Received: 7 January 2019 Revised: 7 May 2019 Accepted: 20 May 2019

DOI: 10.1002/pc.25311

REVIEW ARTICLE

Stealth technology: Methods and composite materials—A review

Husnain Ahmad1 | Asra Tariq1 | Amir Shehzad2 | Muhammad S. Faheem3 |

Muhammad Shafiq4 | Iqra A. Rashid1 | Ayesha Afzal1 | Adnan Munir1 |
Muhammad T. Riaz1 | Hafiz T. Haider1 | Ali Afzal2 | Muhammad B. Qadir2 |
Zubair Khaliq1

1
Department of Polymer Engineering,
National Textile University, Faisalabad,
Abstract
Pakistan Composites have revolutionized the field of aeronautics with its intriguing proper-
2
Department of Yarn Manufacturing, ties including high strength to weight ratio, low weight, chemical and weather
National Textile University, Faisalabad,
resistance, flexible design and low cost of installation. Also, composites are used
Pakistan
3
Department of Materials Engineering,
as radar absorbing materials (RAMs) in the manufacturing of stealth aircraft. Ste-
Technical University of Liberec, Liberec, alth technology (ST) uses a combination of RAMs and geometry to minimize the
Czech Republic reflection of electromagnetic waves back to a radar system. In this review article,
4
Department of Industrial Engineering,
working principle and basic constituents of ST are examined along with RAMs
University of Engineering and Technology,
Taxila, Pakistan types in the light of composites. Moreover, recently developed carbonaceous-based
polymer composites are critically discussed in terms of RAMs for stealth applica-
Correspondence
tions. A carbonaceous-based composite provides a high flexibility for the design
Zubair Khaliq, Department of Polymer
Engineering, National Textile University and properties control. Carbon black particles, carbon fibers, carbon nanotubes
Faisalabad, Pakistan. (CNTs), and graphene are used in composites to tailor the wave's absorption prop-
Email: zubntu@[Link]
erties of a composite. Multilayered structures are also recommended by researchers
Muhammad B. Qadir, Department of Yarn to extend the absorption band for better stealth application. Optimized absorption
Manufacturing, National Textile University, properties were achieved from composites containing carbon fiber as filler. Also,
Faisalabad, Pakistan.
Email: bilal_ntu81@[Link]
CNTs are preferred due to its smaller loading (0.35%) to get conductivity equal to
higher concentration of carbon black (20%), which consequently improves the
ST. Enhanced electromagnetic absorption properties can be achieved form the
graphene-based RAMs along with incorporating the magnetic particles of different
microstructures, particle size, and electromagnetic characteristics. This review will
intensively cover the methodology of ST and different composites including
carbon-based composites as RAMs for the use in stealth technology.

KEYWORDS
composites, radar absorbing materials, radar cross section, radar signature, stealth technology

1 | INTRODUCTION and reinforcement, when combined together, make a new

material with characteristics completely different from those of
A composite material is composed of two constituent mate- individual constituents.[2] Matrix and reinforcement do not
rials that have markedly different chemical and physical react chemically but remain as one unit physically in a compos-
properties.[1] These two distinct materials are called matrix ite. Additionally, the properties of matrix and reinforcement are

Polymer Composites. 2019;1–16. [Link]/journal/pc © 2019 Society of Plastics Engineers 1

2 AHMAD ET AL.

inter-dependent in the final product. Matrix tends to keep the techniques and equipment are used to detect and locate a target
reinforcement at its fix place and to pass the mechanical shocks in air. In order to make an aircraft invisible to opponent's
and energy waves from one reinforcing material to other.[3] detection system, ST is used that produces ambiguity in these
Whereas reinforcement is responsible for the mechanical prop- techniques that makes the detection a difficult task.
erties of the composite. On the basis of the kind of reinforce- ST finds its roots back in Stone Age in the form of cam-
ment and matrix used for the fabrication of end product, ouflage where it was used by the hunters to conceal them-
composites can be classified into six major groups including selves by using leaves and plants for hunting purpose. With
fiber reinforced composites, particulate reinforced composites, the passage of time, ST was introduced to warfare where it
laminar composites, polymer matrix composites, metal matrix was used by military spies to collect intelligence from oppo-
composites, and ceramics matrix composite.[4] Among these nent's territory and to surprise them with a sudden attack. ST
groups, polymer matrix composites are the most emerging has shown its worth in modern warfare. Afghanistan war,
composite materials due to their inherent characteristics.[5] Kosovo conflict, and Gulf wars exhibited the importance of
The operational cost of many machines such as aircraft and ST in air power.[14,15]
automotive can be reduced by using composites where high
strength to weight ratio is required.[6] Other attractive features
of composites include low cost of installation, lower toxicity,
3 | RADAR SIGNATURE
and ability to manufacture complex parts in one piece.[7]
RADAR stands for the “Radio Detection and Ranging,” first
Where composites are being used to make the field of
patented by Christian Hulsmeyre, in Germany, in 1904. The
aeronautics more efficient,[8] these are also being considered
working principle of a radar is to send the pulses of electromag-
by the air force of a country to make its squadrons and air
crew more efficient and effective.[9,10] In fighter aircrafts, netic energy in the direction of the target which moves with the
speed and visibility play an important role for the successful speed of light, almost unobstructed, through space until they
completion of mission. The fighter aircrafts need to invade are encountered by an object.[16] Radar measures the time taken
in opponent's territory without the sign of its invasion. Air- by a particular pulse of energy to hit the target and move back
crafts can be made less visible to opponent's detection sys- to the radar (Figure 1). It uses the Equations (1) and (2) to
tem by the use of composites. The technology termed as determine the distance between the target and radar:
“Stealth Technology” (ST) or low observable technology is ct
R= ð1Þ
used to make ships, aircraft, missiles, submarine and satel- 2
lites invisible to radar, sonar, infrared, and other detection
where R = range between the target and the radar; c = speed
methods.[11] In the age of modern warship, ST has become
of light and; t is the time taken by the energy pulse to move
one of the most important research topics in the field of mili-
back to radar after striking the target.
tary equipment. Multiple research has been conducted on the
The basic equation of radar is defined as:
application of ST in weaponry systems such as missiles, air-
craft, and warships.[12] Some authentic reviews are also Pt Gt σ
Pr = × × Ae ð2Þ
available that deal with the detail working of ST, signatures 4πR2 4πR2
leading to detection of an aircraft and techniques to make an where Pr = returned power; Pt = transmitter power;
aircraft stealthier. However, to the best of our knowledge no Gt = transmitted antenna gain; R = range between target and
review is available that deals with the use of composite to radar; σ = RCS of the target; and Ae = aperture of the
make an aircraft stealthier. Therefore, this review article receiver antenna.[17]
focuses on the conventionally used radar absorbing materials When these energy pulses interact with an object, some
(RAMs), as they are the composite materials composed of of the energy is absorbed by the object, some is transmitted
insulating matrix and conductive reinforcement. Moreover, this through the object, and remaining is reflected by the object.
study will also describe the newly developed carbonaceous- The amount of the incident energy which is reflected off
based polymer composites in terms of RAMs and highlights depends on the wavelength and frequency of radar signal;
their working range and efficiency. and the shape, size and material used for the construction of
the aircraft. Potentially, the reflected energy could move in
2 | STEALTH TECHNOLOGY any direction, so a very small amount of energy is reflected
back to the radar system. Objects of interests, like aircraft,
Anything is detected when it gives the sign of its presence. An missiles, and satellite, are called “Targets.” Other objects
aircraft gives the sign of its presence by six signatures that that get confused with targets, like buildings, grounds or sea,
include the acoustic, visual, smoke, radar, infrared, and contrail are called “Clutter.” Figure 2 explains the visualization fac-
signatures.[13] In correspondence to each signature, various tors involved in the detection of a target. Considerable
AHMAD ET AL. 3

FIGURE 1 Visualization of radar

working principle [Color figure can be
viewed at [Link]]

FIGURE 2 Visualization of
factors involve in the detection of target
[Color figure can be viewed at
[Link]]

efforts have been made by radar researchers and designer to the transmission-scattering-reflection system, there are many
filter out these clutter returns from targets.[18] variables that determine the maximum detection range. These
The radar beam has a conical shape. More area will be illu- variables include the transmitter effective outgoing energy,
minated by radar when the target is away from the source; and radar cross section (RCS) of the object, beam width, total
a lesser proportion of electromagnetic energy will be reflected energy back after striking the object, the size of antenna aper-
back to the radar system by target. Therefore, in the case of a ture and the processing capability of the receiver. All these var-
long range target, a small fraction of the original outgoing pulse iable are used for the detection of an object, but the RCS plays
energy is detected by the specially designed antennas. The an important role in the detection of the target.[20]
range can be increased by increasing the power of radar, but
this is not beneficial because the amount of energy being
3.1 | Radar cross section
wasted in free space is also increased, and high power also
makes more noise in the system. However, this problem can be RCS of an object describes its reflective strength in the direc-
overcome by the use of an antenna with a larger aperture tion of the radar system. RCS is a ratio of the backscattered
because it produces narrower and more intense outgoing energy power per solid angle from the target in the direction of radar
beam and has the ability to intercept more reflected energy.[13] to the total power intercepted by the target.[21] The area
Radar detects an object only when radar's antenna receives defined by the RCS is not a geometrical cross section of a tar-
an adequate amount of energy back from the object. Moreover, get. In case of a sphere, RCS is independent of frequency if
this energy should be above the signal to noise ratio or elec- operating at very low wavelength (ie, λ << range and λ <<
tronic noise threshold to be detected by the radar system.[19] In radius), where the frequency is very high. Whereas in case of
4 AHMAD ET AL.

flat plate, the RCS is dependent on the frequency and is calcu- In order to minimize the reflection of incident ray back to
lated as 4πA2/λ2, where A presents the area of the plate.[22] It the radar system, it is beneficial to review the Equation (6)
can be proportionally defined in Equation (3)[23]: which describes the reflection coefficient of a surface:

Power reflected to the reciever per solid angle η M − ηO Z M − Z O

RCS = ð3Þ r= = ð6Þ
Incident power density=4π ηM + ηO Z M + Z O


Or a more appropriate formula for the RCS of the target 1
Z=
can be described as Equation 4: η

4πR2 × Power density in the scattered field where r describes the reflection coefficient; ηM describes the
σ = lim ð4Þ
R!∞ Power density of the incident plane wave admittance of the reflecting substrate; ηO describes the
admittance of incident medium; ZM describes the intrinsic
RCS can also be defined in terms of dBsm that is decibel impedance of the reflecting substrate and ZO describes the
square meter by the following expression: intrinsic impedance of the incident medium. Therefore,
according to the concept of impedance matching, r of a sub-
σ strate is zero when ηM = ηO. In other words, reflection is
σ ðdBsmÞ = 10 log 10 ð5Þ
σR zero when ZO is matched with ZM. Intrinsic coefficient of
the free space is given as in Equation (7):
where σ R is the RCS of a reference object with area of 1 m2.
rffiffiffiffiffiffi
According to this equation, the RCS of a value 10 dBsm is E μO
10 m2, 20 dBsm is 100 m2, and −20 dBsm is 0.01 m2.[23] Z free space = = ≈ 377 Ω ð7Þ
H εO
Lower the RCS of a target, lower will be its detectability
and vice versa. RCS of a target is the function of several factors where E describes the electric field factor; H describes the
including shape, frequency, aspect angle, the dimension of the magnetic field factor; μO describes the permeability of the
target and polarization. RCS is high for the small spheres and free space, and εOdescribes the permittivity of the free space.
fluctuating, and low as there is an increase in the circumference Thus, the reflection from a substrate will be zero if its intrin-
of the sphere. In case of circular and the elliptical cylinders, the sic impedance is ≈377 Ω.[26]
peak value of RCS is at an aspect angle of 90 . The variation The impedance value of the metallic aircraft is near to
found in RCS for cylinders is independent of dimensions of the zero. Therefore, when the signals strike the metallic surface,
cylinder. However, for a large cylinder, the peak is also larger. a major part of it is reflected. In addition to the requirement
Frequency shows a linear relation for the cylinder, and there is to have a close impedance value to air, a RAM material must
an increase in RCS for large cylinders.[22] be able to absorb the energy of the electromagnetic radia-
tions rapidly as it pass through it. In order to achieve this
goal, the surface of an aircraft must be covered with the
4 | RADAR ABSORBING coating having ferritic, magnetic or dielectric materials. The
MATE RIAL S
energy absorbed by the RAMs depends upon the thickness
of the coating,[27] angle of incident wave[28] and the specific
In recent use, RAMs are the complex composites which are
materials properties.[29] A RAM may be a mesh of nonme-
composed of insulating binder (matrix) and the magnetic
tallic materials or a thin layer in which particles of carbon or
fillers or conductive additives (reinforcement).[24] It acts to
ferrite are embedded. Broadband radar is composed of sev-
reduce the reflected electromagnetic radiations by absorbing a
eral layers of the different materials to yield the dielectric
considerable part of the incident electromagnetic energy. This
gradient. Lossy dielectrics are relatively thick, but light,
action may be performed by using one of the following ways: whereas lossy magnetics are thin but heavy.[25]

1. Admitting the signals and then reducing its intensity. This

kind of action is suitable for a wide range of frequencies of
4.1 | History and development
radar. These RAMs are also known as broadband RAMs. Research in the field of RAMs has been on track since
2. Producing the internal reflections of received signals that 1930's just after the inclusion of radar system in military
hinder the reflected signals from the outer surface. This assets. Researchers struggled to maximize the absorption
action is suitable while dealing with a particular frequency. over a wide range of frequencies. Therefore, RAMs are
These RAMs are referred to as resonant RAMs.[25] available in the market in different shapes and designs, that
AHMAD ET AL. 5

is, from a single layer of coating to pyramidal structures.[26] coated with the SS to enhance the internal reflection of the
Initial RAM was a quarter wave resonant type RAM which waves. Broadband RAM was developed after the World War II
was composed of carbon black and titanium dioxide. Carbon (1945-1950) that is also used in anechoic chambers now a
black was used for the dissipation of energy whereas tita- day.[33,34] Many materials including carbon loaded plaster of
nium dioxide was used to gain a high dielectric constant.[30] Paris,[36] graphite,[37] powder iron,[38] iron oxide, powder
The practical development of RAMs was started during the aluminum, steel, copper,[39] wool,[40] metal wires,[41] sand
World War II by Germans who were interested in develop- powdered “Advanced,” and “Constantin” were studied for
ing the new RAMs for camouflage purpose. They started a microwave attenuation. Various binders including ceramics
new project and coded it by the name “Schornsteinfeger” and plastics, while supports with air at interference included
means “Chimney sweep.”[31] Both chimney sweep and excelsior, foams and fibers, were also studied.[42] More effi-
RAM had one thing common between them and that was the cient lossy broadband materials with a flat surface were pro-
carbon black. Two camouflaging materials, named as duced by using the patterned flat layer resistive sheets which
“Wesch” and “Jaumann.” were prepared and used to coat the reproduced the conical or the pyramidal structures of
submarines “Periscopes” and “Snorkels.” Wesch material above.[43]
was a rubber-based composite sheet loaded with carbonyl In 1950s, a material based on the carbon coated animal
iron powder having a thickness of 0.3 in. and resonated at a hair was commercially produced. This material, named
frequency of 3 GHz. Moreover, its front surface was waffled “Spongex”, was 2 in. thick that gave an attenuation of
to increase the bandwidth of this material. Jaumann RAM, a −20 dB in reflectivity over a range of 2.4 to 10 GHz for the
part of laminar composite family, was a 3 in.' thick device normal incidence. For low frequencies applications, 4 and
having multilayers of alternating rigid plastic and rubber 8 in. versions of Spongex were also prepared. During the
sheets. A reduction of −20 dB over a frequency of 2 to same decade, research in the field of circuit analog devices
15 GHz was obtained in reflectivity by the use of Jaumann was started by Meyer and Severin.[30] Circuit theory was
RAM. Moreover, one of its most considerable benefits was used to represent the processes, components and model of
that its reflectivity was not affected by the long time submer- reflectivity for these absorbing devices, so these devices
sion in the typical WW-II submarine environment.[32] were named circuit analog devices. This technique was taken
During the period of 1941-1945, a paint, named Halpern from the research program on the acoustical RAMs. Experi-
Anti-Radiation Paint (HARP), was made. Two versions, air- mental RAMs were made on the basis of resistance loaded
borne and shipboard versions, of resonant RAM were loop, resistant loaded dipoles, slots in resistive foil, strips of
achieved from that paint. Airborne paint version was thin the magnetic material with different orientations, magnetic
and light as compared to shipboard version. Both of the ver- loading of resonant materials, surface shaping and strips of
sions were rubber-based composite sheets instead of paint the resistive material with different orientations. This thing
and offered a reduction of 15-20 dB in reflection at reso- initiated a new era of research into the field of frequency
nance frequency. Both versions had good physical properties selective surfaces.[44]
corresponding to their applications in the respective fields. In 1960s and 1970s, research on circuit analog devices
The airborne version, named MX-410, was closer to paint was continued[45] and significant reduction in thickness was
thickness of 0.025 in. for resonance at X-band. Such a thin- obtained by using the ferrite under layers. A reduction of
nest paint coating was an acknowledgment to the advance- 60 dB at near the normal incidence was obtained in the reflec-
ment in the field of artificial dielectric coating for the base tivity by using the pyramidal shaped RAMs for the anechoic
material. The dielectric constant of 150 was achieved for real chambers. Control of fabrication for Jaumann RAMs was
part by using the high concentration of highly aligned alumi- obtained by using screen printing[46] and the RAMs were
num disc shaped flakes in the rubber matrix. Shipboard ver- being produced from knitted structures, netlike structures,
sion was prepared by using the high concentration of ferrite honeycomb or foams and coated with the paint containing the
particles in the tough neoprene rubber matrix. Its ruggedness fibrous or particulate carbon, nickel chromium alloy or evapo-
was excellent and dielectric constant was 20 that needed a rated metal.[26] Moreover, plasma was also considered for
thickness of 0.07 in. to resonate at X-band. Owing to the microwave absorption in 1962 by M. E. Nahmias. The plasma
high magnetic permeability of ferrite flakes, it was possible was produced by a radioactive substance that requires about
to provide some resonance broadening at such a high 10 Ci/cm2.
frequency.[33,34] In 1980s, the RAM's design process was improved by
Salisbury screen (SS) RAM, in Massachusetts Institute of optimization techniques.[47] Bandwidth of Jaumann RAM
Technology (MIT) America, was developed with a 25% was improved by the use of different resistive and graded
bandwidth at resonance.[35] A high attenuation RAM was layer profiles. Graphite,[48] carbon black,[47] ferrites, and car-
developed with long pyramidal structure that was internally bonyl iron[49] are continuously used for the preparation of
6 AHMAD ET AL.

materials, although wires, rods, sphere, and discs are also

being used for the preparation of dielectrics.[50] An improved
absorption was observed by the use of chiral materials.[51]
Desired permeability and permittivity of new materials is
calculated by using the Mixing theory.[52] Composite mate-
rials and conducting polymers are appeared as potential clas-
ses of RAMs.

5 | TYPES O F RAMS

5.1 | Impedance matching RAMs

A propagating electromagnetic energy wave will be
reflected by an object as a result of higher intrinsic
impedance of the reflecting object as compare to the inci-
dent medium. The reflection of the wave is a function of
the difference in the impedance between the reflecting
medium and the incident medium. Higher the impedance
difference, higher the reflection and vice versa. Imped-
ance matching RAMs are the specially designed materials F I G U R E 3 Pyramidal radar absorbing materials [Color figure
which have the intrinsic impedance value close to the can be viewed at [Link]]
intrinsic impedance value of the incident medium that is
air.[26] In these RAMs, the impedance value at the front 5.1.2 | Tapered loading RAMs
surface is close to the intrinsic impedance of air which is Tapered loading RAM is a mixture of a lossy material and a
377 Ω; however, this is gradually attenuated to the zero low loss material with a typical slab-shaped structure. The lossy
ohm at the rare surface. Moreover, owing to the absence material is uniformly dispersed parallel to the incident surface
of the sudden transition layer, there is minimum chance whereas the impedance gradient is perpendicular to surface and
of large reflection.[53] The following three types of imped- increased into the material.[55,57] A 3D plastic net or an open
ance matching RAMs have been prepared from the above end foam is prepared by dipping or spraying the lossy material;
described consideration.[26] or by allowing the material to drain and dry. However, the
reproducible fabrication of impedance gradient in the same
manner is not possible with this kind of 3D plastic net RAMs
5.1.1 | Pyramidal RAMs
(Figure 4A).[58] Similarly, another type of this RAM is pre-
Pyramidal RAMs are characteristically thick materials with pared by stacking the homogeneous layers of material with
pyramidal or cone shaped structures which are extending verti- increased loading of lossy component in the direction of elec-
cally to the surface in a repeatedly spaced pattern (Figure 3). tromagnetic wave propagation. In other words, impedance gra-
These RAMs are designed by using the Tscheyshev trans- dient is produced as a step function (Figure 4B).
former technique and are investigated with the Finite Element These RAMs have the advantage over pyramid RAMs on
Methods.[54] the basis of thickness, but they have low performance than
Pyramidal RAMs were produced for the gradual transition pyramid RAMs. Moreover, it is beneficial to change the
in the impedance from the air to absorbing material at the inter- impedance gradient over the one or more wavelengths.[59]
face. The height and the periodicity of pyramids tend to be of
an order of one wavelength.[30,55] Attenuation in the electro-
magnetic wave energy occurs as a result of multiple reflections
5.1.3 | Matching layer RAMs
of electromagnetic waves among the pyramids. As an individ- Matching layer RAMs are placed between the incident sur-
ual pyramid is larger than the wavelength, the side of each pyr- face and the absorbing media in order to reduce the required
amid reflects the incident wave. Consequently, a part of thickness for gradual transition materials (Figure 5). The
energy is absorbed by each pyramid as a result of each reflec- thickness and the impedance values of the transition layer
tion.[56] The major disadvantages with this kind of RAMs are are in between the incident medium and RAM. The concept
its thickness and tendency to be fragile that restrict its for these RAMs is to equalize the impedance of incident
applications.[53] medium to the combined impedance of first and second
AHMAD ET AL. 7

FIGURE 4 Tapered loaded radar

absorbing materials; 4a: smooth type; 4b:
stepped type [Color figure can be viewed
at [Link]]

reflected waves are out of phase and will experience the

destructive interference. Furthermore, the total reflected
intensity will be zero, if the magnitude of the two reflected
waves is same.[26]
These RAMs include the Salisbury screens, Dallenbach
layers, and Jaumann layers that are described below:

5.2.1 | Salisbury screen

Salisbury screen (SS), first time patented in 1952,[35] is a res-
FIGURE 5 Matching layer radar absorbing materials [Color onant RAM. However, unlike the quarter wavelength RAM,
figure can be viewed at [Link]] its performance is not dependent on the permeability and the
permittivity values of the bulk layer. SS consists of a resis-
layer. This matching is achieved when the thickness of the tive sheet that is placed on an odd multiple of one fourth of
matching layer is one fourth of the wavelength of electro- wavelengths in front of conducting (metal) back and gener-
magnetic radiation in the layer.[26] ally separated by the air gap. The air gap can be replaced by
The impedance matching is achieved only at a fre- using a material with a high permittivity value. However,
quency that is equal to the optical thickness. This thing lim- this thing will decrease the thickness of required gap at the
ited the use of matching layer materials as narrow band cost of bandwidth. While considering the concept of trans-
RAMs. In order to absorb the electromagnetic radiations at mission line theory, a quarter-wavelength transmission line
microwave frequencies, these RAMs are fabricated with the transformed the short circuits on the metal into the open cir-
intermediate impedance transition layer along with the con- cuits on the resistive sheet. The actual impedance of the
trolled quarter thickness of wavelength of incident structure is a function gap between the metal backing and
waves[59] the resistive sheet that is if the gap is halved of the wave-
length then the short circuits will reappear and there will be
a perfect reflection of electromagnetic waves. Nevertheless,
5.2 | Resonant RAMs
if the resistance of sheet is equal to the impedance of the air,
Resonant RAMs, also named as quarter wavelength or then there will be an impedance matching and the reflection
tuned RAMs, are the RAMs in which impedance between will be zero.[60,61]
the incident medium and RAM is not matched; and they SS has been fabricated and its reflectivity is calcu-
are not able to absorb all the power because of their low lated.[62] The initial structure was made of the canvas on a
thickness. Therefore, both the reflection and the transmis- plywood frame with the colloidal graphite coating on can-
sion of an electromagnetic wave occur at the first interfer- vas.[63] Conducting polymers are considered in the design of
ence.[59] As a result of reflection, wave experiences a the SS.[64] The reflectivity of conducting polymer-based SS
phase reversal of 180 , whereas transmitted wave passes has been calculated as a function of incident angle, con-
through the absorbing material and is reflected back by a ducting polymer thickness, and the space thickness by using
metal backing to the incident medium. The second reflec- the optical matrix method (Figure 6).
tion also causes a phase reversal of 180 before the back Many strategies have been considered for the design of
propagation of the wave into the incident medium. In case, SS.[61,65] When the sheet resistance and the impedance value
if the transmitted wave travels an optical distance equal to of free space are equal, the thickness of optimal SS can be
the even multiple of the half wavelengths, then two calculated by using the following formula:
8 AHMAD ET AL.

FIGURE 6 Salisbury screen [Color figure can be viewed at F I G U R E 7 Dallenbach layers radar absorbing materials [Color
[Link]] figure can be viewed at [Link]]

1 DLA based on ferrite materials have been prepared.[72]

d= ð8Þ
Z f:s σ DLA RAMs also have been prepared by using the silicon rub-
ber sheet filled with the titanium dioxide, carbon black and sil-
where Zf. s is the impedance of the free space and σ is the icon carbide. The bandwidth of the standard ferrite RAMs is
conductivity of sheet. Regarding the resistive layer, follow- improved by the use of two-layer RAM design in which a fer-
ing approximations has been made: rite layer is at air/RAM interface and another layer consisting
of short metal and ferrite fibers is at RAM/metal interface.[74]
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
1. Layer is electrically thin that is 1>> k o d j ε* j where A ferrite layer functions as an RAM as well as impedance
ko = 2π matching layer. The performance of 4.6 mm ferrite-based layer
λo and d describes the thickness of resistive layer
2. The loss in the layer is originated from the conductivity offers an attenuation of more than −20 dB, up to 45 , over a
and ε00  ε0 range of 8 to 12 GHz.[74]
Curve designs are also considered for DLA by an author.
These suppositions may not be considered realistic for Multilayer Dallenbach devices also have been prepared by
the practical devices with the results that resonant frequency using the Lagrangian optimization method with the con-
is shifted to smaller values as thickness of the resistive sheet, strained variable.[75] The same method is also used for the
or ε0 is increased. This thing was shown by using the trans- designing of a quarter wavelength and tapered RAMs. A
mission line model with RLC circuit representing the SS.[65] solution for the single layer RAM is also given with design
For optimum absorption, the thickness of resistive sheet and curves.[76] Ferrite samples have been manufactured and
conductivity of resistive sheet has an inverse relation.[66] characterized for a low frequency region (100-200 MHz)
with the reflectivity profiles.[77] The ultimate thickness to
bandwidth ratio for different types of RAMs has been calcu-
5.2.2 | Dallenbach layer absorbers lated. The author showed that the ultimate bandwidth for the
Dallenbach layer absorbers (DLA) is composed of a homog- narrow band dielectric RAMs is approximately 4.4 times
enous single layer of the dielectric material which is backed larger than the nonmagnetic Dallenbach screen with the
on a conducting surface such as metal (Figure 7). The reflec- same thickness.[78] Curves design for permeability and per-
tivity of these RAMs is studied as a function of permeability, mittivity values have been calculated. The Kramer-Kronig
permittivity, and the thickness of the material.[67–69] The relationship is studied to investigate if it imparts any limita-
DLA rely on the destructive interference of waves reflected tions on the bandwidth of the DLA.[71] The same study also
from the first and the second interference. attempted to calculate the maximum bandwidths attainable
A software named Touchstone is used to study the reflec- for Dallenbach multilayers absorbing structures.
tivity of DLA and the results were well matched with the exact
methods of calculating reflectivity.[70] Techniques to optimise
5.2.3 | Jaumann RAMs
the performance of DLA have been investigated[71] and con-
cluded that broadband absorbance is not possible with a single Jaumann RAM, patented in 1943, is the modified form of
layer. However, bandwidth can be increased by stacking the the SS which increases the bandwidth by using the multiple,
several layers together. Absorption bandwidth can be resistive, thin layers separated by spacers in front of the
increased by using two or more layers having different band metal backing. The bandwidth is increased at the expense of
absorption.[72] Optimization in the reflectivity of DLA, as a thickness of the RAM (Figure 8). Moreover, the resistivity
function of frequency and incident angle, has been achieved of a layer varies from the front surface to back.[59] Resistive
by using the Powell method with some modification.[73] layers have been prepared by using the cellulose, polyvinyl
AHMAD ET AL. 9

6.1 | Carbon black reinforced polymer

composites
Carbon black particles are commonly used as fillers to mod-
ify the optical, electrical, and mechanical properties of a
polymer composite.[84–86] Electromagnetic absorption is also
an important application for the carbon black particles. In
comparison to the magnetic ferrite particles, carbon black
particles lead to the broadened frequency range up to ter-
FIGURE 8 Jaumann radar absorbing materials [Color figure can
be viewed at [Link]]
ahertz (THz) due to much smaller density and very fine
particle size.[87] However, their use for narrow bandwidth
acetate binder or phenol-formaldehyde loaded with carbon absorption is suitable. Nevertheless, to extend the absorption
powder and polyethylene foam was used as a spacer.[79] Bet- band, one has to choose the multilayer structure. Here, we
ter control of resistance and thickness is achieved by using discussed the electromagnetic absorption of the single layer
the silk screening resistive layers. A device consisting of six and the multilayer structures separately.
layers was able to reduce the reflectivity about 30 dB over a
range of 7 to 15 GHz.[59] 6.1.1 | Single layer carbon black
The first study demonstrating the use of conducting poly- reinforced RAMs
mers as Jaumannn RAM was conducted in 1991[80] and the
first calculations of Jaumannn RAMs consisting conductive Wu et al fabricated the core-shell carbon black-based nano-
polymers was occur in 1992.[81] The resistive polypyrrole films composites and claimed that a maximum absorption of
have been grown by chemically or electrochemically by using 40 dB has been observed for the X-band by the 30% concentra-
tion of carbon black.[47] Oh et al also prepared a carbon black-
the fabric or paper as support. The reflectivity of conducting
based RAM with the maximum absorption of 32 dB for the
polymers has been modeled by using the Touchstone software.
2.7 GHz absorption bandwidth and X-band by adding the 6%
Simple RC networks are used to fit the calculated reflectiv-
(vol.) of carbon black into the glass/epoxy matrix.[88] Similarly,
ity.[81] Techniques to optimise the performance of Jaumann
Kwon et al claimed that a carbon black/silicon rubber gives a
RAMs are complex due to a number of parameters involved
minimum absorption of 24 dB for the 3.9 GHz absorption
that increase by increasing the number of layers. Numerical
bandwidth and X-band.[89] The dispersion of the carbon black
optimization techniques and empirical procedures have been
becomes quite difficult if its concentration is well away from
used for the designing of Jaumann RAMs.[82]
the calculated percolation threshold and this is an important
factor to improve the mechanical properties of low concen-
6 | CARBONACEOUS-BASED trated carbon black composites.[90,91]
P O L Y M E R CO M P O S I T E R A M S It has been claimed by various researchers that the elec-
tromagnetic absorption of carbon black filled composites
Carbon, after the hydrogen, helium, and oxygen, is the most can be improved by catalyzing the carbon black particles
abundant element in the universe. An increased number of the with BaTiO3,[92] SiC,[92] Fe(Co)5,[92–94] ferrite particles,[95]
demanding applications in the field of electronics and telecom- and nano-sized Fe,[96] that have the larger percolation thresh-
munication are relying on the unique properties of the carbon old and better electromagnetic absorption characteristics.
allotropes. The need for the high performance RAMs and The absorption characteristic of a composite can also be con-
microwave RAM is ever rising in military and civilian applica- trolled with mechanical stress.[97]
tions as well. Maximization of the operating bandwidth and
the weight reduction are the two most important requirements
for a RAM, irrespective of the field for which a RAM is
6.1.2 | Multilayer carbon black
intended to be used. A carbonaceous-based composite offers a
reinforced RAMs
high flexibility for the design and properties control, as a com- Multilayer electromagnetic RAM is composed of a set of
posite can be modified and optimized by varying the carbona- layers having different electromagnetic absorbing materials to
ceous inclusion and the embedded matrix.[83] The absorption enhance the overall absorption characteristics. One of the
properties of a composite can be tailored by making a change major issues in designing such RAMs is minimizing the over-
in the geometry, morphology and composition. all reflection coefficient for the specific range of incident
In this section, several carbons-based composites have angles and frequency band. The front layer is designed so to
been reviewed which are classified on the basis of type of give the excellent impedance matching, whereas absorbing
carbon material used as reinforcement. layer is placed to dissipate the electromagnetic energy and the
10 AHMAD ET AL.

substrate layer is used as a reflecting medium to avoid any reflection of electromagnetic waves over a range of 8 to
escape of electromagnetic waves. A multilayer structure con- 12 GHz by using an ACFs based composite.[107] The excep-
taining the fibrous sheet impregnated with thermosetting resin tional microwave properties of ACFs make them a good
(eg, glass fiber reinforce polymer composite), a reinforced choice for the microwave absorbing materials. Moreover,
resin sheet (eg, carbon fiber reinforced polymer composite) they can be reproduce from the waste of carbon fibers.[108]
and a rubber sheet loaded with carbon black are also rec- ACFs are also structured in a specific shape named car-
ommended as the efficient electromagnetic RAM.[98] Two bon fiber felt screens, which are in analogy to the traditional
major advantages offered by these RAMs are: frequency selective surface, either in vertical or cross linked
manners, and are embedded into the epoxy matrix.[109]
1. The front layer act as the impedance matching layer to When felt screen interact with the incident microwave field
enhance the absorption. This phenomenon also reduces it acts as an antenna for the vertically aligned structure and
the thickness of the RAM. as a waveguide for the cross-linked structure. The microwave
2. More options are available for the optimization of absorp- properties of these screens are highly dependent on the geo-
tion characteristics. For instance, a two-layer structure con- metric characteristics of the fiber array, like the width of the
sisting one layer of carbon black and one layer of carbonyl fibers strips and the spacing between the two adjacent fibers.
iron. Parameters (filler content and thickness) of each layer An attenuation of 30 dB in the reflection can be achieved over
can be tuned to vary the overall absorption characteristics a bandwidth of 8 to 18 GHz for the optimized configura-
of RAM.[99,100] tion.[109] Absorption can be improved by using a combination
of the different types of the screens. Carbon fibers are linked
6.2 | Carbon fiber reinforced polymer together to form a complex network which enhance the
composites absorption characteristics of a composite. Another RAM,
named CFRPC grid RAM, has also been prepared by consid-
Carbon fiber reinforced polymer composites (CFRPCs) have ering the same concept which consists of the CFRPC grid and
been focused for many engineering and fundamental studies a foam.[110] The electromagnetic characteristics are dependent
on the basis of their exceptional mechanical properties as on the thickness and the geometry of a unit cell. An optimized
compare to the other low density materials.[101,102] It is also
geometry has been prepared which offers a maximum attenua-
important to note that CFRPCs are quasi-reflective at a high
tion of 31.6 GHz in the reflection over a bandwidth of 8 to
concentration (60%-70% vol.) of carbon fibers. Therefore,
18 GHz. Although it offers a strong absorption but the rela-
CFRPCs are considered as the good candidates for electro-
tively high thickness affects its performance that limits its
magnetic interference shielding but not for the microwave
applications.[110] It has been reported that a double layer RAM
absorbance.[103,104] However, the desired properties from a
containing the carbon fibers can achieve an impedance match
composite can be achieved by varying its composition and
whereas a metal RAM cannot achieve. Hence, by using a dou-
morphology. In this regard, a considerable work has been
ble layer RAM, absorption can be significantly enhanced.[111]
done which is described below:
Similarly, sandwich structure with the mesophase pitched car-
bon foam and the glass fiber composite shows an excellence
6.2.1 | Continuous fiber composites microwave absorption.[112]
Zhu et al coated the pitched-based carbon fibers (PCFs) with
amino-modified polyorganosiloxane having low conductiv-
ity and less surface area to enhance the contact resistant. 6.2.2 | Short fiber composites
Nonwovens with the various contents of PCFs were studied
Short fibers, as the filler particles, can be sparsely dispersed
over a range of 8 to 18 GHz and a complicated relation
in the polymeric matrix and are used extensively for the
between the PCFs and electromagnetic characteristics was
microwave absorption applications.[94,113–115] Following
observed. For the low concentration of PCFs, the attenuation
two major benefits have been achieved by the use of these
in the electromagnetic reflections was large as compare to
materials:
the high concentration of the PCFs.[105]
Activated carbon fibers (ACFs) can considerably enhance
the reflection of the electromagnetic waves inside the com- 1. They allow a broadband microwave absorption along
posite for a larger distance. So, the use of ACFs is a poten- with the significant decrease in the thickness of the
tial way to enhance the microwave absorbency of a CFRP RAM[116]
composite.[106] This thing was also confirmed by Zou et al 2. They give a high permittivity value event at the low vol-
who reported an increased attenuation of 16.6 dB in the ume fraction of the inclusion.[117]
AHMAD ET AL. 11

Different methods have been reported for the use of short the requirements effectively.[122] CNTs filled polymers have
carbon fibers in the microwave RAMs. One approach is to the higher mechanical properties as compare to the carbon
disperse the short fibers randomly into the host material. black filled polymers with an elastic modulus of an order of
Ling et al tested a composite containing short fibers (30% 1TPa, and the tensile strength within a range of 50 to
vol.) with an average length of 60 mm and diameter of 500 MPa.[123] Moreover, CNTs can be manufactured to yield
5 mm. He reported the two absorption peaks, 15.66 dB and the good semiconducting properties with a high charge carrier
17.37 dB, at 1.2 GHz and 2.4 GHz respectively. Although mobility and current carrying capability. Another important
the corresponding absorption bandwidths are narrow.[114] benefit achieved by using the CNTs as reinforcement is that a
Another way is to integrate the short carbon fibers into much smaller CNT loading (0.35%) is required to get the con-
the multilayer structures like Jaumann or SS structures. A bi- ductivity equal to the conductivity obtained by loading a 20%
layer RAMs has been prepared by using the composites of content of carbon black. This thing significantly reduces the
short carbon fibers and the ferrite particles. These RAMs cost and the weight of a RAM. CNTs is a nonmagnetic mate-
yield in an improved absorbing performance as compare to rial and it absorbs the electromagnetic waves by Ohmic losses,
the single RAMs. Moreover, double layer RAMs have a polarization or the multi-scattering of the waves due to the
considerably enhanced absorption bandwidth.[88,113] large specific area.[124,125] Multi-walled CNTs (MWCNTs)
The dielectric properties of the carbon filled polymer com- are more defected as compare to the single-walled CNTs
posites have been studied on the basis of the Lichteneker and (SWCNTs) due to their higher permittivity and the compli-
Rother's law and the optimized absorption properties have been cated structure and they absorb the electromagnetic waves as a
achieved for the multilayer structures, containing the carbon result of dielectric relaxation. These defects hinder the descrip-
fibers as filler, in terms of the thickness of each layer and the tion of Ohmic losses and polarization mechanism of a compos-
number of layers. It has been claimed by two independent ite material.[126,127]
research groups that the maximum absorption value at 32.5 dB, As the amount of CNTs is increased above the percola-
over the bandwidth of the whole X-band, for a 4 mm two-layer tion threshold, there is a significant impact on the dielectric
structure.[113,114] Within this perspective, Mitrano et al who rec- properties of the composite. Hence, the electromagnetic
ommended a model based on the genetic algorithm techniques absorption properties are improved by this phenomenon.
and Maxwell Garnett law to design a CFRP-based Jaumannn The dielectric losses have been rapidly increased due to the
type multilayer structure with enhanced broadband absorption. wave reflection instead of absorption by increasing the con-
The third method is to prepare the multilayer hybrid com- tent of CNT in the composite.[128] A correlation has been
posite structure by mixing the short carbon fibers and other found between the mechanical (rheological) and electrical
kind of filler particles. Double layer structures with the lossy (geometrical) percolation thresholds and has been claimed
layers consisting of mixture of short carbon fibers and fer- that mechanical damping properties of CNTs-based compos-
rites have been developed.[113] The absorption performance ites are closely associated with the dielectric relaxa-
was considerably improved for comparatively small loadings tion.[129,130] It should be noted that the dielectric loss tangent
of carbon fibers. The possibility that the short fibers can dependence on the CNTs content is similar to elastic modu-
behave like a bridge to join the ferrite particles was rec- lus loss tangent. The aspect ratio of CNTs is in the range of
ommended to explain these observations.[113] 100 to 1000 and the percolation threshold lies between the
0.1 and 1 vol%: this relates to the maximum Young's modu-
lus and tensile strength observed for the CNTs/epoxy
6.3 | Carbon nanotube-based polymer
composites.[131–133]
composites
Carbon Nanotubes (CNTs) is a one dimensional nano-scale
6.3.1 | Dispersion of CNT particles
material which can be categorized into two classes on the basis
of its crystalline structure: (a) amorphous CNTs (b) crystalline Morphology of the composite materials is highly dependent
CNTs.[118] CNTs have the excellent mechanical strength and on the dispersion mechanism of CNTs particles in the poly-
toughness, high thermal and electrical conductivity and good mer matrix. Dispersion can be easily achieved, if the CNTs
electromagnetic waves absorbing properties.[119–121] As content is lower than the threshold concentration, calculated
described earlier, an important factor that determines a material by the kinetic theory of percolation.[134] For the higher con-
to be chosen for the design of an RAM is its absorption char- centration, aggregation mechanism plays an important role
acteristics with respect to weight. Within this perspective, in determining the percolation transition and hence, maxi-
composites are the most suitable materials, as they consist of mum absorption predicted to occur at the percolation thresh-
non-corrosive lightweight polymers and nano-scale materials old. The maximum tunneling conductivity is sometimes
with some of the most considerable advantages. CNTs fulfill restricted by the excellent dispersion conditions due to the
12 AHMAD ET AL.

formation of insulating polymer layers between the CNTs particles only; this thing is also due to the previously men-
particles. These polymer absorption layers eventually reduce tioned interplay.[157]
the conductivity of an RAM that causes the reduction in the Other mechanisms that may contribute to the electromag-
absorption performance.[128,135,136] Various processing netic absorption properties include the defects which are
techniques, including solvent processing, have been rec- introduced during the filling process. These defects will be
ommended to overcome the polymer sheath effect.[130] Pre- the cause of interfacial polarization and multiple scattering;
treatment of CNTs and stirring rate are also considered and internal properties of the nano-particles that are modi-
important steps for the dispersion process. Good dispersion fied by quantum confinement effect.[126,140,158] Although,
is also important for the optimized mechanical properties of absorption properties are increased due to the magnetization
CNTs-based composites.[129,137] of CNTs, but sometimes it degrades the performance due to
the integrity damage of CNTs during the decoration and fill-
ing processes.[159]
6.3.2 | Interfacial properties
Interfacial and interphase properties of the composites are 6.4 | Graphene-based RAMs
dependent on the type of fillers, polymer matrix and the fab-
rication process; and ultimately, interfacial properties will Graphene is highly suitable for the electromagnetic absorption
influence the electromagnetic absorption characteristics of applications due to its low density, high mechanical proper-
ties, high dielectric features, and large surface area.[160–162]
the composite.[138] Fan et al calculated the microwaves
However, the electromagnetic and conductive parameters of
absorption spectra of CNTs-based varnish composite and
pristine graphene are not suitable to meet the demand of
CNTs-based polyethylene terephthalate (PET) composite by
impedance matching. Due to this reason, pristine graphene
using the same type of CNTs and similar fabrication process.
causes the poor absorption and strong reflection.[163] As the
Higher microwave absorption was observed for the CNTs-
efficiency of an electromagnetic RAM is primarily dependent
based varnish composite.[128] These results suggested a high
on the electromagnetic characteristics (including complex per-
density of boundaries is required at the interference for the
meability and permittivity), therefore to obtain a thin layer
strong interfacial polarization. The interfacial polarization
graphene-based RAM, the electromagnetic characteristics of
effect was also shown by comparing the microwave absorp-
the composite should be controlled.[164]
tion characteristics of decorated CNT-based polymer com-
The electromagnetic absorption properties of the graphene-
posites and CNT-based composites.[136,139,140]
filled composites are mainly dependent on the dielectric loss
(permittivity) which can be optimized by varying the graphene
6.3.3 | Magnetically decorated or filled CNTs content. Nevertheless, the single graphene filled composites
cannot meet the demands of an ideal RAM due to its poor capa-
Magnetically coated[141–146] or filled[139,140,147–150] CNTs have bility of impedance matching. Therefore, to improve the
been considered by some researchers. These are prepared by absorption characteristics effectively, magnetic materials are
coating or filling the unpurified CNTs with ferrite catalyst or added to graphene-based composites. In this regard, a consider-
hollow CNTs with nano-particles or nano-wires respec- able work has been done.[165–173] For instance, a graphene/Fe
tively.[136,151,152] Electromagnetic waves absorbing properties composite with ferromagnetic features has been fabricated.
are significantly enhanced due to the contribution of impedance This RAM, with a thickness of 2.5 mm, gives a maximum
matching and magnetic losses.[139,142,147,148,152] For example, absorption of 31.5 dB at a frequency of 14.2 GHz.[165] More-
Zhao et al claimed the enhanced absorption properties for the over, Zu et al prepared a reduced graphene oxide/Fe3O4 hollow
Fe-filled CNTs as compare to unfilled CNTs. The enhanced sphere composite by using a facile solvothermal method. By
absorption properties were attributed to the improved dielectric adding a 30% content of reduced graphene oxide/Fe3O4; better
losses instead of magnetic losses. The reason for this phenome- absorption results, as compared to individual pure Fe3O4 nano-
non was that the content of magnetic particles was so minor particles and pristine reduced graphene oxide, have been
that the magnetic effect was weak.,[140,153–156]The same reason achieved. This hybrid composite, with a thickness of 2.0 mm,
was suggested by Naab et al for the similar materials. The gives an optimized absorption of 24 dB at a frequency
magnetic/dielectric losses and static magnetization saturation of 12.9 GHz and 10 dB for a bandwidth of 4.9 GHz[167]
have been increased by increasing the concentration of coated (Table 1).
or filled magnetic particles as a result of complex interplay Similarly, Li et al claimed an absorption of 40.36 dB from
between the dielectric and magnetic properties and disorder. a reduced graphene oxide/Fe3O4 nano-hybrid composite by
The coercivity of polymers containing the magnetically loaded using a thickness of 5.0 mm.[174] The lowest absorption of
CNTs is more than the polymers containing the magnetic 18.5 dB, at 12.9 GHz, was obtained from graphene/CoFe2O4
AHMAD ET AL. 13

TABLE 1 Comparison of the bandwidth and working principle of all composites materials used in stealth technology

Material Bandwidth Working principle

[53]
Impedance matching RAMs Narrow Damp the EM wave energy[26]
Pyramidal RAMs Narrow Damp the EM wave energy
Tapered RAMs Narrow Damp the EM wave energy
Matching layer RAMs Narrow Damp the EM wave energy
Resonant RAMs Broad[59] Destructive interference[26]
Salisbury screen Broad Destructive interference
Dallenbach RAMs Broad Destructive interference
Jaumann layers RAMs Broad Destructive interference
Carbonaceous-based RAMs Narrow & broad[83] -
Carbon black-based RAMs Narrow & broad[87] EM wave penetration and internal reflection[98]
Carbon fiber-based RAMs - EM wave penetration and internal reflection[103]
CNT-based RAMs - Dielectric relaxation[127]
Graphene-based RAMs - Dielectric loss[164]

Abbreviations: CNT, carbon nanotubes; RAMs, radar absorbing materials.

hybrid composite by using a thickness of 2.0 mm.[172] These are conventionally used as backing material whereas
experimental outcomes show that the increased electromagnetic carbonaceous-based reinforcements are newly introduced
absorption characteristics of graphene/magnetic particle-filled which are more efficient than the previous ones. Although,
hybrid composites have been achieved due to the increased ST is an expensive technology and hard to manufacture.
magnetic loss and exceptional microstructure which is attrib- However, this problem can be overcome by searching new
uted to the presence of magnetic particles. Hence, good electro- composite materials and optimizing the newly discovered
magnetic absorption properties can be achieved form the carbon materials like graphene and CNTs, and also their
graphene-based RAMs by incorporating the magnetic particles composites for the fabrication of RAMs.
with different microstructures, particle size, and electromag-
netic characteristics.[175]
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

7 | CONCLUSION The authors are pleased to acknowledge the support from

Higher Education Commission, Pakistan under the projects
The composites are used in the field of aircraft production No.21-1727/SRGP/R&D/HEC/2017 and 9678/Punjab/NRPU/
due to the high strength and weight ratio, flexible design, R&D/HEC/2017.
weather resistance and low cost of installation. Also, com-
posites are used as the RAMs based on their different
OR CI D
properties, characteristics, band width and response to envi-
ronmental impact. Impedance matching RAMs (which Asra Tariq [Link]
include the pyramidal, tapered loading and matching layer Amir Shehzad [Link]
RAMs) are the narrow band absorbers. These RAMs effec- Iqra A. Rashid [Link]
tively reduce the incident electromagnetic wave energy by Ali Afzal [Link]
gradually absorbing it with minimum reflection. In contrast Muhammad B. Qadir [Link]
to impedance matching RAMs, resonant RAMs (that include 5328
Salisbury screen, Dellenbach layers, and Jaumannn layers) Zubair Khaliq [Link]
work on the principle of destructive interference. These are
not able to absorb all the power because of their low thick-
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