CHAPTER 4

ADJUSTMENT OF TRAVERSE SURVEY AND

ERROR PROPAGATION IN ELEVATION DETERMINATION

4.1 Derivation of estimated error in latitude and departure and in course azimuth

Introduction
Generally, observations in horizontal surveys (e.g., traverses) are independent. That is, the measurement of a distance
observation is independent of the azimuth observation. But the latitude and departure of a line, which are computed from
the distance and azimuth observations, are not independent. Figure 8.1 shows the effects of errors in distance and azimuth
observations on the computed latitude and departure. In the figure it can be seen that there is correlation between the
latitude and departure; that is, if either distance or azimuth observation changes, it causes changes in both latitude and
departure.
Because the observations from which latitudes and departures are computed are assumed to be independent with no
correlation, the SLOPOV approach [Equation (2.16)] can be used to determine the estimated error in these computed
values. However, for proper computation of estimated errors in functions that use these computed values (i.e., latitudes
and departures), the effects of correlation must be considered.

Figure 4.1 Latitude and departure uncertainties due to (a) the distance error (D) and (b) the azimuth error Az. Note
that if either the distance or azimuth changes, both the latitude and departure of the course are affected.
4.2 Derivation of estimated error in latitude and departure
When computing the latitude and departure of a line, the following well known equations are used:

Lat = D cos Az Equation (4.1)

Dep = sin Az

where Lat is the latitude, Dep the departure, Az the azimuth, and D the horizontal length of the line
To derive the estimated error in the line’s latitude or departure, the following partial derivatives from Equation (4.1)
are required in using Equation below (SLOPOV for sing function)

Lat = D cos Az
Dep = sin Az

Example 1: A traverse course has a length of 456.87 0.02 ft and an azimuth of 230 35’ 26” 9”.
What is the latitude and departure and their estimated errors?
Solution
Using below Equation, the latitude and departure of the course are

Lat = D cos Az
Dep = D sin Az

D = 456.87 ft
Az = 23035’26”

The estimated errors in these values are solved using matrix Equation

A AT
Note; ρ = 206264.8(to convert to linear unit)

this term is covariance matrix, standardd error in the independently measured quantities. In this
example, 0.022 is standard error in measured distance and (9’’/p)2 is standard error in measured azimuth. Off the
diagonal, this matrix is zero because the measured angle and distance is not correlated.
Entering in the appropriate numerical values into Equation, the covariance matrix is

In the above matrix, σ211 is the variance of the latitude, σ222 is the variance of departure. Thus, the
standard errors in latitude and departure are;
 4.3. Derivation of estimated standard errors in course azimuths

Equation (4.1) is based on the azimuth of a course. In practice, however, traverse azimuths are normally computed
from observed angles rather than being measured directly. Thus, another level of error propagation exists in
calculating the azimuths from angular values. In the following analysis, consider that angles to the right are
observed and that azimuths are computed in a counterclockwise direction (left hand travers) successively around
the traverse using the formula

Equation (4.2)
Where
Is the azimuth for the current course

= The previous course azimuth, and

The appropriate interior angle to use in computing the current course azimuth.
By applying Standard error in sum Equation, the error in the current azimuth, AzC,

Equation (4.3)
Equation, σAzc Standard error in the computed azimuth, σ2ϴ is the error in the appropriate interior angle
used in computation of the current azimuth. This equation is also valid for azimuth computations going
clockwise around the traverse.
Exercise 4.1
1. The initial azimuth of the line AB is 350 36’ 24’’ ± 11’’ and the interior angle at station C is 1230
45’ 24’’ ± 8’’. If the angle measured in counterclockwise direction, what is the azimuth of the next
line CD and standard error in the computed azimuth?

4.4 Computing and analyzing polygon traverse misclosure errors:

From elementary surveying it is known that the following geometric constraints exist for any closed polygon
type traverse:

Equation (4.4)
• Deviations from these conditions, normally called misclosures, can be calculated from the
observations of any traverse.
 • Statistical analyses can then be performed to determine the acceptability of the misclosures and
check for the presence of blunders in the observations.
• If blunders appear to be present, the measurements must be rejected and the observations repeated.
• The following example illustrates methods of making these computations for any closed polygon
traverse.

Example 4.2 Compute the angular and linear misclosures for the traverse illustrated in Figure 4.2. The
observations for the traverse are given in Table 4.1. Determine the estimated misclosure errors at the 95%
confidence level, and comment on whether or not the observations contain blunders.

Figure 4.2 Closed polygon traverse.

TABLE 4.1 Distance and Angle Observations for Figure 4.2

SOLUTION
Step 1
Angular check: First the angular misclosure is checked to see if it is within the tolerances specified. From the
Equation Standard Deviation of a Sum (chapter 2), and using the standard Deviations of the angles given in the

table, the angular sum should have an error within ±

In this example, Since the angles were measured four times at each station, each computed mean has three
degrees of freedom, and the appropriate t value from Table D.3 (the t distribution).

To get the value of t from the table, first calculate the value of v,
V= r-1 where r is the number of repetitions which is 4 in this example

V= 4-1 = 3
To find the value of α, construct a 95% confidence interval,
1-α= 0.95
α = 0.05 take α/2 = 0.025 (this is for population mean). then read the intersection of α and v from
the Table D.3 From the table D.3 (the t distribution) the value of is t0.025,3 is equals 3.183. This is a two-
tailed test since we are looking for the range that is statistically equal to zero at the level of confidence
selected. If this range contains the actual misclosure, there is no statistical reason to believe that the
observations contain a blunder.

In this case, the angular misclosure at a 95% confidence level is estimated as

Using the summation of the angles in Table 4.1 (sum all the angles), the actual angular misclosure in
this problem is

19’’ is less than 24.6’’

Step 2
Azimuth computation:
In this problem, no azimuth is given for the first course. To solve the problem, however, the azimuth of the
first course can be assumed as 0 00 00 and to be free of error. This can be done even when the initial course
azimuth is observed, since only geometric closure on the traverse is being checked, not the orientation of the
traverse. For the data of Table 4.1, and using Equations (4.2) and (4.3), the values for the course azimuths
and their estimated errors are computed and listed in Table 4.2.
TABLE 4.2 Estimated Errors in the Computed Azimuths of Figure 4.2
Give AzAB = 00 00‘00’’ Since the travers is left hand travers, Azimuth of next line BC is

AzBC = AzAB + Angle at B +180

= 00 0’ 0’’ + 870 37’ 14’’ + 1800 = 2670 36’ 14’’

Estimated error in Computed AzBC = √σAzAB2 + σ2ϴb = √02 +3.12 = 3.1’’ follow this step for all travers

course.
Step 3
Computation of estimated linear misclosure:
This equation is written below in simplified form
 Equation (4.5)

✓ Because the lengths and angles were measured independently, they are uncorrelated. Thus, the
appropriate covariance matrix, , for solving this problem using Slopov Equation is

Equation (4.6)
Where σ2AB is standard error in measured distance AB (given in table 4.1) and σ2AzAB /p is standard error in
Azimuth of AB (computed in table 4.2) and similarly for the other travers course.
Substituting numerical values for this problem into Equations (4.5) and (4.6), the covariance matrix,

is computed for the latitudes and departures A∑AT, or

Equation (4.7)
By taking the square roots of the diagonal elements in the ∑Lat, Dep matrix [Equation (4.7)], the errors for the
latitude and departure of each course are found.

That is, the estimated error in the latitude for course BC is the square root of the (3,3) element in Equation (4.7),
and the estimated error in the departure of BC is the square root of the (4,4) element. In a similar fashion, the
estimated errors in latitude and departure can be computed for any other course

σ2LatBC = √0.00017, and σ2DepBC = √0.00040

Then to determine the linear misclosure, first compute departure and latitudes of the travers course

TABLE 4.3 Latitudes and Departures for Example 4.2 (use Equation 4.1)

The formula for determining the linear misclosure of a closed polygon traverse is

Equation (4.8)

where LC is the linear misclosure. To determine the estimated error in the linear misclosure, SLOPOV Equation is applied
to the linear misclosure formula (4.8). The necessary partial derivatives from Equation (4.8) for substitution into SLOPOV
Equation must first be determined.

The partial derivatives with respect to the latitude and departure of course AB are

Equation (4.9)

Notice that these partial derivatives are independent of the course. Also, the other courses have the same partial derivatives
as given by Equation (4.9), and thus the Jacobian matrix for SLOPOV Equation has the form
 Equation (4.10)

Here we have only one function, Z1 which is LC and 10 quantities which are LatAB DepAB to LatEA
DepEA so we have only one row Jacobian matrix A.

As shown in Table 4.3, the sum of the latitudes is -0.083, the sum of the departures is 0.022, and LC = 0.086
ft. Substituting these values into Equation (4.10), which in turn is substituted into SLOPOV Equation, yields

A= [-0.9674 0.2531 -0.9674 0.2531 -0.9674 0.2531 -0.9674 0.2531 -0.9674 0.2531]

Next Take the value of covariance matrix from Equation (4.7) take the diagonals only, and off the diagonal
the matrix is zero

Then transpose matrix and multiply the three matrix A* 𝛴 𝐿𝑎𝑡𝐷𝑒𝑝 *AT final standard error in LC becomes

Equation (4.11)

In Equation (4.11), 𝛴𝐿𝐶 is a single-element covariance matrix that is the variance of the linear closure and
can be called Also, σ2LC. 𝛴Lat, Dep is the Diagonal matrix given by Equation (4.7).

To compute the E95 confidence interval, a t value from table D 3 must be used at α = 0.025 and v = 3

The misclosure estimated for a traverse at a 1 - α level of confidence is t0.025,3 σLC. Again, we are checking to
see if the traverse misclosure falls within a range of errors that are statistically equal to zero. This requires
placing α/2 into the upper and lower tails of the distribution. Thus, the error estimated in the traverse closure
at a 95% level of confidence is

This value is well above the actual traverse linear misclosure of 0.086 ft, and thus there is no reason to believe that the
traverse contains any blunders.

Matrix calculator web link

Lab Project 1 (15%)

In your Lab session, survey a 5-side polygon traverse, measure angles (the number of angles reading repetition
will be equal to the total number of group members) and horizontal distance between each travers station.
Compute the standard error in both angle and distance measured. Compute the angular and linear misclosures
for your traverse. Determine the estimated misclosure errors at the 95% confidence level, and comment on
whether or not the observations contain blunders.

4.5 Computing and analyzing link traverse misclosure errors

• Link traverse begins at one station and ends on a different one.

• Normally, they are used to establish the positions of intermediate stations, as in A through D of the figure.
• The coordinates at the endpoints, stations 1 and 2 of the figure, are known.
• Angular and linear misclosures are also computed for these types of traverse, and the resulting values are
used as the basis for accepting or rejecting the observations. The computation of the blunder in link
traverse is similar with the closed traverse so the calculation part is left for you.

4.6 Systematic errors in differential leveling

• During the differential leveling process, sight distances are held short, and equal, to minimize the effects
of systematic errors.
• Still, it should always be assumed that these errors are present in differential leveling observations, and
thus corrective field procedures should be followed to minimize their effects. These procedures are the
subjects of discussions that follow.

4.6.1 Collimation Error

Collimation error occurs when the line of sight of an instrument is not truly horizontal and is minimized by
keeping sight distances short and balanced.
 Figure 4.3
Figure 4.3 shows the effects of a collimation error.
For an individual setup, the resulting error in an elevation difference due to collimation is

𝒆𝑪 = 𝑫𝟏𝜶−𝑫𝟐𝜶 Equation (4.12)

Where,
• eC is the error in elevation due to the presence of a collimation error,
• D1 and D2 the distances to the backsight and foresight rods, respectively, and
• the amount of collimation error present at the time of the observation expressed in radian units.
Applying
Equation, the collimation error for a line of levels can be expressed as

Equation (4.13)

Where, D 1, D3, . . . , D n- 1 are the backsight distances and D2, D4, . . . , Dn are the foresight distances.

• If the backsight and foresight distances are grouped in above Equation

Equation (4.14)
The collimation error determined from Equation (4.14) is treated as a correction and thus subtracted from the
observed elevation difference to obtain the corrected value.

Example 4.3
A level having a collimation error of 0.04 mm/m is used on a level line where the backsight distances sum to 863
m and the foresight distances sum to 932 m. If the elevation difference observed for the line is 22.865 m, what is
the corrected elevation difference?
Solution:
The error due to collimation,

D1= 863 m
D =932 m
2
Thus, the corrected elevation difference = Observed elevation difference of a line – corrected
elevation (
Corrected elevation difference = 22.865 – (-0.00276) = 22.868 m

4.6.2 Earth Curvature and Refraction

• As the line of sight extends from an instrument, the level surface curves down and away from it. This
condition always causes rod readings to be too high.
• Similarly, as the line of sight extends from the instrument, refraction bends it toward the Earth surface, causing
readings to be too low.
• The combined effect of Earth curvature and refraction on an individual sight always causes a rod reading to
be too high by an amount

Equation (4.15)
where hCR is the error in the rod reading (in feet or meters), CR is 0.0675 when D is in units of meters or 0.0206
when D is in units of feet, and D is the individual sight distance.
The effect of this error on a single elevation difference is minimized by keeping backsight and foresight
distances short and equal. For unequal sight distances, the resulting error is expressed as

Equation (4.16)
where eCR is the error due to Earth curvature and refraction on a single elevation difference. Factoring common
terms in Equation (4.16) yields

Equation (4.17)
To get the corrected value, the curvature and refraction error computed from Equation (9.6) is treated as a
correction and thus subtracted from the elevation difference observed.
Example 4.4 An elevation difference between two stations on a hillside is determined to be 1.256 m. What
would be the error in the elevation difference and the corrected elevation difference if the backsight distance
were 100 m and the foresight distance only 20 m?
SOLUTION
Substituting the distances into Equation (4.17) and using CR = 0.0675 gives us

For a line of differential leveling, the combined effect of this error is

Equation (4.18)
4.7 Random errors in differential leveling
• The major random error sources in differential leveling are caused by random errors in rod readings and
instrument leveling.
• The collimation error is considered to be systematic and is effectively negated by balancing the backsight
and foresight distances.
• However, no matter what method is used to observe the lengths of the sight distances, some random error
in these lengths will be present.
• Differential leveling is subject to several sources of random errors. Included are errors in leveling the instrument
and in reading the rod.

• The sizes of these errors are affected by atmospheric conditions, the quality of the optics of the telescope, the
sensitivity of the level bubble or compensator, and the graduation scale on the rods. These errors are discussed
below.

4.7.1 Reading Errors

The estimated error in rod readings is usually expressed as a ratio of the estimated standard error in the rod
reading per unit sight distance length. For example, if an observer’s ability to read a rod is within ±0.005 ft
per 100 ft, then is σr/D ±0.005/100 = ±0.00005 ft/ ft. Using this, rod reading errors for any individual sight
distance D can be estimated as
Equation (4.19)
4.7.2 Instrument Leveling Errors
The estimated error in leveling for an automatic compensator or level vial is generally given in the technical
data for each instrument. For precise levels, this information is usually listed in arc seconds or as an
estimated elevation error for a given distance. As an example, the estimated error may be listed as ±1.5
mm/km, which corresponds to ±1.5/1,000,000 *ρ = ± 0.3’’. A precise level will usually have a compensator
accuracy or setting accuracy between ±0.1’’ and ±0.2’’, whereas for a less precise level, the value may be as
high as ±10’’.
4.7.3 Rod Plumbing Error
Although a level rod that is held nonvertical always causes the reading to be too high, this error will appear
random in a leveling network, due to its presence in all backsight and foresight distances of the network.
Thus, the rod plumbing error should be modeled when computing the standard error in an elevation
difference.

Figure 4.4 Nonvertical level rod.

With reference to Figure 4.4 for any rod reading, the rod plumbing error is approximated as

Equation (4.20)
where d is the linear amount that the rod is out of plumb at the location of the rod reading, r. The size of d is
dependent on the rod level bubble centering error and the reading location. If the rod bubble is out of level by
β, then d is

Equation (4.21)
Substituting Equation (4.21) into (9.20) gives

Equation (4.22)
 Example 4.5

4.8 Error propagation in trigonometric leveling

• With the introduction of total station instruments, it is becoming increasingly convenient to observe
elevation differences using trigonometric methods.
• However, in this procedure, because sight distances cannot be balanced, it is important that the systematic
effects of Earth curvature and refraction, and inclination in the instrument’s line of sight (collimation
error), be removed.

From Figure, the corrected elevation difference, h, between two points is

∆h = h𝑖 + 𝑆 sin 𝑣 + h𝐶𝑅 − h𝑟 Equation (4.23)

Above equation for zenith-angle reading instruments is
∆h = h𝑖 + 𝑆 cos 𝑣 + h𝐶𝑅 − h𝑟 Equation (4.24)
Where,
hi is the instrument height above ground, S is the slope distance between the two points, v the vertical angle
between the instrument and the prism, z the zenith angle between the instrument and the prism,
hCR the Earth curvature and refraction correction given in Equation, and hr the rod reading
Substituting the curvature and refraction formula into Equation (4.24) yields

Equation (4.25)
In developing an error propagation formula for Equation (4.25), not only must errors relating to the height of
instrument and prism be considered, but also, errors in leveling, pointing, reading, and slope distances. Applying
SLOPOV equation to Equation (4.25), the following partial derivatives apply:

Entering the partial derivatives and the standard errors of the observations into SLOPOV Equation, the total error
in trigonometric leveling is

Example 4.6
Equation 4.25