloy steel shape structural tubing for bolted and welded general structural purposes;
Grade II has corrosion resistance about twice that of carbon steel;
Grade I has corrosion resistance about four times that of carbon steel;
Grade III for enhanced corrosion resistance may have copper specified

A 709 Carbon: high­ Structural shapes, plates, and bars in Grades 36, 50, and SOW for use in
strength low-alloy; bridges; plates in Grades 100 and l OOW for use in bridges; when
and quenched and supplementary requirements are used, requirements of A36, A572, A588.
tempered alloy and A 5 1 4 are exceeded: Grades SOW and l OOW are weathering steels

A852 High-strength, low-alloy; Plate� to 4 in. thick for welded and bolted construction where atmospheric
and quenched and tempered alloy corrosion resistance is desired

A9 I 3 High-strength low-alloy steel Structural shapes for bolted and welded construction

"'All steels listed are approved under the AISC Specifications [ 1 .5. 1 . 16] except A 6 1 l and A 709.

l
 22 [Link] S�EELS 47

/� Hea:~trea11;d consuucrwna!
alloy srceb: A51-t quenched
✓
�

, e::::__::_
: 00 h.-< and tempcred alloy s:e:::l
\Hnin;um } ield
strength
F, 100 ksi
Htgh->1sength. low-
2lloy c�nbon steels:
, A572

(bi

Carbon swels:
A36 (a)

20

0,05 0. 10 0. 15 0.20 025 0.30 0.35

Strain, inches per inch

Figure 2.1.1 Typical stress-strain curves.

2.2 FASTENER STEELS

The detailed treatment of the design of threaded fasteners appears in Chapter 4. A

brief description of the materials used for bolts appears in the following paragraphs.
The headings are the ASTM specification exact titles.

A307 [2.4], Carbon Steel Bolts and Studs, 60,000 psi

Tensile Strength
This material is used for what are commonly referred to as "machine bolts." These are
usually used only for temporary installations. Included are Grade A bolts for general
applications, which have a minimum tensile strength of 60 ksi (4 l 5 MPa); and
Grade B bolts for flanged joints in piping systems where one or both flanges are cast
iron. The Grade B bolts have a maximum tensile strength limitation of 1 00 ksi
(700 MPa). No well-defined yield point is exhibited by these bolts, and no minimum
yield strength (for instance, 0.2% offset strength) is specified.

A325 [2.5], High-Strength Bolts for Structural Steel Joints

This quenched and tempered medium carbon steel is used for bolts commonly known
as "high-strength structural bolts," or high-strength bolts. This material has maxi­
mum carbon of 0.30%. It is heat-treated by quenching and then by reheating (temper-
48 CHAP�ER 2 SEELS AND PROPERTIES

ing l to a temperature of at least 800"F. This steel beha\·es in a tensior. test more
similarly to the heat-treated low-alloy steels than lo carbon steel. It has an uhimate
tensile strength of 1 05 ksi (733 MPa) ( 1 � to l ½ -in.-diam bolts) to 1 20 ksi ( 838 MPa)
(½ to 1 -in.-diam bolts). Its yield strength. measured at 0.2% offset. is prescribed at
8 1 ksi ( 566 MPa) minimum for I ;\ to ! ¾ -in. -diam bolts, and 92 ksi ( 643 MPa) for
bolts ½ to I in. diam (see Table 4. 1 . 1 ).

A449 [2.7], Quenched and Tempered Steel Bolts and Studs

These bolts have tensile strengths and yield stresses (strength at 0.2% offset) the same
as A325 for bolts I t in. diam and smaller: however, they have the regular (instead of
heavy) hexagon head and longer thread length of A307 bolts. They are also available
in diameters up to 3 in. The AISC Specifications [ l .5, 1 . 1 6] permit use of A449 bolts
only for certain structural joints requiring diameters exceeding 1 ¼ in. and for high­
strength anchor bolts and threaded rods.

A490 [2.8], Heat Treated, Steel Structural Bolts, 1 50 ksi (1 035 MPa)
Tensile Strength
This material has carbon content that may range up to 0.53 % for 1 ¼ in.-diam bolts,
and has alloying elements in amounts similar to the AS 1 4 [2. 1 1 ] steels. After quench·
ing in oil, the material is tempered b y reheating to at least 900°F. The minimum yield
strength, obtained by 0,2% offset, ranges from 1 1 5 ksi ( 803 MPa) (over zt in. to 4 in.
diam} to 1 30 ksi (908 MPa} (for 2 1 in. diam and under).

Galvanized High-Strength Bolts

In order to provide corrosion protection, A325 bolts may be galvanized . Hot-dip
galvanizing requires the molten zinc temperature to be in the range of the heat
treatment temperature; thus, the mechanical properties obtained by heat treatment
may be diminished. Whenever galvanized bolts are used, the nuts must be "oversized."
If the nuts are also galvanized, they must be "double oversized."
S teels having tensile strength in the range of 200 ksi or higher are subject to
hydrogen embrittlement when hydrogen is permitted to remain i n the steel and high
tensile stress is applied. The i ntroduction of hydrogen occurs during the pickling
operation of the galvanizing process and the subsequent "sealing-in" of the hydrogen
and zinc coating [2.24]. The minimum tensile strength of A325 bolts is well below the
critical 200 ksi range. On the other hand. A490 bolts have a maximum tensile strength
of 170 ksi, a value considered too close to the critical range. Thus, galvanizing of
A490 bolts is not permitted.

2.3 WELD ELECTRODE AND FILLER MATERIAL

The detailed treatment of welding and welded connections appears in Chapter 5 . The
electrodes used i n shielded metal arc welding (SMAW) (see See. 5,2) also serve as
the filler material and are covered by American Welding Society (AWS) AS. I and
A5.5 Specifications [2.25]. Such consumable electrodes are classified E60XX,

j
 2.4 STRESS-STRAIN BEHAVIOR (TENSION TEST) AT ATMOSPHERIC TEM PERATURES 49
TABLE 2.3.1 ELECTRODES USED FOR WELD I NG'

Process

Shielded Submerged Gas metal E'lux cored

metal arc arc arc arc
Minimum Minimum
welding welding welding welding
yield tensile
(SMAW) (SAW) (GMAW) (FCAW)
stress strength
AWS A5. 1 AWS A5. 1 7 AWS A5. 1 8 AWS A5.20
or A5.5 or A5.23 or A5.28 or A5.29 (ksi) (MPa) (ksi) (MPa)

E60XX E6XT-X so 345 6.2 min 425

F6XX-EXXX 50 345 62-80 425-550
E70XX ER70S -X E7XT-X 60 415 72 min 495
F7XX-EXXX 60 415 70-90 485-655
E80XX 67 460 80 min 550
F8XX-EXXX E8XT 68 470 80- l 00 550-690
ER80S 65 450 80 min 550
E ! 00XX 87 600 100 min 690
F l 0XX-EXXX 88 605 1 00- 1 3 0 690-895
ER!00S 90 620 100 min 690
E l 0XT 88 605 1 00- 1 20 690-830
E l ! OX 97 670 1 1 0 min 760
F l I XX-EXXX 98 675 1 1 0- 1 3 0 760-895
ER! 1 0S 98 675 1 1 0 min 760
E l l XT 98 675 1 1 0- 1 25 760-860
* Filler metal requirement given by AWS D 1 . 1 [2.25], Table 4. 1 . 1 to match the various structural steels.

E70XX, ESOXX, E90XX, E I OOXX, and E I IOXX. The "E" denotes electrode. The
first two digits indicate the tensile strength in ksi; thus the tensile strength ranges from
60 to 1 10 ksi (414 to 760 MPa). The "X's" represent numbers indicating the usage of
the electrode.
For submerged arc welding (SAW) (see Sec. 5.2), the electrodes which also
serve as filler material are specified under AWS A5. 1 7 and A5.23. The weld-electrode
combinations are designated F6XX-EXXX, F7XX-EXXX, etc. up to Fl l XX-EXXX.
The "F" designates a granular flux material that shields the weld as it is made. The
first one or two of the three digits following the "F" indicate the tensile strength
(6 means 60 ksi, I I means 1 10 ksi). The "E" stands for electrode and the other X's
represent numbers relating to use. The yield stresses and tensile strengths of com­
monly used electrodes are given in Table 2.3 . 1 .

2.4 STRESS-STRAIN BEHAVIOR (TENSION TEST)

AT ATMOSPHERIC TEMPERATURES
Typical stress-strain curves for tension are shown in Fig 2. I . I for the three categories
of steel already discussed: carbon, high-strength low-alloy, and heat-treated high­
strength low-alloy. The same behavior occurs in compression when support is pro­
vided so as to preclude buckling_ The portion of each of the stress-strain curves of
Fig. 2 . 1 . 1 that is utilized in ordinary design is shown enlarged in Fig. 2.4. l .
50 CHAPTER 2 STEELS AND PROPERTIES

,- 0.5\t Extension under lmd yield strength. F,_ = 100 bi S00

t .
0.2l1 Offset \·ield _1,tren12:
~ th. F_. = 100 ksi

L
(Cl

100 700
......_ For F, = 100 ksi: typical for steels
with F, > 65 ksi
600
80

500

0.2S7t: Offset (0.002 [Link].)

For F, = 50 ksi; typical for most �tructural lb) 400
steels with F, ::,; 65 ksi
/

l
i Upper yield point
y
40
Vi A36 steel Slope £_11

200

20
�::::p;;;;;::::e ·- Strain•lwuening
--- range
�•'----- -- - -'---- --� � -=- � --�I 100
to max. tensile strength
/
/ Slope £
€ ,, '
0 0.005 0.010 O.Dl5 0.020 0.025
Strain c, [Link].
Fi gure 2.4.1 Enlarged typical stress-strain curves for different yield stresses.

The stress-strain curves of Fig. 2. 1 . 1 are determined using a unit stress obtained
by dividing the load by the original cross-sectional area of the specimen, and the strain
(inches per inch) is obtained as the elongation divided by the original length. Such
curves are known as engineering stress-strain curves and rise to a maximum stress
level (known as the tensile strength) and then fall off with increasing strain until they
terminate as the specimen breaks. Insofar as the material itself is concerned, the unit
stress continues to rise until failure occurs. The so-called true-stress/true-strain
curve is obtained by using the actual cross-section even after necking down begins and
using the instantaneous incremental strain.
Stress-strain curves (as per Fig. 2.4. 1 ) show a straight line relationship up to a
point known as the proportional limit, which essentially coincides with the yield point
for most structural steels with yield points not exceeding 65 ksi (450 MPa). For the
quenched and tempered low-alloy steels, the deviation from a straight line occurs
gradually, as in curve (c), Fig. 2.4. 1 . Since the term yield point is not appropriate to
curve (c), yield strength is used for the stress at an offset strain of 0.2%; or alterna­
tively, a 0.5% extension under load, as shown in Fig 2.4 . 1 . Yield stress is the general
term to include the unit stress at a yield point, when one exists, or the yield strength.
The ratio of stress to strain in the initial straight line region is known as the
modulus of elasticity, or Young's modulus, £, which for structural steels may be taken

j
 2.5 MATERIAL TOUGHNESS 51
approximately as 29.000 ksi ( 200,000 MPal. In the straight-line region, loading and
unloading results in no permanent deformation; hence it is the elastic range. The
service load unit stress in steel design is always intended ro be safely below the
proportional limit, even though in order co ascertain safety factors against failure or
excessive deformation. knowledge is required of the stress-strain behavior up to a
strain about 1 5 to 20 times the maximum elastic strain.
For steels exhibiting yield points. as curves (a) and (b) of Fig. 2.4. 1 , the long
plateau for which essentially constant stress exists is known as the plastic range. The
load and resistance factor design method consciously uses this range. The higher
strength steels typified by curve (c) of Fig. 2 .4. l also have a region that might be called
the plastic range; however, in this zone the stress is continuously increasing ( instead
of remaining constant) as strain increases. For lack of having a region of constant
stress with increasing strain, the steels whose yield stress exceeds 65 ksi are not
permitted to be used for plastic analysis (LRFD-A5.J and ASD-K2). Plastic analysis
(treated i n Chaps. 7 and 10) relies on the ability of steel to deform (strain) at constant
stress.
For strains greater than 1 5 to 20 times the maximum elastic strain, the stress
again increases but with a much flatter slope than the original elastic slope. This
increase in strength is called strain hardening, which continues up to the tensile
strength. The slope of the stress-strain curve is known as the strain-hardening mod­
ulus, E,,. Average values for this modulus and the strain "·" at which it begins have been
determined [2.26] for two steels: A36 steel, E.,, = 900 ksi (6200 MPa) at £,, =
0.0 14 in. per in.: and for A44 l , E" = 700 ksi (4800 MPa) at E,, = 0.02 1 in. per in.
The strain-hardening range is not consciously used in design, but certain of the
buckling limitations are conservatively derived to preclude buckling even at strains
well beyond onset of strain hardening.
The stress-strain curve also indicates the ductility. Ductility is defined as the
amount of permanent strain (i.e., strain exceeding proportional limit) up to the point
of fracture. Measurement of ductility is obtained from the tension test by determining
the percent elongation (comparing final and original lengths over a specified gage
distance) of the specimen. Ductility is important because it permits yielding locally
due to high stresses and thus allows the stress distribution to change. Design proce­
dures based on inelastic behavior require large inherent ductility, particularly for
treatment of stresses near holes or abrupt change in member shape, as well as for
design of connections.

2.5 MATERIAL TOUGHNESS

The use of steels having higher strength than A36 without heat treatment has resulted
in problems relating to lack of ductility and material fracture [2.28]; at least the use
of such steels requires the structural engineer to be more conscious of material
behavior.
In structural steel design, toughness is a measure of the ability of steel to resist
fracture; Le., to absorb energy. According to Rolfe [2.27], material toughness is
defined as "the resistance to unstable crack propagation in the presence of a notch."
52 CHAPTER 2 STEELS AND PciOPEWlccS

Unstable crack propagation produces brillle as opposed to stable crack

growth of a subcritical crack from fatigue.
For uniaxial tension. toughness can be ex1Jressed as the total [Link] under the
stress-strain cur\C out to the fracture point where the di;igram terminates. Since
uniaxial tension rardy exists in real structures. a more useful index of toughness is
based on the more complex stress condition at the root of a notch.
Norch roughness is the measure of the resistance of a metal to the start and
propagation of a crack at the base of a standard notch. commonly using the Charpy
V -n otch test. This test uses a small rectangular simply supported beam having a
V -notch at midlength. The bar is fractured by a blow from a swinging pendulum. The
amount of energy absorbed is calculated from the height the pendulum raises after
breaking the specimen. The amount of energy absorbed will increase with increasing
temperature at which the test is conducted.
Though the Charpy V-notch test has been a common means of determining
notch toughness, other fracture criteria and more recently fracture mechanics have
been used [ 2 . 2 7]. B arsom and Rolfe [2.29] and Barsom [2.30, 2.31] have excellently
presented the important factors relating to fracture of steel.
Figure 2 .5.1 shows the typical relationship between temperature and toughness,
and also shows the transition from ductile to brittle behavior. such as one may obtain
from the Charpy V-notch test. The temperature at the point where the slope is steepest
(point A of Fig. 2.5. l ) is the transition temperature. Since brittleness and ductility are
qualitative terms, the various structural steels have different requirements for ductility
at various temperatures depending on their service environment (loading, tempera­
ture. stress and strain levels, loading rate, and number of load repetitions).
For example, a moderate amount of ductility may be required for ordinary
structures where very low temperatures are not expected; in such cases. 15 ft-lb has

Temperature, "C
- 30 -20 0 + 10

Ductility transition temperature

ut 15 ft-lb., say 17' F
60 80
50
.,,
<.':
"! 4()
Tra:isition temperature at 60 �
z
A steepest slope, s.�y + 30c F
30
'"
"
s
h
40
�
:::o «i

- 20
10
"C

+40 +60
Temperature. °F
Figure 2.5.1 Transition temperature curve for carbon steel obtained from Charpy
V-notch impact tests. (Adapted from Ref. 2.26)
 2.6 YIELD STPENGTrl FOR M�cTIAXIAL STATES OF STRESS 53
commonly been the energy absorption required. The corresponding temperature
obtained from the test results shown in Fig. 1 would be about I rF The temper­
ature at which marked decrease in slope begins to occur is known as the ducriliry
transition te111perat11 re. This would indicate that the material may be expected to be
brittle when service 1emperarures are below l 7 °E

2.6 YIELD STRENGTH FOR MULTIAXIAL STATES OF STRESS

Only when the load-carrying member is subject to un iaxial tensile stre,s can the
properties from the tension test be expected to be identical with those of the structural
member. It is easy to forget that yielding i n a real structure i s usually not the well­
defined behavior observed in the tension test Yielding is commonly assumed to be
achieved when any one component of stress reaches the uniaxial value F, .
For all states of stress other than uniaxial, a definition of yielding is needed.
These definitions, and there are frequently several for a given state of stress, are called
yield conditions (or theories offailure) and are equations of interaction between the
stresses acting.

Energy-of-Distortion (Huber-von Mises-Hencky)

Yield Criterion
This most commonly accepted theory gives the uniaxial yield stress in terms of the
three principal stresses. The yield criterion* may be stated
(2.6. l )
where <71 , u1 , er, are the tensile or compressive stresses that act in the three principal
directions; i,e., the stresses that act in the three mutually perpendicular planes of zero
shear, and <r,. is the "yield stress" that may be compared with the uniaxial value F, .
For most structural design situations, one of the principal stresses is either zero
or small enough to be neglected; hence Eq. 2.6.1 reduces to the following for the case
of the plane stress (all stresses considered are acting in a plane)
(2.6.2)
When stresses on thin plates are involved, the principal stress acting transverse to the
plane of the plate is usually zero (at least to first-order approximation). Flexural
stresses on beams assume zero principal stress perpendicular to the plane of bending.
Furthermore, structural shapes (Fig. L5. l ) are comprised of thin plate elements, so
that each is subject to Eq. 2.6.2. The plane stress yield criterion, Eq. 2.6.2, is the one
used throughout the remaining chapters where needed, and is illustrated in Fig. 2 .6. 1 .

* See Arthur P. Baresi, Richard J. Schmidt, and Omar M. Sidebottom, Advanced Muhanics of
Marerials, 5th ed. New York Joim Wiley & Sons. Inc .. 1 993, pp. l33 - l 34.

l
1
54 CHAPTER 2 STEELS AND PROPERTIES

t
(J .:: ;;;; (T I
7 (T,

cr, - O - c 1

(f: = (T i

Pure ;;[Link] strc;;s

ccn<liti(:n

··· LO /

'- ---- - LC

Hydro::;H!tic stress
conditi011
ljgure 2.6.1 Energy-of-distortion yield criterion for plane stress.

Shear Yield Stress

The yield point for pure shear can be determined from a stress-strain curve with shear
loading, or if the multiaxial yield criterion is known, that relationship can be used.
Pure shear occurs on 45° planes to the principal planes when u2 = -u,, and the shear
stress T a-,. Substitution of a-, -u, into Eq. 2.6.2 gives
u� = af + aT - cr1 (-ui ) = 3a1 (2.6.3)
u, = T = uy/V3 = shear yield (2.6.4)
which indicates that the yield condition for shear stress acting alone is
Ty = ajV3 = 0.58<T,. (2.6.5)

Poisson's Ratio, µ.
When stress is applied in one direction, strains are induced not only in the direction
of applied stress but also in the other two mutually perpendicular directions. The usual
value of /L used is that obtained from the uniaxial stress condition, where it is the ratio
of the transverse strain to longitudinal strain under load. For structural steels, Poisson's
ratio is approximately 0.3 in the elastic range where the material is compressible

1
 2.7 HIGH .,.EMPERATURE BC:HAVIOR 55
and approaches 0.5 when in the plastic range where [he material is essentially incom­
pressible (i.e .. constant resistance no matter what the strain).

Shear Modulus of Elasticity

Loading in pure shear produces a stress-strain curve with a straight line portion whose
slope represents the shear modulus of elasticity. If Poisson· s ratio µ and the tension­
compression modulus of elasticity E are known, the shear modulus G is defined by the
theory of elasticity as
G = -- E-- (2.6.6)
2 ( 1 + µ)
which for structural steel is just over 1 1 ,000 ksi (75.800 Y!Pa).

2.7 HIGH TEMPERATURE BEHAVIOR

The design of structures to serve under atmospheric temperature rarely involves
concern about high temperature behavior. Knowledge of such behavior is desirable
when specifying welding procedures, and is necessary when concerned with the
effects of fire.
When temperatures exceed about 200°F (93°C), the stress-strain curve begins to
become nonlinear, gradually eliminating the well-defined yield point. The modulus of
elasticity, yield strength, and tensile strength all reduce as temperature increases. The
range from 800 to l000°F ( 430 to 540°C) is where the rate of decrease is maximum.
While each steel, because of its different chemistry and microstructure, behaves
somewhat differently, the general relationships are shown in Fig. 2 .7. 1 . Steels having
relatively high percentages of carbon, such as A36, exhibit "strain aging" in the range
300 to 700°F ( 1 50 to 370°C). This is evidenced by a relative rise in yield strength and
tensile strength is that range. Tensile strength may rise to about 1 0% above that at
room temperature and yield strength may recover to about its room temperature value
when the temperature reaches 500 to 600°F (260 to 320°C). Strain aging results in
decreased ductility.
The modulus of elasticity decrease is moderate up to 1 000°F (540°C); thereafter
it decreases rapidly. More importantly, at temperatures above about 500 to 600°F
(260 to 320°C), steels exhibit deformation which increases with increasing time under
load, a phenomenon known as creep. Creep is well known in concrete structures; and
its effect in steel, which does not occur at atmospheric temperatures, increases with
increasing temperature.
Other high temperature effects are (a) improved notch impact resistance up lo
about 1 50 to 200°F (65 to 95°C), as discussed in Sec. 2.5; (b) increased brittleness due
to metallurgical changes, such as carbide precipitation discussed in Sec. 2.1, begins to
occur at about 950°F (510°C): and (c) corrosion resistance of structural steels in­
creases for temperatures up to about 1 000°F (540°C). Most steels are used in applica­
tions below 1 000°F, and some heat treated steels should be kept below about 800°F
(430°C).
56 CHAPTER 2 STEELS AND PROPERTIES

0 400 800 l 200 1 600 2000

Tempernture. "F

{a) Average Effect of Temperamre on Yield Slrenirrh

400 800 1200 160C

Temperature, ;)F
(h) Average [Link] of Temperature on Tensile Strength

1.0

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

200 400 600 800 1000

Temperature, °F
(e) Typical Effect of Temperature on Modulus of Elasticity
Figure 2.7.1 Typical effects of high temperature on stress­
strain curve properties of structural steels. (Adapted from
Ref. 2.26)

l
 2.8 '.;OLD WORK MJD STRAl:N HARDENING 57

2.8 COLD WORK A N D STRAIN HARDENING

After 1he strain E, = FjE, at first yield has been exceeded appreciably. and the
specimen is unloaded, reloading may give a stress-strain relationship differing from
that observed during the initial .loading. Elastic loading and unloading results in no
residual strain; however, initial loading beyond the yield point, such as to point A of
Fig. 2.8 . 1 , results in unloading to a strain at point B. A permanent set OB has occurred.
The ductility capacity has been reduced from a strain OF to the strain BF. Reloading
exhibits behavior as if the stress-strain origin were at point B; the plastic zone prior
to strain hardening is also reduced.
When loading has occurred until point C is reached, unloading follows the
dashed line to point D; i.e., the origin for a new loading is now point D. The length of
the line CD is greater, indicating that the yield point has increased. The increased
yield point is referred to as a strain hardening effect; the ductility remaining when
loading from point D is severely reduced from its original value p1ior to the initial
loading, The process of loading beyond the elastic range to cause a change in available
ductility, when done at atmospheric temperature, is known as cold work. Since real
structures are not loaded in uniaxial tension-compression, the cold work effect is
much more complex, and any theoretical study of it is outside the scope of the text.
When structural shapes are made by cold-forming from plates at atmospheric
temperature, inelastic deformations occur at the bends. Cold working into the strain
hardening range at the bend locations increases the yield strength, which design

Tensile
sLrength

Ideal eiastic-plastk
stress-strain Fracture
relationship strength -..... £

t /!
I•
l

�
--..'--'-_. ,:
A______./.____,. Stmin
I hardenine 1
/ yield poi�t /
Elastic I increase 1
slope I
I I
I I
I I
I

! :�:

L--l----- -- --- -1.--&--------• Strain

D I FI

Plastic range ---�---- Strain hardening - - -- 1

,�----
1 Elastic rang�

Permanent
I:_
'
!

set !

Figure 2,8.1 Effects of straining beyond the elastic range.

58 CHAPTER 2 STEE�S Ai\D PRO"[Link]

z
z
Yie:c poim ''
I''
2 inc;:-ease:
u: [
� from <:rr::iin
'
'''
agmg:
'
I

' '''
''' '
' '''
' ''
I

'''
'''
I

'''
I

''
Ductility after
strain hardening
and strain aging

Figure 2.8.2 Effect of strain aging after straining into strain-hardening

range and unloading.

specifications may pennit taking into account. The Specification for the Design of
Cold-Formed Steel Structural Members* [ 1 . 1 1 ] has such provisions.
Upon unloading and after a period of time, the steel will have acquired different
properties from those represented by points D, C, and E of Fig. 2.8. 1 by a phe­
nomenon known as strain aging. Strain aging, as shown in Fig. 2.8.2, produces an
additional increase in yield point, restores a plastic zone of constant stress, and gives
a new strain hardening zone at an elevated stress. The original shape of the stress­
strain diagram is restored, but the ductility is reduced. The new stress-strain diagram
may be used as if it were the original for analyzing cold-formed sections, as Jong as
the ductility that remains is sufficient. The corner regions of cold-formed shapes
generally would not require high ductility for rotational strain about the axis of the
bend.
Stress relieving by annealing will eliminate the effects of cold work should that
be desired. Annealing involves heating to a temperature above transformation range
and a llowing slow cooling; a recrystallization occurs to restore the original properties.
Bittence [2.32] provides an excellent summary of the basics of heat treating.

2.9 BRITTLE FRACTURE

As has been discussed in several sections, steel that is ordinarily ductile can become
brittle under various conditions.
Barsom [2.30, 2.3 1 ], Barsom and Rolfe [2.29], and Rolfe [2.27] have provided
an excellent summary of fracture and fatigue control for structural engineers. Rolfe

*Referred to henceforth as the AISI Specification.

j
 2.9 BRITT�E FRACTURE 59

[2.27] defines britrle jh,c/ure as "a type of catastrophic failure that occurs without
prior plastic deformation and at extremely high speeds.•· Fracture behavior is affected
by temperature. loading race. stress level. flaw size, plate thickness or constraint. joint
geometry, and workmanship.

Effect of Temperature
l'iotch toughness, as determined by the Charpy-impact energy vs temperature curves
(see Sec. 2.5). is an indication of the susceptibility to brittle fracture. Temperature is
a vital factor in several ways: (a) the value below which notch toughness is inadequate;
(b) the 600 to 800°F (320 to 430°C) range causes formation of brittle microstructure:
and (c) over I 000°F (540°C) causes precipitation of carbides of alloying elements to
give more brittle rnicrostructure. The other temperature factors have already been
discussed in earlier sections.

Effect of Multiaxial Stress

The complex stress condition found in usual structures, particularly at joints, is
another major factor affecting brittleness. The Primer on Brittle Fracture [2.33] has
provided an excellent rational presentation of this and forms the basis for what
fol lows. The engineering stress-strain curve is for uniaxial stress; prior to fracture a
necking down occurs, as shown in Fig. 2.9. l a. If biaxial lateral loading as shown in
Fig. 2.9. 1 b could be applied, plastic necking down could be suppressed to the point
where the bar would break in a brittle manner without elongation and without reduc­
tion in area. The fracture stress based on the unreduced cross-sectional area would be
the same high value as that based on the necked-down cross section in the uniaxial
tension case. The unit stress would be far above the nominal maximum tensile strength

t t
Biaxial trans-verse
loading prevents
�
\ / _../ Necking

(l( down ni::ar necking down

fracture load
I
I
i
(a) Threaded test bar (b) Threaded test bar
near fracture near fracture
\ur:.[Link] loading) (_triaxial loading)

.Figure 2.9.1 Uniaxial and triaxial loading.

60 CHAPTE9 2 STEE_S [Link] �RCPER"'IES

of the engi:ieering st;·ess-strain cur,e. which is always computed on the basis of

original cross section.
Also rhe eftects of notches h,ffe been alluded to in the discussion of notch
toughness in Sec. The notch serves somewhat the same purpose as rhe theoretical
triaxial loading of Fig. 2.9. l b. in that it restrains plastic flow which otherwise would
occur and thus at some higher stress may likely fail in a brittle manner. Figure 2.9.2
shows the effect of a notch in a tensile test specimen. The cross-sectional area at the base
of the notch corresponds to the area of the original specimen of Fig. 2. 9. I b. The
reduced section tries to become narrower as the axial tension increases. but is resisted
by the diagonal pull that develops in the corners, as shown in Fig. 2.9.2. The test bar
will fail at high stress by brittle fracture.
Notches can occur in real structures by use of unfilleted corners i n design or from
improperly made welds that may crack, Such occurrences can lead to brittleness.
Notches and cracked welds can. however, he minimized by good design and welding
procedures.
Unusual configurations and changes in section should be made gradually so the
stress flow lines are not required to make abrupt changes. Whenever the complexity
is such as to give rise to three-dimensional stresses, the tendency for brittleness
increases. Castings, for instance, have the reputation for brittleness. Primarily this is
because of the built-in three-dimensional continuity.

Multiaxial Stress Induced by Welding

In general, welding creates a built-in restraint that gives rise to biaxial and triaxial
stress and strain conditions, which result in brittle behavior. To illustrate, consider the
loaded simply supported beam of Fig. 2.9.3, which in turn supports a plate in tension.
Due to flexure, the bottom flange of the beam is in tension; therefore, the stress at
point A is uniaxial tension (neglecting the small effects of beam width and attachment
of fl ange to web), Connecting the tension plate with angles and bolts puts the flange
bolts essentially in uniaxial tension, puts the bolt which passes through the suspender
plate in shear, and distorts the horizontal legs of the angles in bending; so that there

t
t t t
- -
� Axial
:ensirni s..une cro�s­
,,,--,�----- :;ectional area
as bur of
Fig. [Link]

Lateral Lateral
re:;traint .-r,.-f'-----..,.,,_..,•·�
1 restrJinl
- 1_

t
Figure 2.9.2 Effect of notch on uniaxial tension test.
 29 BRITTLE FRACTURE 61

'1
mfr

(b) Weldcd joira

Figure 2.9.3 Comparison of stress conditions in bolted and welded jomts.

is no appreciable effect on the stress at point A In other words, the stress conditions in
the connection of Fig. 2.9.3a are approximately uniaxial in nature.
Next. consider the tensile suspender plate welded to the tension flange of the
beam, as in Fig. 2.9.3b. The stress at point A is now biaxial because of the direct
attachment to the flange at that point. The weld region, therefore, is subject to triaxial
stress; biaxial from the directly applied loads, plus the resistance to deformation along
the axis of the welds resulting from continuous attachment (Poisson's ratio effect).
The design of welded joints should consider the possibilities of brittleness due to
three- dimensional stressing. The subject of lamellar tearing is treated in Sec. 2 . 1 0.

Effect of Thickness
As discussed in Sec. 2.6, thin plates may usually be assumed to be in a state of plane
stress in which the three dimensional stress effects may be ignored. This is not
generally the case for thick plate elements for which three-dimensional stress con­
tributes to brittleness. [Link] in thick plates also increases due to the manufactur­
ing process. The slower cooling rate produces a coarser microstructure, and a higher
carbon content is required to achieve the strength otherwise obtained by hot working
in thin plates.
The very thick rolled W-shapes (ASTM A6/A6M [ 1 . 8], Groups 4 and 5); i.e.,
the so-called "jumbo shapes," exhibit low fracture toughness at the core of the thick
flange to weh junction and the center of the web adjacent to it [2.34]. This low fracture
toughness may cause brittle failures when these heavy W-shapes are used as tension
members. For this reason their use is intended only for compression members [2.35].
When ASTM A6/A6M. Groups 4 and 5 rolled shapes are to be "used as
members subject to primary tensile stresses due to tension or flexure, toughness need
not be specified if splices are made by bol1ing. If such members are spliced using
62 C-A�ER 2 STEE!.S A'iD PROPERTIES
TABLE 2.9.1 THE ELEMENT OF RISK: FACTORS TO ANALYZE IN EST:MAT:'IG
SERIOUSNESS OF BRITTLE FRACTURE FROM REF.
1. \.\':121 is tte r:1inimLJn [Link] 5ern:e t-emperature·7 The lower the ttmperat:.ire. t:le g::-c"ater ti1e
si.:sceptib:lit.Y '..o brilt!e fracture.
2. Are tension stresses involn:d·� Brittle fracrnre rnn occur only under condirion of tensile �-eess.
3. How rhick is the n:a�erial'? The thicker tbe steeL the greater the susceptibility to b!'lttle f::acture.
4. Le; rhc:r"C t:1ree-di1:1e11-:lo!1al continuity'.) Three-dimension;:il continuity, rise to mu;tiaxial
'>tates of stress. ter:.ds to restrain the steel from , 1e1a111g and increases su�ceptibiHty to brittle
fracture,
5. Are notches present': The preser:ce of notches increases susceptibility to brittle fracture.
6, ls loading applied at a high rate'! The the rate of :00.c1111 g. the greater susceptibility to bri-..:tk
fracture.
7. Is there a changing rate of stres:-.'? Brit:lc fracn:re o::::urs cnly 'Jnde-r conditions of increasing rate
of stress.
8. Is welding involved'' \Veld cracks can ace as se, ere notche;;.

complete joint penetration welds. the steel shall be specified in the contract documents
to be supplied with Charpy V-Notch testing in accordance with ASTM A6, Supplemen­
tary Requirement S5." (LRFD-A3. l c) The Bethlehem Steel Technical Bulletin. Use c,f
Heavy Strucwral Shapes in Tension Applications [2.36] provides additional guidance.
Even though jumbo sections were not originally intended for tension applications,
designers use them in such situations.

Effect of Dynamic Loading

The stress-strain properties referred to so far have been for static loading slowly
applied. More rapid loading, such as that of forge drop-hammers, earthquake, or
nuclear blast changes the stress-strain properties. Ordinarily, the increased strain rate
from dynamic loading increases the yield point, tensile strength, and ductility. At
about 600°F ( 320°C) there will be a small decrease i n strength. Some increased
brittleness has been noted with high strain rate, but it seems principally associated
with other factors already discussed, such as notches where stress concentrations exist
and the temperature effect on toughness. The more important factor relating to dy­
namic load application is not that a rapidly increasing strain rate occurs, but that it is
combined with a rapidly decreasing strain rate, The effect of stress variation is
discussed in the section on fatigue.
Table 2.9. l , from Ref. 2.32, provides a list of factors "to help determine whether
or not the risk of brittle fracture is serious and requires special design considerations."

2.1 0 LAMELLAR TEARING

Lamellar tearing is a form of brittle fracture occurring "in planes essentially parallel
to the rolled surface of a plate under high through thickness loading." [2.37], Because
strains resulting from service loads are well below E, , normal loads are not believed
to initiate or propagate lamellar tears, and something else must be responsible. In a

l
 2.10 LAME LLAR TEARING 63

highly restrained welded joint ·'thru-thickness•· strains E are induced by weld metal
shrinkage. The localized strains resulting from weld metal shrinkage, which can be
several times larger than yield strain E, , are the source of the problem.
The subject of lamellar tearing has received considerable attention since the
early l 970s, resulting in a tendency for structural engineers to blame lamellar tearing
for many brittle fractures. The AISC has provided an excellent summary of the

Z Z ""- Thru•thickness direction

Figure 2.10.1 Definition of direction termi nology.

(From Ref. 2.38)

(a) (b)

\C)

Figure 2.10.2 Joints showing typical lamellar tears resulting from shrinkage
of large welds in thick material under high restraint. (From Ref. 2.38)
64 CHA."T::R 2 STEELS N, D PROPERTIES

\
\

Su;;ceptibk derail Imprnved di:t:.i il

(al

Su;;ccptible <lernil lmprov('d detail

(b)

(C)

figure 2.10.3 Susceptibility to lamellar tearing can be reduced

by careful detailing of welded connections. (From Ref. 2.38)

phenomenon [2.38]. Thornton [2.39] has provided design and supervision procedures
to minimize lamellar tearing. For more detailed treatment, the reader is referred to
Kaufman, Pense, and Stout [2.37] and Holby and Smith [2.40].
As a result of the hot rolling operation in manufacture, steel sections have
different properties in the direction parallel to rolling (see Fig. 2. IO. I ). i n the trans­
verse direction, and in the "thru-thickness" direction. In the elastic range, both the
rolling and transverse directions exhibit similar behavior, with the elastic limit for the
transverse direction being only slightly below that for the rolling direction. The
ductility (strain capability), however, in the "thru-thickness" direction may be well
below that for the rolling direction.
Generally, I-shaped steel sections are adequately ductile when loaded either
parallel or transverse to the rolling direction. They will deform locally to strains
greater than the yield strain (FjEJ, carrying load with some of the material acting at
the yield stress and bringing adjacent material into participation if added strength is
needed. When, however, the strain is localized for instance in the "thru-thickness"
direction at one thick flange of a section, a restrained situation exists because the
strain cannot redistribute from the flange through the web to the opposite flange. The
 2 , 1 FA"f!GLJE STRE�IGTH 65
large localized ''thru-thickness"' strain r:1a.\ exceed the yield point srrain.
causing decohesion and leading to a lamellar tear.
Figure 2 . 1 0.2 shows conditions that promote lamelbr tearing in welded joints.
Imernal joint restraint that inhibits large strains E resuiting from weld shrinkage can
potentially cause Iamellar tearing. Figure 2. 1 0. 3 indicates 'A'eld shrinkage in the
"thru-thickness" direction, increasing susceptibility to lamellar tearing. The weld
detail should be made such that weld shrinkage occurs in the rolling direction so that
the shrinkage pulls on the fibers longitudinally in their strongest orientation. Refer­
ences 2.38 and 2.41 suggest ways of avoiding the problem.

2.1 1 FATIGUE STRENGTH

Repeated loading and unloading, primarily in tension, may eventually result in failure
even if the yield stress is never exceeded. The term fatigue means failure under cyclic
loading. It is a progressive failure, the final stage of which is unstable crack propaga­
tion. The fatigue strength is governed by three variables: ( I ) the number of cycles of
loading, (2) the range of service load stress ( the difference between the maximum and
minimum stress), and (3) the initial size of a flaw. A flaw is a discontinuity, such as
an extremely small crack.
In welded assemblies, a Haw could be the "notch'' intersection of two elements
or a "discontinuity" such as a bolt hole. Flaws may be the result of poorly made welds,
rough edges resulting from shearing, punching, or flame cutting, or small holes. Such
flaws may be of no concern; however, under many cycles of loading the flaw (notch
effect) may give rise to a crack that increases in length with each cycle of load and
reduces the section carrying the load, consequently increasing the stress intensity on
the uncracked part. The fatigue strength is more dependent on the localized state of
stre,s than is the static strength. Fatigue is always a service load consideration; the
actual service load state of stress is what determines crack propagation.
The grade of steel has no apparent affect on the number of cycles to failure, and
the effect of minimum stress (attributable to dead load) is considered to be negligible
for design purposes. On the other hand, the specimen geometry, including the surface
condition and internal soundness of the weld, have a significant effect. These factors
are reflected in the Structural Welding Code [2.25] rules for welded structure design.
\Vork by Zuraski and Johnson [2.42] evaluating the remaining life in steel
bridges has shown that under certain conditions repeated stressing in steel sections
can actually increase their fatigue life. The phenomenon, known as coaxing, was first
studied by Sinclair [2.43] and results from repeatedly stressing near, but helow, the
fatigue limit and gradually increasing the stress.
The AISC Specifications [1 .5, 1 . 1 6] in LRFD-App. K3 and ASD-App. K4
prescribe no fatigue effect for fewer than 20,000 cycles, vilhich is approximately two
applications a day for 25 years. Since most loadings in buildings are in that category,
fatigue is generally not considered. The exceptions are crane-runway girders and
structures supporting machinery. Fatigue is always considered in the design of highway
bridges, which are expected to have in excess of 1 00,000 cycles of loading.
 -
6€ Cc-lAPTER 2 STEELS AND PROPERTIES

Structural carbon :,;tee!

with cupp<:'.r

2.0 Cr- Si······ Cu •··· P swel

LO (high-,;::rc1:gtr\. :ow-;.:lloy;

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 LJ i O
Time. years

Figure 2.12.1 Comparative corrosion of steels ir. an

industrial atmosphere. Shaded areas indicate range for
individual specimens. (Adapted from Ref. 2.45)

Volume 1 of the Welding Handbook [2.23, p. 402] shows several good examples
of the fatigue relationships for welded plate girders and cover-plated beams. Extended
discussion of fatigue is given by Barsom and Rolfe [2.29].

2.1 2 CORROSION RESISTANCE AND WEATHERING STEELS

Since the earliest uses of steel, one of the i mportant drawbacks was that painting was
required to prevent the deterioration of the metal by corrosion (rusting). The lower­
strength carbon steels were inexpensive but very vulnerable to corrosion. Corrosion
resistance may be improved by the addition of copper as an alloy element. However,
copper-bearing carbon steel is too expensive for general use.
High-strength low-alloy steels have several times [2.45] the corrosion resistance
of structural carbon steel, with or without the addition of copper, as shown in
Fig. 2. 1 2 . 1 . The h igh-strength low-alloy steels do not pit as severely as carbon steels
and the rust that forms becomes a protectiw coating to prevent further deterioration.
With certain alloy elements the high-strength low-alloy steel will develop an oxide
protective coating that is pleasing in appearance and is described as follows*: "It is a
very dense corrosion-actually a deeply colored brown, red, purple . . . . I t has a
texture and color which cannot be reproduced artificially-a character only nature
can give, as with stone, marhle, and granite." When steels are to be unpainted and left
exposed they are called weathering steels.
As might b e expected, the corrosion properties of any steel, including the
weathering steels, are dependent on the chemical composition, the degree of pollution
in the atmosphere, and the frequency of wetting and drying of the steel.
Since its first major use in 1 958, for the Administrative Center for Deere &
Company in Moline, Illinois, the use of weathering steel has received considerable

*Architectural Record, Augcst 1962.

 SELECTED REFERENCES 67

attention. At first such steels were specified under ASTJ\I A242, which as pre\·iously
discussed is very general, allowing a wide ,ariation in chemistry.
With the adoption of A588 steel in 1969. and A709 in 1 975, A242 is now
essentially obsolete. A588 is generally used for weathering steel in buildings and
A 709 Grades SOW and IOOW for weathering steel in bridges (see Table 2.1.2).
Fabrication and erection of weathering steel requires care. Unsightly gouges,
scratches. and dents should be avoided. Painting. even for identification, should be
minimized, since all marks must be removed after the erection is completed. Scale and
discoloration from welding also must be removed. The extra expense resulting from
fabrication and erection is offset by the elimination of painting at intervals during the
life of the structure.
The practice of using weathering steels, including the results of 30 years experi­
ence, has been summarized by Coburn [2.44]. who presents the following "rules":

1. For optimum performance in the unpainted condition, the structure should

be boldly exposed to the elements.
2. The development of the protective oxide film is best achieved under normal
exposure, wherein the surfaces are wet at night by dew formation and dry
during daylight hours.
3. Because this wet-dry cycle cannot occur when the steel, regardless of its
grade, is buried in the soil or immersed in water, the protective oxide will
not form and the performance will resemble that of mild carbon steel
exposed to the same conditions.

SELECTED R EFERENCES

2.1. ASTM. Standard Specification .for Structural Steel (A36/ A36M-94 ). Philadel­
phia, PA: American Society for Testing and Materials, 1994.
2.2. ASTM. Standard Specification for Pipe, Steel, Black and Hot-Dipped, Zinc­
Coated Welded and Seamless (A53-93a). Philadelphia, PA: American S ociety
for Testing and Materials, 1993.
2.3. ASTM. Standard Specification for High-Strength Low-Alloy Structural Steel
(A242/A242M-93). Philadelphia, PA: American Society for Testing and Mate­
rials, 1993.
2.4. ASTM. Standard Specification for Carbon Steel Bolts and Studs, 60 000 psi
Tensile Strength (A307-92a). Philadelphia, PA: American Society for Testing
and Materials, 1992.
2.5. ASTM. Standard Specification for Structural Bolts, Steel, Heat Treated,
120/ 105 ksi Minimum Tensile Strength (A325/A325M-92a). Philadelphia, PA:
American Society for Testing and Materials, 1992.
2.6. ASTM. Standard Specification for High-Strength Low-Alloy Structural Man­
ganese Vanadium Steel (A441-85). Philadelphia, PA : American Society for
Testing and Materials, 1 985.
2.7. ASTM. Standard Specification for Quenched and Tempered Steel Bolts and
Studs (A449-92b). Philadelphia, PA: American Society for Testing and Materi­
als, 1992.