CHAPTER-I

Introduction

The Rabhas

The People:

The Rabhas are considered as one of the most important and significant
plain Tribes of Assam. As one of the aborigines and earliest known
inhabitants of Assam, West Bengal and Meghalaya, Rabhas are presently
scattered mainly throughout the districts of Kamrup, Goalpara, Darrang and
Nagaon in Assam. However, the Rabhas are mainly concentrated on the south
bank of the river Brahmaputra i.e. in the district of Kamrup, particularly
Kamrup (Rural) and Goalpara. From ancient times, a large section of Rabha
people are living in the northern part of the East Garo Hills district of
Meghalaya which area is contiguous with the Rabha habitats in the districts
of Kamrup and Goalpara in Assam. Rabhas are scattered in the different parts
of North Bengal. But, at the present time due to various causes Rabha people
are scattered throughout all the districts of Assam. According to the
anthropologists, various writers, administrators and missionaries, the Rabhas
belong to the great Bodo family of Indo-Mongoloid ethnic group, which is
known as Bodo and has Tibeto-Burman linguistic affiliation.
 History is silent about the migration of the Rabhas, when and from
where they came to this fertile land of Assam. Therefore, it is very difficult to
trace the original etimological meaning of the word Rabha. There are
different traditional Rabha legends in connection with their origin from
which it may be determined that their original home was somewhere in the
Tibet region. Originally, the Rabhas called themselves as Raba, which means
to bring in the Rabha language. According to the legend about their origin,
the Rabhas were brought to the Prithimi (earth) from the Rang-Karang i.e.
the Heaven by the Risi-bay or Lord Rishi, the supreme God. The Lord Rishi
dwells in the Rang-Karang (Heaven) and he is the creator of this world. In
the name of Lord Rishi, Takmambra rules and controls the Prithimi (earth).
The Lord Rishi created the human race in different groups and in this way a
group consisting of three brothers – Binga, Ringa and Raba were sent to the
Prithimi (earth) from the Rang-Karang with their families for settlement in
the earth permanently. The last group i.e. Raba is considered as the ancestor
of the Rabha people according to this legend. From this legend, the word
Rang-Karang indicates the Tibetan region (the roof of the world) as heaven
and the word Prithimi indicates the land area, which is situated to the south of
the Himalayas i.e. ancient Kamrupa. This is the most popular and accepted
legend in respect of their origin among the Rabhas living in different
localities. (Rabha: 2002:102-202)

The identity of the people consist of their racial, geographical,

historical, ethnic, linguistic and other features, which give them distinct
characteristics and distinguish them from other people of the land. Being an
indigenous tribe, the Rabhas have their own distinct and unique identity in
the context of their racial origin, original abode, language, culture, customs
and way of life. Sidney Endle, the first English writer to include the Rabhas
in his Appendix to the book The Kacharis (Bodo), remarked: ―The name of
this tribe (Rabha) is of uncertain derivation …‖ (Endle: 1990: 83). Therefore,
the origin of the name Rabha has been a subject of controversy. Even today,
it is still unclear as to how the term Rabha came into usage. In the dialect of
the Kochha-Rabha, the word morab means man. So, according to Dhananjay
Rabha, the word Rabha has been most probably derived from the words ma <
mra = man and rab = uneven or rough; ha > a> ni = land or earth, i.e. man of
uneven place. He is of the opinion that during the migration, a group of
people called Kochha first took refuge in Tibet in a place called Rab-ha and
then entered into Assam and migrated to Garo Hills. Since they came from
the place Rab-ha> Rab-a, they came to be known as Raba or Rabha. He says
that still there is a place in Tibet called Rabha in the Mango Valley (Rabha:
1998:27). According to Rebati Mohan Saha, Kochha is the traditional
identification of the Rabhas. The name Rabha was given to a section of the
Kochha by the Garos (Saha: 1988:47).

Friend Pereira in the Census Report of 1911 states, When Husheng was
the chief of the powerful strong clan, he brought the Rabhas into Someswari
Valley to till the land, because at that time, the Garos, being nomads, were
not acquainted with more settled methods of husbandry. Basing on this
report, Rebati Mohan Saha is of the opinion that the Rabha, who in the past
were known as Kochhas, were called back by the Garo king Husheng to teach
the Garos the art of cultivation, because they were living mainly on hunting.
Hence, the Rabha people, who had been once driven out of Garo Hills, had to
teach them how to till the soil. He attests that these people (Rabhas) were
called back i.e. Raba by the Garos. The word Raba in Garo language means
recalled or called back (Saha: 2006:46). Thus, many writers have tried to
trace the origin of the name Rabha without any satisfactory explanation. The
above view of Rebati Mohan Saha cannot be taken for granted as absolutely
true, but it needs further investigation to arrive at certitude. Another
legendary belief shows that the Garos were not quite acquainted with
agricultural activities, especially wet cultivation. So, they hired some Rabha
people and engaged them as appointed workers. This legend has also a strong
base among the Rabhas as well as the Garos (Jose:2013:64)

Anthropologists and various authors expressed different views in

connection with the origin of the Rabhas. According to Waddell, The Rabhas
are an offshoot of the Kachari tribe. (Waddell:1900:65) Friend Pereira, Late
sub-divisional officer, Goalpara gave various informations and collected
different data about the Rabhas from different places which are already
recorded in the Census of India. According to Friend Pereira, In general
appearance, the Rabhas show all the characteristics of the Mongolian stock,
a round face, flat nose, prominent check bones abliquely set eyes, sallow
complexion, curse hair, scanty beard and well developed lower extremity.
(Friend Pereira: 1911:141) According to Playfair, It appears that the Rabhas
occupied the Garo Hills where from they came down to the plains. That their
original habitat was the region bordering the northern slopes of the Garo
Hills, is also supported by the fact that certain section of the tribe which lives
on the border of that district have no word for the north and south, but
described the former by the word Bhota-hi-chu or Bhutan and latter by Tura,
the district headquarters of the Garo Hills. (Playfair: 1975:22)

Gait says: There seems to be a good deal of uncertainty as to what

these people (Rabhas) really is. In lower Assam, it is asserted that they are
an offshoot of the Garos while in Kamrup and Darrang it is thought that they
are Kacharis on the road of Hinduism. That they belong to the great Bodo
family is certain. (Gait: 2014:232) Dalton holds that The true Rabha customs,
with the exception of the laws of inheritance and marriage, resemble those of
the Garos or those of the Pani Koches.(Dalton: 1972:87) Allen is of the
opinion that, the Rabhas are a section of the Bodo race and appears to be an
offshoot of the Garos. (Allen: 1905:49) Endle also maintains, Their origin is
but imperfectly known, but they are said to be descended from a Hindu father
who lost caste by marrying a Kachari woman. (Endle: 1975:83) Martin says
that the Rabhas constitute a tribe of Kamrup, which is chiefly confined to the
parts of this district, that lie towards its eastern extremity, but there it
contains a large population of the inhabitants and may amount to 2000
families. The Rabhas are divided into two kinds, the Patis and the Rangdanis,
the former who are the most numerous have adopted the language of Bengal
and cultivated with plough. The latter retains their original language.
(Martin: 1938:546) Summing up, it seems probable that Mongoloid people
came in successive waves from the north and the north-eastern region. They
have partly or wholly absorbed the autochthonous Astroaloid and letter on
formed various tribes like the Rabhas and the Garos etc. The Indo-Aryan
strain appears to have entered Assam along with the spread of the cult of
Brahmanism and contributed to the racial makeup of its inhabitants. (Das:
1966:117)

According to Martin, They (Rabha) are akin to be a branch of the Koch

tribe known as Pani Koch who are thinly scattered over all the parts of
Assam and lower parts of Bhutan.(Martin:1938:545). Analyzing
somatometric and some other genetical character of the Rabhas with some
other tribes of Assam, Dr. B.M. Das opines, The Rabhas are more affiliated
to the Bodo group in their physical characteristics than the other groups.
Among the Bodo tribes, Rabhas appear to be more closely related to the
Garos than others. The Koches are similar to the Rabhas in respect of
stature, nasal index and cephalic index only. (Das:1966:111-112) Regarding
the origin of the Rabhas he states, Mongoloid peoples came in successive
waves from the north and northeastern region. They have partly or wholly
absorbed the autochthonous Australoid and later on formed various tribes
like the Rabhas, the Garos etc. (Das: 1966:117)

After analyzing different views expressed by the different writers in

context of origin of the Rabhas, Rajen Rabha opines In regard to the
language spoken by the Rabhas, the Garos, the Kacharis, the Koches and the
Rajbansis, it is easily discernible that the Rabha language which is in reality
a distinct language differs vary materially from the language of the Garos,
the Kocharis and the Rajbansis, but shows remarkable and striking
resemblances with the language spoken by the Koches, the Atongs and the
Rugas, apparently supporting the belief that the Atong, the Rugas and the
Koches belonged to the same stock, having sprung from the common original
tribe known as “Raba>Rabha. (Rabha:2002:15)

In caste position and social status, the Rabhas hold themselves higher
than the Garos but they are equal to that of the Koches. Most of the
matrilineal clans of the Koches are also similar to those of the Rabhas. But,
there are no such similar matrilineal clans among the Kacharis and the
Rajbangsis. Rajen Rabha mentions, ―…..another distinguishing social feature
which shows that the Kacharis are purely patriarchal whereas the Garos are
matriarchal in all respects; while the Rabhas are matriarchal only in respect
of their clans called ‘barai’, but matri-patrilineal in respect of their
inheritance. The Rabhas follow the patrilineal rule of residence and sons
inherit the property of their father though they take their ‘barai’ or clan
names after their mother. Thus, the Rabhas depict a matri-patri-complex, the
study of which is quite important from the sociological point of view and the
interesting socio-cultural pattern gives it distinctiveness from the other tribes
of Assam‖. (Rabha:2002:16) Dr. Bhuban Mohan Das also remarks that with a
full of distinct and own tradition, language and culture, unique
characteristics, religion and beliefs, legends and tells Rabhas are completely a
separate and independent tribe of Assam. (Das: 2008:131).

The Different Rabha Groups:

 Rabha is a generic name for a number of communities, which can be
designated as sub-tribes. From this point of view the Rabha comprises of
eight socio-cultural and linguistic clans, such as —

1. The Pati,
2. The Rangdani,
3. The Maitari,
4. The Kochha (Koch),
5. The Dahari,
6. The Bitalia,
7. The Totla and
8. The Hana or Shonga
In the Vedic age, the four castes i.e. Brahman, Kshatriya, Baishya and
Sudra were created depending upon their works. In this way, the divisions of
the Rabha people are made as per their assigned works in their original
Khoksi or Baikho Puja. In the place of Athiabari, they first arranged the
original Khoksi Puja. According to Rajen Rabha, different work divisions
were made among the Rabha people to conduct the works of the puja, as
mentioned in the following groups:-

The Pati Rabha: The forefather of the Pati Rabhas was assigned to bring Pat
i.e. leaves for the puja, because, Pat is the most essential element for
performing any kind of puja among the Rabhas. This group of Rabha people
was assigned to collect Pat for the different activities of the [Link] the other
hand, Patrang means leaf-cutters in the Rabha language and it is said that
from that word, the group of the leaf-cutters was identified as Pati Rabha.
The Rangdani Rabhas: In the Khoksi Puja, to prepare alters for the Deities,
stones were required. These stones were carried by a group of people from
the nearby hill areas. The people who carried the stones from the nearby
areas are called the Rangdanis. Because, in the Rabha language Rang means
stone and dani means one who carries. In this way, the divisions of Rangdani
Rabha were created.

The Maitari Rabha: In the Rabha language, Mai means Rice and tari
means to distribute. So, the people of this group were assigned the
responsibilities to prepare and distribute rice in the community feast during
the puja.

The Dahari Rabha: During the puja and community feast, a group of people
was engaged to drive away wild birds and animals by using dahuri i.e. a kind
of small bamboo. Ultimately, the word dahuri created the division of Dahari
Rabhas.

The Bitalia Rabhas: This group of people was engaged to create humour
during the different occasions of the puja period. Therefore, the Bitalia group
of Rabhas gratified the people by telling various ludicrous stories. On the
other hand, another opinion is that, a group of the Rabhas specialized in the
plantation of areca-nut trees and so they came to be known as Betilla >
Betilia > Bitalia. The term Betilla means areca-nut in Rabha language
(Rabha:1998:30-32).

The Totla Rabha and Hana Rabhas: The Totla group of Rabhas changed
their former method of worship. Contrary to the previous practices, they
began to offer the entrails of the victims to their deities instead of blood
during the worship. The Rabha word for entrails is totla for which this group
is recognized as Totla Rabha. On the other hand, one group of the Rabhas
sacrificed their offerings during the worship by piercing instead of cutting the
neck. In Rabha language to pierce is called Hana for which this group of
Rabha is identified as Hana Rabha. (Rabha:2002:25) It is remarkable that
Kochha Rabhas are not directly associated with the Khoksi puja. They
worship originally Rantuk Puja with the other groups of Rabhas individually
and collectively instead of Khoksi puja.

The Pati Rabhas are scattered in the whole of the Kamrup district,
particularly in the south of the Brahmaputra and nearby half of the Goalpara
district covering a distance of about 200 K.M. from Sonapur in the East to
Krishnai in the West. Pati Rabhas are also found in the eastern and southern
parts of undivided Nagaon district.

The Rangdani group of Rabhas is found in the western and

northwestern parts of the Goalpara district in the South bank of the
Brahmaputra River and the northern part of the Garo Hills district of
Meghalaya. The habitat of this group begins where that of the Pati group
ends. Villages of the Pati and Rangdani group of Rabhas are found
juxtaposed in this area.

Maitari group of Rabhas are found in the southwestern part of the

Goalpara district from which the habitat of Rangdani group ends. This area
covers up to the northern part of the Garo Hills ditrict of Meghalaya.
 Dahari group of Rabhas are scattered in the Southern part of the
Goalpara district among the people of Rangdani and Pati groups. They are
also found in the northern part of Goalpara district and northern part of the
Garo Hills district.

The Totla and Hana group of Rabhas are found in certain areas of
undivided Darrang and Kamrup areas together in the same villages.

The Bitalia group of Rabhas is comparatively smaller in number and

they are scattered in the Southern part of the Goalpara district.

The Kochha or Koch group of Rabhas is found in the westernmost part

of Goalpara district. They are also scattered in the adjoining area of North
Bengal particularly in the Cooch-Behar and Jalpaiguri areas. Kochha Rabhas
are also found in the Garo Hills district of Meghalaya. On the other hand,
originally Rabhas are also scattered in certain places of North and west
Bengal, particularly in the area of Midnapur, 24-Parganas, Burdwan, Purulia,
Bankura, West Dinajpur, etc.

Population Distribution:

The Rabhas are one of the oldest communities of North-East India.

They are proud of their origin and cultural heritage. Rabha people are
presently scattered in different areas of Assam, Arunachal Pradesh,
Nagaland, Meghalaya, West Bengal, Tripura and Bihar. A small number of
Rabhas are also found in our neighbouring Nepal and Bangladesh. Rabhas
are scattered in almost all the districts of Assam. But, main concentration of
Rabha people are found in present Kamrup and Goalpara districts,
particularly in the Southern part of the river Brahmaputra. In the district of
Karbi Anglong, North Kachar, Karimganj and Hailakandi, lesser number of
Rabha people are found than the other districts of Assam. From the point of
view of population of Tribal people of Assam, Rabha group is in fourth place
among 31 tribal communities in Assam following respectively the Bodos, the
Misings and the Karbis and they constitute about 8.14 per cent of Assam’s
total tribal populations.

The population figure of the Rabhas of Assam from the census report is
given districtwise as below:

Name of Year 1991 Year 2001

State/District
Male Female Total Male Female Total

Assam 120139 116792 236931 140614 136903 277517

Goalpara 40816 39873 80689 47217 46695 93912

Kamrup 38137 36817 74954 45177 43014 88191

Darrang 14644 14366 29010 16358 15973 32331

Nalbari 7969 7870 15839 8908 8655 17563

Kokrajhar 4890 4766 9656 6530 6482 13012

Dhubri 4406 4298 8704 5078 5055 10133

Bongaigaon 2853 2805 5658 3333 3367 6700

Sonitpur 2029 1941 3970 2130 2126 4256

Borpeta 1137 1095 2232 2128 2016 4144

Dhemaji 1006 948 1954 976 902 1878

Nagaon 989 898 1887 1196 1167 2363

Golaghat 659 622 1281 681 626 1307

Dibrugarh 231 220 451 202 169 371

Tinsukia 120 92 212 429 401 830

Lakhimpur 100 68 168 89 86 175

Morigaon 70 58 128 28 38 66

Jorhat 42 22 64 68 64 132

Sibsagar 31 19 50 58 50 108

Kachar 7 7 14 22 15 37

Karimganj 3 2 5 1 0 1

No records of Rabha population are found for the district of Karbi

Anglong, Hailakandi and North Kachar.
Source: (1) 1991 Census Report of Assam and (2) 2001 Census Report of
Assam.

According to census report 2001, Assam has 2, 77,517 Rabha people,

out of which 1, 40,614 are male and 1, 36,903 are female. From the data, it is
seen that the total Rabha population in Assam consists of 8.4% of the total
state population. Again the total Rabha population of present Kamrup district
is 88,191 out of which 45,177 are male and 43,014 are female and in
Goalpara districts it is 93,912 out of which 47,217 male and 46,695 are
female. The percentage of Rabha population in the Kamrup district is 9.9%
and in Goalpara 16.0%.

District wise distribution of Rabha excluding Rabha Hasong Autonomous

Council Areas is given below.

Year 2011

Name of District Total Male Total Total

Female Population

Kokrajhar 11,213 11042 22255

Chirang 1007 1033 2040

Bongaigaon 2814 2185 5599

Barpeta 85 67 152

Nalbari 24 26 50

Baksa 10146 9863 20009

Darrang 330 311 641

Udalguri 15384 15489 30873

Sonitpur 2102 2059 4161

Lakhimpur 138 137 275

Dhemaji 1168 1164 2332

Tinsukia 555 548 1103

Dibrugarh 163 166 329

Sivsagar 64 60 124

Jorhat 75 62 137

Golaghat 1030 1055 2085

Nagaon 1114 1149 2263

Morigaon 80 73 153

Cachar 46 63 109
Hailakandi 12 17 29

Karimganj 8 7 15

Kamrup Metro 3218 3212 6430

Dhubri 115 120 235

Total Population 50,891 49,908 1,01,399

Source: 2011 Census Report of India

Economic and Educational Life:

The Rabha economy is predominantly agrarian. Agriculture,

horticulture, fishing, collecting fire woods from the neareby forest were the
most important source of their livelihood in their early days. But, at present
these are considered of a subsidiary status. Rice is their staple food. They
cultivate both Ahu and Sali variety of paddy. They also cultivate jute,
mustard seeds, pulses, betel nuts, coconuts and various kinds of fruits and
vegetables at present. Besides this cultivation, they rear domestic birds and
animals like pigs, fowls, ducks, pigeon, cows, buffallos, and goats to fulfill
their both social and domestic needs as well as for sale. Thus, agriculture,
horticulture and animal husbandry have been playing a vital and significant
role in building economic life of the Rabhas.
 Dishes prepared from pork, mutton, chicken, duckmeat, fish, crabs,
silkworm larvae, etc. are favourite among them in their day-to-day life as
well as, in various rites and rituals, festivals and ceremonies. Beef is strictly
prohibited in the Rabha society, but in modern times, milk is taken by the
Rabhas though they did not take it in the past. Rice beer is the popular drink
of the society and it is prepared in household itself. Other indigenous food
articles of the Rabhas may be mentioned are dry-fish, Meba/Mikhi (Bamboo-
shoot), and Bamchokhali. Bamchokhali prepared from grained rice was
taken as curry with regular meal (Rice). At present, Dail or Dali of the
general Indian people has replaced the Bamchokhali food article among the
Rabhas. One more distinct change in the food habit of the Rabhas is use of
tea under the influence of Aryan people. Earlier, rice-bear was the first and
foremost drink offered to a guest in the Rabha society. Although, rice bear is
still used among the Rabhas, tea has replaced it to a great extent. (Hakacham
and Rabha: 2009: 172)

The women of the Rabhas are expert in weaving and spinning. At least
one handloom is invariably seen in each of the Rabha families. The skill of
the Rabha women in respect of weaving and spinning is nationally
recognized. In the past, the Rabhas cultivated cotton locally for this purpose.
But, presently they locally produce Endi, Pat (silk) and Muga cocoons.

It is observed that, most of the Rabha people are still living below the
poverty line. Expected level of economic development of the Rabhas has not
taken place till day. The major factor of this economic backwardness is their
inability to exploit the resources available to them as well as their current
socio-cultural system. Lack of entrepreneurship development attitude among
them is also considered as a major factor for their economic backwardness.

Upto few years back, most of the Rabha families were not conscious of
their children’s education. Their economic hardship had compelled them to
send their children to work in the agricultural field rather than to the school
for education. Moreover, women education was not given due importance by
their society. For this reason, the education among the Rabhas is too poor and
number of literates in their society is not upto the mark till today. In present
days, the Rabhas have been hardly exposed to modern science and
technology. Their social and economic world is still under the influence of
their traditional beliefs and customs. But, in modern times, this phenomenon
of the Rabha society has gradually changed in the light of modern education
system. In the modern and competitive educational field, it is observed that
most of the Rabhas are now more conscious for spreading education among
them for their total upliftment as well as their socio-cultural and economic
development.

Language:

Linguistically, the Rabhas originally belong to Tibeto-Burman

affiliation. The sub-groups of Rabhas, such as Pati, Dahari, Chunga, Bitalia,
and Totla have very close contact with the neighbouring Assamese speaking
population. For this cultural contact, except Rangdani, Maitori and Kochha
groups, all other groups of the Rabha people have gradually adopted broken
Assamese as their mother tongue, recently named as Rabhamese by professor
Upen Rabha Hakacham. Rabhamese is spread among many Rabha groups
such as the Pati, Bitalia, Totla, Dahari and Hana. The other groups are
bilingual, as they were educated in Assamese medium, and used Assamese
instead of their mother tongue in most situations. The Rangdani, Kochha and
Maitari groups of the Rabhas have retained their original Rabha language to
some extent. In their day-to-day domestic life, almost all the Rangdani Rabha
uses their own original language. But, most of them are at present speaking
both Assamese and Rabha language in public parlance. The Kochha group of
Rabhas also speaks the same language used by the Rangdani and the Maitari,
but their word and sentence structure and pronunciation differ slightly.
(Bora:2008:40). It is remarkable that, at present, some Rabha people got
organized and tried their best for the revival of the language and literature.
Sodow Rabha Kristi Sanmilon, BRKR (Bebak Rabha Krowrang Runchum)
organized in 1973, Rabha Bhasa Parishad (1980) are the organizations,
which are engaged in different activities along with the sense of ethnic
identity for revival of Rabha language.

Clan organization : The Matrilineal elements

The Baray and Husuk
The different groups of the Rabhas have their several small clans
termed as baray or husuk, which is completely regarded as matrilineal.
Because, the children take their baray name after the mother’s; as for
example if the mother’s baray is pam, then her sons and daughters will get
the mother’s baray and they are recognized as belonging to the pam baray. In
the Rabha social system, marriage within a same baray is strictly prohibited.
Husuks are sub-divided into sub-husuks which system is now found among
the Kochha Rabhas only. Marriage within these sub-husuks is also strictly
prohibited. But, at present it is remarkable that this baray system is found
among the Rangdani, Maitari and Dahari group of Rabhas only. The pati
group of Rabhas has already almost lost their own baray system. (Rabha:
2002: 73)

There is a remarkable social system, which is known as huri or saru.

Huri is consisting of two or more than two like minded and closed baray. The
members of the same huri consider themselves mutually as their kins or
friends. It is also found that a ‘baray’ may have friendship with other two or
more ‘Huris’ or ‘Sarus’. In such a case also marriage is prohibited. It is true
that marriage regulation is the main function of the Rabha clan system
including the ‘baray’ and the ‘Huri’. But, there is a difference between the
two: the ‘baray’ is involved on inheritance of property while the ‘Huri’ is
not. (Rabha:2002:75). In this way, the friendship among the different families
of different barays made these families united together under the huri’
system and might have lived side by side and came into close contact.

Matrilineal to Patrilineal Society:

The Rabhas followed matrilineal system in the earlier times in respect

of property inheritance. At present, this system is almost lost among the
Rabha groups and patrilineal system is being followed by them. Matrilineal
system is only still continuing in the matter of specific ethnic title inheritance
which system is known as baray among the Rabhas. The reason behind such
transformation may be assumed to have its root in the change of agricultural
system they followed. In the beginning, the Rabhas practiced Jhum or the
Shifting cultivation system. In course of time, they adopted wet cultivation
system and accordingly began animal domestication such as cows and
buffaloes. Rabi- crop cultivation also came in practice among the Rabhas.
Such changes in agriculture system also brought about a change in their
festival observance. Such phenomenon may have occurred due to coming in
contact with the surrounding people (Assamese) along with change of
agricultural system.

Position of women:

Like other matrilineal tribes, among the Rabhas, the women do not
occupy very high or influential positions. The women are mainly responsible
for the management of the domestic affairs. In the traditional Rabha family,
the women help the male members in the various agricultural activities in the
field as well as at home. The work of uprooting and transplanting seedlings
and reaping the corn is generally done by Rabha women in the agricultural
field. Earlier, they were also involved in collecting firewood from the nearby
forests for their family use regularly.
 In the Rabha family, women are never considerd as slaves of men or
burden of the family. The husband and wife generally maintain happy
conjugal life for which, divorce is rare in the Rabha family system. The
Rabha women therefore, enjoy a strong position in this traditional social
system. They can freely participate in different social ceremonies and
religious fairs and festivals with the men. The significance and unique
character of Rabha women is that they are very mild, free and frank in their
manner and having a high regard for upholding the high moral standards.

Marriage and Divorce:

The marriage system among the Rabhas is very simple. Like other
tribal societies of Assam, there are some unique customary rules, which
govern the marital relationship among the Rabhas. Baray and huri system is
mainly remarkable in this context. Previously, though the early marriage
system was mostly welcomed by the Rabhas, but the child marriage tradition
is not found among the Rabhas. Marriage among the same baray and same
huris is strictly prohibited among them. Monagamy rule is normally followed
by the Rabhas. Polygamy is allowed in certain circumstances only. On the
other hand, polyandry is not seen among the Rabha society. Widow and
widower marriage rule is found in their society. Previously, one could marry
the daughter of his maternal uncle, which is considered as the ideal bride.
But, presently the new generation of the Rabha people does not prefer this
custom. Apart from this, the cross-cousin marriage, inter marriage, parallel
cousin marriage system is also allowed in their society.
 Divorce as well as the customary laws of divorce is also found among
the Rabhas from the early times. The panchira is a traditional and customary
rule of divorce, which is formally and socially accepted in their society. In
this system, the victim party may appeal to the gaon-sabha i.e. village
council for the approval of their divorce. The village council after hearing the
ground of divorce publicly examines whether it is genuine or not and
formally approves the divorce. Then both the husband and wife present in the
council stand in opposite direction and tear a betel leaf each. It is a kind of
symbolic expression of publicly approved separation. The party obtaining the
major portion of the leaf will be entitled first to marry for the second time if
so desires. On the occasion of panchira act each party has to pay an equal
amount of money to the village council for conducting the panchira act.
(Bora: 2008:33)

Religion :

The religious faith of the Rabhas is animistic from the beginning. Endle
opines : ―the general type of the Rabha religion is distinctly animistic but the
one or two of the higher subdivisions especially the ‘Patis’ are said to show a
leaning towards Hinduism of the ‘Sakta’ form.‖ (Endle:1975:85). The Rabhas
believe in different gods and goddesses and other objects of nature.
According to them, these gods and goddesses live in the nature i.e. trees,
mountains, rivers, ponds and such other lonely places. Due to animistic faith,
in the beginning, the form of every deity, viz. Langa, Khoksi, Thakurani, etc.
was represented by stone. It is after coming in close contact with the other
Aryan people; they began to worship different gods and goddesses like
Durga, Kali, and Siva etc. of the Hindu pantheon. Rajen Rabha divided the
original Rabha deities as benevolent and malevolent (Rabha:2002:87).
Benevolent deities are controllers of various natural calamities and also
protector of the human lives and animal kingdom. Langamara, Khokchi,
Rishi Bai, Rantuk, etc. are few examples of Rabha benevolent deities. On the
other hand, the malevolent spirits are always motivated to do mischievous
acts and seek opportunity to bring disease, death, damage of crops or
destruction of domestic animals and birds. Few examples of such malevolent
deities are Marang Bai, Baima Bai, Bichayali Bai, Jakhini Bai, etc. Again,
J.N Bantho has divided these deities into two sections i.e. Rabha Bai (Rabha
deities) and Lama Bai (non-Rabha deities). (Bantho: 1974:44) At present, the
Rabhas gradually have begun idol worshipping due to close contact with the
other Aryan people living in proximity with them. They are seen to
participate in all the Hindu pujas to the fullest. Presently, a section of Rabhas
is converted to Christianity, though earlier, decades back, Rabha society did
not accept a Christian family. Ultimately, we may say that, Rabhas are liberal
in religious matters i.e. they no more show aversion towards any particular
religion.

The Cult of Manasa – An Introduction :

Manasa, the Snake Goddess was worshipped both by the tribal and non
tribal people of Assam with a view to allaying the fear of snake bite and to be
blessed with material wealth, children and other things supposed to give
earthly happiness. (Sarmadoloi:1969:257) The folk goddess of snakes is
worshipped mainly for the prevention and cure of snakebite and also for
fertility and general prosperity. In different parts of India, serpents are held in
great awe and esteem and are worshipped by many tribes and non-tribes. In
Western Assam and Eastern Bengal, Manasa or Bishahari or Padmavati is
worshipped by all classes of people including the Rabhas. She is the special
favourite and characteristic deity worshipped by tribes like the Rabhas. In
Assam, the worship of Manasa is prevalent mainly in the districts of
Goalpara, Kamrup and the sub-division of Mangaldoi in the district of
Darrang.

Snake or serpent worship (ophiolatry) is not only prevalent in India, it

is found in the different cultures of the world. Primitive religious beliefs are
intimately connected with the worship. According to Fergusson, there are
traditions of snake worship in Egypt, Siria, Masopotamia, Greece, Italy,
Germany, Scandinavia, France, Great Britain, Africa, America, Combodia,
China, Srilanka and India from the ancient times. (Fergusson:1873:1-75) The
cult of serpents has been prevalent in India in a widespread manner in all
ages. (Neog:1984:43).

It is also found in the Vedas and in the earliest Buddhist sculptures.

(Smith:1911:80). The various stories of the serpent race are also found in the
Mahabharata and the Puranas. In the ancient folk tales and legends, the race
of Nagas i.e. serpents or snakes are frequently mentioned and are associated
with many folk-beliefs. Snake cults are still widely prevalent in southern
India. There is a Poison shrine or Snake shrine in every respectable Hindu’s
garden in Malabar. It is remarkable that God Siva of the Saivas has serpents
as his ornament and is described as the father of the serpent goddess Manasa,
and that Lord Vishnu of Vaishnavas has Ananta, the great serpent, as his bed.
Krishna’s elder brother, Balrama is sometimes considered as an incarnation
of Ananta. (Neog:2008:44)

The snake worhship is prevalent among the Khasis of Meghalaya who

worshipped U-Thlen, a monstrous snake with human blood. U-Thlen was
killed by a hero with a red hot iron and the body of this monster snake was
cut into several pieces and were distributed all over the Khasi country with an
order to eat the pieces of the snake by people. The people obeyed the order
but one piece remained uneaten, from that piece sprang up many thlens
(snakes), and infested the country. As U-Thlen had to be propitiated with
human blood, murders were committed till quite recent times
(Neog:1984:40). The Hajongs worshipped snakes to avert diseases and
calamities. The Mishimis were also worshiper of the serpent. The Bodos and
the Rabhas in western Assam have worshipped the Manasa as Barmani from
mediaval times. Scholars of both the Indian and Western are of the opinion
that serpent worship, an important ingredient of Indian primitive culture was
the substratum on which the new godling found sufficient scope to appear as
Manasa in the later periods of history (Sarmadoloi:1969:257).

We have no evidence as to when the worship of goddess Manasa was

first introduced in Assam. But from the bronze image of Manasa with a child
on the lap ascribed to the twelfth-thirteenth century A.D, it may be assumed
that the worship of the deity was prevalent in Assam at least from the twelfth
century. (Sarma:1973:177) It is observed that the worship of goddess Manasa
was most possibly spread to Assam from North Bengal, which was then a
part of Kamrupa both politically and culturally. The worship of Manasa was
chiefly found particularly in the snake infested areas. Sculptured evidences
show that images of Manasa had been sculptured only from the 10 th century
both in Assam and Bengal. It can be definitely be said that the worship of
Manasa as the goddess of serpents began in Assam and Bengal sometimes
after the Devi Bhagavat and the Brahmavaivarta Purana had glorified her
with the status and dignity of godhead (Sarmadoloi:1969:263-264). Manasa
icons recovered from Silghat and Numaligarh amply prove the existence of
her worship before the thirteenth century. In Assam, Manasa worship
probably originated somewhere in the western part of the ancient Kamrupa
and later spread to other places almost at the same time. But, in the upper
Assam, no evidence is found regarding the worship of Manasa in the ancient
times.

The goddess has various names denoting different qualities i.e.

Padmavati, Brahmani, Vishahari, Nagmata etc. Besides these there are some
popular names which indicate the popularity of the deity among the rural
people. As she does away with pestilent diseases (Marimaraka), she is
popularly known as Maroi. Her worship is called (in Assam) Maroi Puja or
Mare Puja. By inserting a pin of her bangle, once, Chandi out of jealousy,
made Padmavati blind of one eye. She is therefore known as Kani (Blind).
She is also known as Totala (Stammerer), Bahura (separated or lonely) and
Beng-Khaity (frog eater). She is Manasa because she bit her mother.
(Choudhury:2013:27-28)

In Kamrupa, Manasa is worshipped on a community basis or

individually. Some people perform it annually while some others on some
particular occasions. Manasa worship is generally performed today with the
help of clay image. Besides offering normal articles, special care is taken to
offer siju (a type of cactus resembling the head of a snake) and lotus which
are great favourites of the goddess. In the Manasa puja, the goddess is
worshipped along with the worship of Ganesa, Vishnu, Siva, Durga, Sitala,
Lakshmi, Suvachini and four sages. Blood sacrifices consisting of duck,
pigeons, or goats along with the rice, sweetmeats, fruits and flowers are
offered in the worship. Brahman priests worship the deity according to the
Manasa Puja Vidhi. The performance of the Ojapali is a part and parcel of
the Manasa puja. The choral performance of Ojapali is held simultaneously
with formal worship to the accompaniment of the rhythmic jingling sound of
small cymbals. The Oja recites the narrative verses of Manasa Kavya with
dance and appropriate hand postures (Mudra), while his assistants (known as
Palis) repeat the refrain. They sing songs from the text of the Padmapurana.
The dance of Deodha or that of Deodhani (a shamanistic dance) is an
essential function connected with the Manasa worship held in Assam.
Manasa worship was very popular and still continues to be so in the western
part of Assam. (Choudhury:2013:30)

There are three chief Manasa poets whose songs are sung at the time of
the Manasa worship – Mankar, Durgavar and Sukavi Narayandeva. Mankar
seems to be the first Assamese Manasa poet. Mankar and Durgavar, two
noted poets of the sixteenth century composed a good number of songs in
praise of the goddess Manasa. The songs were sung in connection with the
worship of goddess Manasa. Threir verses are known respectively as
Mankari, Durgabari and Suknanni. The more imposing name Padma-Purana
is also applied to all of them. This show that by the time of the sixteenth
century, the worship of goddess Manasa became popular in Kamrupa. The
subjects of Padma Purana are the birth of the goddess Manasa, the origin of
her worship, her quarrel with the Saiva merchant Chandradhara, the life of
Beula- Lakhindar, the ultimate victory of Padma over Chandradhara. The
goddess is worshipped in other parts of India particularly on the
Nagpanchami tithi i.e. the fifth day of the dark half of Sravana (July-August).
But, in Assam the goddess is worshipped in any auspicious day of the year,
although her worship is performed generally in the summer and rainy
seasons. So, Mankar mentions in a song that Manasa should be worshipped in
the Assamese month of Sravana. Manasa worship may continue for one day
or for three days or for five days and even for seven days.
(Choudhury:2013:28)

Objectives of the studies

A number of writers and anthropologists have studied the social,

economic, religious aspects as well as folk-culture of the Rabhas. But, they
have not depicted the real and overall profile of the different groups of the
Rabha people. It is observed that the Rabhas are very rich and unique in their
colourful traditional culture. The traditional folk culture, social customs, fairs
and festivals, performing art forms, material culture and oral folklore - all
these significant aspects of folklore of the Rabhas reflect their rich heritage. It
is also remarkable that due to lack of preservation many of the traditional
customs of the Rabhas have already been lost.

Therefore, an attempt has been made here to explore the socio-cultural

aspects in connection with the Manasa cult among the Rabhas. This study
surveys the cult of Manasa among the Rabhas, text of the Manasa epic,
performing art forms relating to the Manasa cult, beliefs and superstitions
related to Manasa. It is an attempt to explore the traditional folk culture
relating to Manasa cult among the Rabhas and to record these materials for
future generations. It is expected that the study will be regarded as a valuable
contribution to enrich our overall national culture.

On the other hand, the socio-cultural life of the Rabhas of Assam can
never be independent of the composite mainstream of original homeland. The
Rabhas living in Assam have already acquired emotional and sentimental
attachment with the surrounding Assamese as well as the Indian culture from
the point of view of different grounds. Therefore, in order to understand the
distinct identity of the Rabhas, it is essential to study their socio-cultural and
religious life as well as the rites and rituals, beliefs and superstitions related
to the Manasa cult prevalent among them. The present study aims to focus
meaningful light on the different aspects of Manasa cult among the Rabhas.
 The objectives of the study are mentioned as given below-

1. To understand the composite socio-cultural aspects of the Rabhas living

in Assam with their changing attitude in the context of modernity.
2. To explore the socio-cultural as well as folkloric elements prevalent in
the religious beliefs and traditions of the Rabhas particularly in the
context of Manasa cult.
3. To discuss and analyse about the different Manasa texts and Manasa
poets in connection with the Manasa epic.
4. To explore and analyse the different performing art forms prevalent
among the Rabhas in the context of worshipping goddess Manasa by
them.
5. To study and analyse the traditional beliefs and superstitions which are
still prevailing in the Rabha society regarding the worship of goddess
Manasa.
6. To study the different aspects of Mare Puja performed by the Rabhas.
7. To explore the similarities and dissimilarities of worshipping goddess
Manasa by the Rabhas and with the other tribal and non-tribal groups
of Assam.

Methodology

For the purpose of the study, different methods of investigation have

been adopted. These basic methods are –

1. Observation Method
 2. Interview Method
3. Case-study Method

The other major source materials include local historical books, District
of Gazetteers of undivided Goalpara and Kamrup districts, Statistical
Accounts, Census Reports, Research works on this line, Publications and
Pamphlets, literary works of Rabha and non-Rabha authors and so forth for
collecting data from other secondary sources.

We interviewed a number of Rabha people and active bearer of their

culture in different places of Goalpara, Kamrup and Darrang districts. I have
personally taken part in some of the performing art forms and religious
occasions in connection with the Manasa cult as well as Manasa puja of these
places. We also visited different Annual and bi-annual conferences of Rabha
organizations like, Nikhil Rabha Sahitya Sabha, Nikhil Rabha Jatiya
Parishad, Nikhil Rabha Students Union, etc. held in different places of
Assam and collected various information for the fulfillment of the present
study.