Part 2

Facilitating
Learning

FOCUS ON THE LEARNING

Adapted from: Facilitating Learning and Cognitive Process
By: Lucas [Link]

UNIT 2.1 ꟷ Review of the developmental theories

The educational trend brought out by a number of ground-breaking
researches tells us that you can be an effective facilitating learning if you have a
good working knowledge of your learnings’ development in this unit, they very basic
developmental theories are reviewed.

Module 3 PIAGETS’S STAGES OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

 Take the Challenge!
In this module, challenge yourself to:
 describe Piaget’s stages in your own words,
 conduct a simple Piagetian Task interview with children,
 match learning activities to the learners’ cognitive stage.
Introduction
Jean Piaget’s cognitive theory of development is truly a classic in the field of
educational psychology. This theory fuelled other researchers and theories of
development and learning. Its focus is on how individuals construct knowledge.
Activity
The activities presented here are for students who already had a background
of Piaget’s theory, either from their general psychology class or from their course in
child and adolescent development. This module is meant to be a review of the
theory. However, if more appropriate to the students, these activities may also be
done after the discussion of the salient point of the theory.
1. Watch the following video of Piagetian tasks in [Link]. jot down
your observation while you watch the videos
 Added: February 10, 2007
 From: jenningh
Piaget-preparational stage
Category How to & DIY ([Link]
v=YtLEWVu815o)
 Added: February 22, 2017
From: enuffer
A four year and sever year old engaging in classic Piagetian
conversation tasks (4 minutes) ([Link] watch?
v=MpREiRpgv8)
 Added: February 10, 2007
From: jenningh
Piaget- concrete operation stage- d piaget- concrete operation
stage- deductive reasoning ([Link]
v=YJyuy4B2aKU)
2. Piagetian Task Observation. Complete this task with a preschool aged
child (3-5), a younger primary child (grade K-2) and an older
primary/intermediate grade child (grade 3-5)
Complete at least 3 different tasks with each child
A. Conduct the 3 Piagetian tasks with 3 different children (see above). RECORD
your actions, statements, and the Child’s responses and actions. Hints:
setting up a chart/table with spaces for you to record can be helpful to make
sure you follow the protocols correctly.
B. For each child, for each task, determine what stage of conversation the child
seems to achieved (preconverser, transition, conserver). Give a rationale for
your choice that is based on the child’s actions/response for each task.
You should have a minimum of 3 children, 3 task each, with assessment of
the child’s performance of each task.
STEP FOR EACH TASK- to be followed completely and in order.
1. Physical set up task. Provide a “story” to go with the task.
2. Assure the child establish equivalenceꟷ sees properties of both as equal.
3. Rearrange one using the story.
4. Ask the child: Do both the same amount now or does one have more?
How they know that?
 5. Go back to the original set up and re-establish equivalence.
6. Rearrange the other in a DIFFERENT manner; use the same or another
story. Ask the child, “Are they both the same or does one have more
now?”
7. Provide a response to the OPPOSITE of how the child originally
responded ꟷask the child if the “other” child was correct and why/why
not.
8. Re-establish equivalence

TYPES OF TASKS:
Conversation of matterꟷ for examples, clay balls (start as balls, then change
to pancakes, snakes, or multiple smaller balls)
Conversation of numberꟷ 2 sets of 7 familiar items (move closer together
and further apart)
Conversation of liquidꟷ colored water in the same and different containers
Conversation of lengthꟷ equal lengths of string or ribbon
Conversation of areaꟷ area covered by other objects (for example ꟷ 2 equal
sized pieces of green construction paper to be the “grass” and blocks/leggos
as barns)
Conversation of weightꟷ need a weight or balance for this one ꟷ take two
balls of clay that weight the same, change shapeꟷ does weight change
Conversation of displacementꟷ two clays balls same size, two large
containers of water ꟷchanging the volume (shape) of the object is what
displace volumeꟷ not its weight or position
(Based on E Labinowicz (1980). The Piaget Primer. Thinking, learning,
teaching. Menio park, CA: Addison-Wesley.
Analysis
For Activity 1:
1. Describe what is seen in the video
2. Identify the cognitive stage where the children in each of the video are
in. explain your answer.
For Activity 2: (Your Teacher may prescribe a format for your report or you may
design your own format)
 1. Make an observation report. You should have minimum of 3 children.
3 tasks each.
2. Write an assessment of each child’s performance of each task.
Indicate your assessment of the child’s conversation stage and the
rationale you use to justify your assessment.
3. Use these CONVERSATION STAGES to identify the specific cognitive
stage of each child.
PRESCONSERVER- consistently centers on only one dimension of the
situation; perception guides thinking rather than logic.
TRANSITIONAL THINKER- is inconsistent, may be swayed by not
having answer challenged, may converse in the first example but not
in the second
CONSERVER- consistently able to conserve and provide logical and
accurate reasons for answer.
Abstraction/Generalization
For sixty years, Jean Piaget conducted research on cognitive development.
His research method involved observing small number of individual as they
responded to cognitive tasks that he designed. These tasks were later known as
Piagetian tasks.
Piaget called his general theoretical framework “genetic epistemology”
because he was interested in how knowledge developed in human organisms. Piaget
was initially into biology and he also had a background in philosophy. Knowledge
from both these disciplines influenced his theories and research of child
development. Out of his researches, Piaget came uo with the stages of cognitive
development.
Piaget examined the implications of his theory not only to aspects of
cognition but also to intelligence and moral development. His theory has been
applied widely to r=teaching and curriculum design specially in the preschool and
elementary curricula.

Basic Cognitive Concepts

Schema. Piaget used the term schema to refer to the cognitive structures
by which individuals intellectually adapt to and organize their environment. It is an
individual’s way to understand or create meaning about thing or experience. It is
like the mind has a filing cabinet and each drawer has folders that contain files of
things he has had an experience with. For instance, if a child sees a dog for the first
time, he creates his own schema of what dog is. It has four legs and a tail. It barks.
It’s furry. The child then “puts this description of a dog ‘on file’ in his mind. When he
sees another similar dog, he “pulls” out the file (his schema of a dog) in his mind,
looks at the animals, and says, “four legs, tail, barks, furry… That’s a dog!’
Assimilation. This is the process of fitting a new experience into an existing
or previously created cognitive structure or schema. If the child sees another dog,
this time a smaller one, he would make sense of what he is seeing by adding this
new information (a different-looking dog) into his schema of a dog.
Accommodation. This is the process of creating a new schema. If the
same child now sees another animal that looks a little bit like a dog but somehow
different. He might try to fit it into schema of a dog, and say, “Look mommy, what a
funny looking dog. Its bark is funny too!” then the mommy explains, “that’s not a
funny looking dog. That’s a goat!” with mommy’s further descriptions, the child will
now create a new schema, that of a goat. He now adds a new file in his filing
cabinet.
Equilibration. Piaget believed that the people have the natural need to
understand how the world works and find order, structure, and predictability in their
life. Equilibration is achieving proper balance between assimilation and
accommodation. When our experience do not match our schemata (plural of
schema) or cognitive structures, we experience cognitive disequilibrium. This
means there is a discrepancy between what is perceived and what is understood.
We then exert effort through assimilation and accommodation to establish
equilibrium once more.
Cognitive development involves a continuous effort to adapt to the
environment in terms of assimilation and accommodation. In this sense, Piaget’s
theory is similar in nature to other constructivist perspective of learning like Brunner
and Vygotsky.

Piaget’s Stage of Cognitive Development

Stage 1. Sensori-motor Stage. The first stage corresponding from birth to
infancy. This is the stage when a child who is initially reflexive in grasping,
sucking and reaching becomes more organized in his movement and activity. The
term sensori-motor focuses on the prominence of the sense and muscle
 movement through which the infant comes to learn about himself and the world.
In working with children in the sensori-motor stage, teachers should aim to
provide a rich and stimulating environment with appropriate objects to play with.
Object permanence. This is the ability of the child to know that an object
still exists even when out of sight. This ability is attained in the sensory motor stage.
Stage 2. Pre-operational Stage. The pre-operational stage covers from about
two- to seven-year-old, roughly corresponding to the preschool years. Intelligence at
this stage is intuitive in nature. At this stage, the child can now make mental
representations and is able to pretend, the child is now ever closer to the use of
symbols. This stage is high-lighted by the following:
Symbolic Function. This is the ability to represent objects and events. A
symbol is a thing that represents something else. A drawing is a written word, or a
spoken word comes to be understood as representing a real object like a real MRT
train. Symbolic function gradually develops ion the period between 2 to 7 years.
Riel, a two-year old may pretend that she is drinking from a glass which is really
empty. Though she already pretends the presence of water; the glass remains to be
a glass. At around four years of age, Nico, may, after pretending to drink from a
empty glass, turns the glass into a rocket: ship or a telephone. By the age of 6 to 7
the child can pretend play with objects that exist only in his mind. Enzo, who is six,
can do a whole ninja turtle routine without any costume nor “props”. Tria, who is 7
can pretend to host an elaborate princess ball only in her mind.
Egocentrism. This is the tendency of the child to only see his point of view
and to assume that everyone also has his same point of view. The child cannot take
the perspective of others. You see this in five-year-old boy who buy a toy truck for
his mother’s birthday. Or three-year-old girl who cannot understand why her
cousin’s call her daddy, uncle and not daddy.
Centration. This refers to the tendency of the child to only focus on one
aspect of a thing or event and exclude other aspects. For example, when a child is
presented with two identical glasses with the same amount of water, the child will
say they have the same amount of water. However, once water from one of the
glasses is transfer to an obviously taller but narrower glass, the child might say that
there is more water in the taller glass. The child only focus sed on “centered” only
one aspect of the new glass, that is taller glass. The child was not able to perceive
that the new glass is also a narrower. The child only centered on the height of the
glass and excluded the width in determine the amount of water in the glass.
Reversibility. Pre-operational children still has the inability to
reverse their thinking. They can understand that 2+3 is 5, but cannot
understand that 5 – 3 is 2.
Animism. This is the tendency of the children to attribute human like
traits Or characteristic to inanimate objects. When at night, the child id
asked, where the sun is, she will reply, “Mr. Sun is asleep.”
Transductive reasoning. This refers to pre-operational child’s type
of reasoning that is neither inductive nor deductive. Reasoning appears to be from
particular to particular i.e., if A causes B, then B cause A. For example, since her
mommy comes home every day around six o’clock in the evening, when asked why
it is already night, the child will say, “because my mom is already home.”

Stage 3. Concrete-Operational Stage. This stage is characterized by the

ability of the child to think logically but only in terms of concrete objects. This covers
approximately the ages between 8-11 years or the elementary school years. The
concrete operational stage is marked by the following:
Decentering. This refers to the ability of the child to perceive the different
features of objects and situations. No longer is the child focused or limited to one
aspect or dimension. This allows the child to be more logical when dealing with
concrete objects and situation.
Reversibility. During the stage of concrete operations, the child can now
follow that certain operation can be done in reverse. For example, they can already
comprehend the communication properly of addition, and that subtraction is the
reverse of addition. They can also understand that the ball of clay shaped into a
dinosaur can again be rolled back into a ball of clay.
Conservation. This the ability to know that certain properties of object like
number, mass, volume, or area do not change even if there is a change in
appearance. Because of the development of the child’s ability of decentering and
also reversibility the concrete operational child can now judge rightly that the
amount of water was in a taller but narrow container is still the same as when the
water was in the shorter but wider glass. The children progress to attain
conservation abilities gradually being a pre-conserver, a transitional thinker and then
a conserver.
Seriation. This refers to the ability to order or to arrange things in a series
based on one dimensional such as weight, volume or size.
Stage 4. Formal Operational Stage. In this final stage of formal
operations covering ages 12 and 15 years, thinking becomes more logical. They can
now solve abstract problems and can hypothesize. This stage is characterized by the
following:
Hypothetical Reasoning. This is the ability to come up with different
hypothesis about a problem and to gather and weigh data in order to make
afinal decision or judgement. This can be done in the absence of concrete
objects. The individuals can now deal with “What if” questions.
Analogical Reasoning. This is the ability to perceive the relationship to
narrow down possible answer in another similar situations or problem. The
individual in the formal operations stage can make an analogy. If United
Kingdom is to Europe, then the Philippines is to ________. The individual will
reason that since UK is found in the continent of Europe then the Philippines
is found in what continent? The Asia is his answer. Through reflective
thought and even in the absence of the concrete objects, the individual can
now understand relationships and do analogical reasoning.
Deductive Reasoning. This id the ability to think logically by
applying a general rule to a particular instance or situation. For example, all
countries near the North pole have cold temperatures. Greenland id near in
the North Pole. Therefore, Greenland has cold temperature.
From Piaget’s finding and comprehensive theory, we can derive the
following principles:
1. Children will provide different explanations of reality at different stages of
cognitive development.
2. Cognitive development is facilitated by providing activities or situations
that engage learners and require adaptation (i.e., assimilation and
accommodation).
3. Learning materials and activities should involve the appropriate level of
motor or mental operations for a child of given age; avoid asking
 students to perform tasks that are beyond their current cognitive
capabilities.
4. Use teaching methods that actively involve students and present
challenges.

Synapse Strengtheners
Organize a talk show. Four students volunteer (or will be assigned by
teacher) to acts as Piaget. Students 1 will be interrogated on Stage 1 of Piaget,
students 2 on stage 2, student 3, on Stage 3 and Students 4 on Stage 4. The
students acting Piaget should master the stage assigned to them to enable them to
answer questions from classmates.
The students should use the pronoun YOU when they ask the question and
four students acting as Piaget must use the pronoun I when they answer the
question.
Name:_______________________________________ Yr. & Sec. _______________
Application
1. Read the matrices below showing the application of Piaget’s principles in
teaching.

Teaching the Preoperational Child

Principle Application

Use concrete props and visual aids to illustrate

lesson and help children understand what is  • Use physical illustrations.
being presented.  • Use drawing and illustrations.

Make instructions relatively short, using  • After giving instructions, ask a student to

actions as well as words, to lessen likelihood demonstrate them as a model for the rest of the class.
that the students will get confused.  • Explain a game by acting out the part of a
participant.
Do not expect the students to find it easy to  

see the world from someone else’s • Avoid lessons about worlds too far removed from the
perspective since they are likely to be very child’s experience.
egocentric at this point.  • Discuss sharing from child’s own experience.
Give children a great deal of physical practice • Use cut-out letter to build words.
with the facts and skills that will serve as  • Avoid overuse of workbooks and other paper-and-pen
building blocks for later development. tasks.

Encourage the manipulation of physical  • Provide opportunities to play with clay, water, and

objects that can change in shape while sand.

retaining a constant mass, giving the students  • Engage students in conversations about the changes

a chance to move towards the understanding the students are experiencing when manipulating

of conversation and two-way logic needed in objects.

the next stage.  • Take field trips.

Provide many opportunities to experience the

world in order to build a foundation for  • Use and teach words to describe what they are

concept learning and language. seeing, doing, touching, tasting, etc.

 •Discuss what they are seeing on T.V.

(Toddler and Early Childhood)

Teaching the Concrete Operational Child

Principle Application
Continue to use concrete props  • Provide time-line for history lessons.
and visual aids, especially when  • Provide three-dimensional models in science.

dealing with sophisticated material.  • Demonstrate simple scientific experiments in which the students
can participate.
 • Show craftwork to illustrate daily occupation of people of an
Continue to give students a chance
earlier period.
to manipulate objects and test out
 • Use materials that present a progression of ideas from step to
their ideas.
step.

Make sure that lectures and  • Have students read short stories or books with short logical
readings are brief and well chapters, moving to longer reading assignments only when the
organized. students are ready.
Ask students to deal with no more  • Require reading with a limited number of characters.

than three or four variables at a  • Demonstrate experiments with a limited number of steps.

time.
 • Compare students’ own lives with those of the characters in a
story.
Use familiar examples to help
 • Use story problems in mathematics.
explain more complex ideas so
 • Give students separate sentences on slips of paper to be grouped
students will have a beginning
into paragraphs.
point for assimilating new
information.

 • Use outlines, hierarchies, and analogies to show the relationship

Give opportunities to classify and of unknown new material to already acquired knowledge.
group objects and ideas on
increasingly complex levels.  • Provide materials such as Mind Twisters, Brain, Teaser, and

Present problems which require riddles.

logical, analytical thinking to solve.  • Focus discussions on open-ended questions which stimulate
thinking (e.g. are the mind and the brain the same thing?)
(Middle Childhood)

Teaching Students Beginning to Use Formal Operation

(Adolescent)
Principles Application
Continue to use many of the teaching  • Use visual aids such as charts and illustrations as well a

strategies and materials appropriate for simple but somewhat more sophisticated graphs and

students at the concrete operational diagrams.

 • Use well-organized materials that offers step by step
stage.
explanations.
 • Provide students opportunities to discuss social issues.
 • Provide consideration of hypothetical “other words”.
Give students an opportunity to explore
 • Ask students to work in pairs with one student acting as
many hypothetical questions. the problem solver, thinking aloud while tackling a problem,
with the other students acting as the listener, checking to
see that all steps are mentioned and that everything seems
Encourage students to explain how they logical.

solve problems.  • Make sure that at least some of the tests you give ask for
more than role memory or one final answer, easy questions,
 for example, might ask the students to justify two different
positions on an issue.

Whenever possible, teach broad  • While discussing a topic such as the Civil War, consider
what other issues have divided the country since then.
concepts, not just fats, using materials
 • Use lyrics from popular music to teach poetic devices, to
and ideas relevant to the students.
reflect on social problems, and so on.

2. Make a simple Piagetian-Based Learning Activity Plan.

3. Choose the age-level you want to work with, and the topic you want to
explore.
Topic________________________________________________________________

For what age level? Check one.

 Toddler/Early Childhood
 Middle Childhood
 Adolescent
4. Pick 5 or more application from the matrix and describe the specific activity
you plan to do.
Example:
Topic__________________________________________________________
Application Specific Plan

Provide timeliness for history lesson I will ask my students to make a time line of
Rizal’s Life.
Application My Specific Plan
5 Minutes Non-Stop Writing begins….. NOW!
From the module on Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development, I learned that
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MODULE 4
Erickson’s Psycho-Social Theory of Development

Adapted from: Facilitating Learning and Cognitive Process

By: Lucas [Link]

“HEALTHY CHILDREN WILL NOT FEAR IF THEIR ELDERS HAVE INTEGRITY

ENOUGH NOT TO FEAR DEATH”
-ERIK ERIKSON

Take the Challenges!

In this module, challenge yourself to:

 Explain the 8 Stages of Life to someone you care about,

 Write a short story of your life using of Erikson’s theory as framework.
 Suggest at least 6 ways on how Erikson’s theories can be useful for you as a
future teacher.

Introduction

Erikson’s Stage of psychosocial development is a very relevant, highly

regarded and meaningful theory. Life is a continuous process involving theory
guides us and helps to tell us why.

Activity

Erik Erikson’s Stage Theory of Development Questionnaire

This contains selected items from Rhona Ochse and Comelis Plug’s
self- report questionnaire assessing the personality dimensions associated with
Erikson’s first 5 Stages of psychosexual development. It can serve to make the
stages personally relevant to you.
 Indicate how often each of these statements apply to you by using
the following scale:
0 =never applies to you
1 = occasionally or seldom applies to you
2 = fairly often applies to you
3 = very often applies to you

Stage 1: Trust Versus Mistrust

( Infancy and Early Childhood)
____ 1. I feel Pessimistic about the future of humankind.
____2. I feel the world’s major problems can be solve
____3. I am filled with admiration of human kind.
____4. People can be trusted
____5. I feel Optimistic about my future.
Total Score Stage 1

Stage 2: Autonomy Versus Shame and Doubt

( Infancy and Childhood)
____6. When people try to persuade me to do something I
don’t want to, I refuse.
____7. After I have made a decision, I feel I have a
mistake.
____8. I worry that my friends will find fault with me.
____9. I am unnecessary apologetic.
____10. When I disagree with someone, I tell them.
Total Score Stage 2

Stage 3: Initiative Versus Guilt ( Infancy and

Childhood)
_____11. I am prepared to take a risk to get what I want.
_____12. I feel hesitated to try out a new way of doing
something.
____13. I am confident in carrying out my plans to a
successful conclusion.
____14. I feel what happen to me the result of what I
have done is.
____15. When I have difficulty in getting something right,
I give up.
Total Score Stage 3

Stage 4: Industry Versus Inferiority

( Infancy and Childhood)
____16. When people look at something I have one, I feel
embarrassed.
____17. I get a great deal of pleasure from working.
_____18. I feel too incompetent to do what I would really
like to do in life.
_____19. I avoid doing something difficult because I feel I
would fail.
____20. I feel competent.
Total Score Stage 4

Stage 5: Identity Versus Identity Diffusion

( Adolescence)
_____21. I wonder what sort of people I really am.
____22. I feel certain about what I should do with my life.
____23. My worth is recognized by others.
_____24. I feel proud to be the sort of people I am.
_____25. I am Unsure as to how people feel about me.
Total Score Stage 5

Stage 6: Intimacy Versus Isolation

( Early Adulthood)
____26. I feel that no one has ever known the real me.
_____27. I have a feeling of complete “togetherness” with
someone.
_____28. I feel it is better to remain free than to become
committed to marriage for life.
____29. I share my private thoughts with someone.
____0. I feel as though I am alone in the world.
Total Score Stage 6
Scoring:

Items on the questionnaire were derived from Erikson’s statement

about each stage.

Scores for each subscales range from 0-15, with high scores reflecting greater
strength on a particular personality dimension.

1. The response to item 1 should be reversed (0=, 1=2, 2=1,3=0) and the
added to the numbers given in response to items 2,,4,and 5 to obtain a
trust score.
2. Responses to items 7,8 and 9 e reversed an added to items 6 and 10 to
assess autonomy.
3. Answer to 12 and 15 should be reversed and added to items 11, 13, and 14
to measure initiative.
4. Answer to 16, 18 and 19 should be reverse and then added to 17 and 20 to
calculate industry.
5. Responses to 21 and 25 must be reversed and added to 22, 24,and 25 to
obtain a measure of identity.
 6. Answer to 26, 28 and 30 are reversed and added to 27 and 29 to give
intimacy.

Analysis

Plot your score for each stage; encircle your score for each stage.

What did you discover about yourself after answering the questionnaire?

____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
______________

Have these scores in mind as you read about Erikson’s stages and see
how the stages can guide you in self-understanding and in understanding others as
well.
 Abstraction/Generalization
Introduction to the 8 Stages:

1. Erikson’s ‘psychosocial’ term is derived from the two source words namely
psychological ( or the root, “psycho” relating to the mind, rain, personality,
etc.) and social ( external relationship and environment), both at the heart
of Erikson’s theory. Occasionally, you’ll see the terms extended to bio
psychosocial, in which “bio” refers to life, as in biological.
2. Erikson’s theory was largely influenced by Sigmund Freud. But Erikson
extended the theory and incorporates cultural and social aspects into
Freud’s biological and sexually oriented theory.
3. It is also interesting to see how his ideas developed over time, perhaps aided
by his own journey through the ‘psychosocial crisis’ stages model that
underpinned his work.
4. Like other influential theories, Erikson’s model is simple and well-designed.
The theory is a basis for broad or complex discussion and analysis of
personality and behavior, and also for understanding and for facilitating
personal development- of self and others. It can help the teacher in
becoming more knowledgeable of and at the same time understand the
various environmental factors that affect his/her own and his/her ‘ students’
personality and behavior.
5. Erikson’s 8 stages theory is a tremendously powerful model. It is very
accessible and obviously relevant to modern life, from several difficult
perspective, for understanding and explaining how personality and behavior
develop in people. As such Erikson’s theory is useful for teaching, parenting,
self-awareness, managing and coaching, dealing with conflict, and generally
for understanding self and others.
6. Various terms are used to describe Erikson’s model, for example Erikson’s
biopsychosocial or bio-psycho-social theory ( bio refers to biological, which in
this content means life); Erikson’s human development cycle or life cycle and
variation if these. All refers to the same eight stages psychosocial theory, it
being Erikson’s most distinct work and remarkable model.
7. The epigenetic principle. As Boerce explains, “This principle says that we
develop through a predetermined unfolding or our personalities in eight
stages. Our progress through each stage is in part determined by our
success, or lack of success, in all the previous stages. A little like the
unfolding of a rose bud, each petal opens up at a certain time in a certain
order, which nature, through each genetics, has determined. If we interfere
in the natural order of development pulling a petal forward prematurely or
out of order, we ruin the development of entire flower. “Erikson’s theory
 delved into how personality is formed and believes that the earlier stages
serve as the foundation of the later stages. The theory highlighted the
influenced of one’s environment, particularly on how earlier experience
gradually build up the next and result into one’s personality.
8. Each stages involves a psychosocial crisis of two opposing emotional
force. A helpful term used by Erikson for this opposing force is ‘contrary
dispositions’. Each crisis stage relates to a corresponding life stage and its
inherent challenges. Erikson used the words ‘syntonic’ for the first-listed
‘positive’ disposition in each crisis (e.g. Trust) and ‘dystonic’ for the second-
listed “negative” disposition (e.g. Mistrust). To signify the opposing or
conflicting relationship between each pair of forces or dispositions, Erikson
connected them with the word “versus”.
9. If a stage is managed well, we carry away a certain virtue or psychosocial
strength which will help us through the rest of the stages of our lives.
Successfully passing through each crisis involves ‘achieving’ a healthy ratio
or Balance between the two opposing dispositions that represents each
crisis.
10. On the other hand, if we don’t do so well, we may develop maladaptation
and malignancies, as well as endanger all our future development. A
malignancy is the worst of the two, and involves too little of the positive
and too much of the negative aspect of the task. Such as a person who can’t
trust others. A maladaptation is not quite as bad and involves too much of
the positive and too little of the negative, such as a person who trusts too
much.
11. The crisis stages are not sharply define steps. Element tends to overlap and
mingle from one stage to the next an to the preceding stages. It’s a broad
framework and concept, not a mathematical formula which replicates
precisely across all people and situations.
12. Erikson was keen to point out that the transition between stages is
“overlapping”. Crisis stage connects with each other like inter-laced fingers,
not like a series of neatly stacked boxes. People don’t suddenly wake up one
morning and be in a new life stage. Changes don’t happen in regimented
clear-cut steps. Changes are graduated, mixed-together and organic.
13. Erikson also emphasized the significance of “mutuality” and “generativity” in
his theory. The terms are linked. Mutuality reflects the effect of generations
on each other, especially among families, and particularly between parents
and children and grandchildren. Everyone potentially affects everyone else’s
experiences as they pass through the different crisis stages. Generativity ,
actually a named disposition within one of the crisis stage ( generativity v
stagnation, stage seven), reflects the significant relationship between adult
and the best interest of children – one’s own children, and ina way everyone
else’s children – the next generation, and all following generations.

Now you are ready to go over to the eight stages. As you read, enjoy
filling up the concept map we made, found at the beginning of each
 stage. This will help you remember the important term in each stage
and how these terms are interrelated. The first stage is done for you.
Use the side margins to write your thoughts about the stage and how
they connect to your own life now and as a future teacher.

The Eight Psychosocial Stages of Development:

(The following discussion is a shortened version of George Boerce’s work on

Erik Erikson used in this module with permission from Dr. Boercee Shippenburg
University, Pennysylvania)

Stage One

Stage 1
Infancy
To Much________ To Much _________

Maladaptation Psychosocial Crisis Malignancy

Sensory maladjustment Trust Vs Mistrust withdrawal

Virtue
hope

Psychosocial Crisis

The first stage, Infancy, is approximately the first year or year and a
half of life. The crisis is trust vs mistrust. The goal is to develop trust without
complete climinating the capacity of mistrust. If the primary caregivers, like the
parent can give the baby a sense of familiarity, consistency, and continuity, then the
baby will develop the feeling that the world is a safe place to be, that the people are
reliable and loving. If the parent are unreliable and inadequate, if they reject the
infant or harm it, if other interests cause both parents to turn away from the infant’s
needs to satisfy their own instead, then the infant will develop mistrust, he or she
will e apprehensive and suspicious around people.

Maladaptation/Malignancy

Please understand that this doesn’t mean that the parents have to be
perfect. In fact, parents are who are overly protective of the child, are there the
minute the first cry comes out, will lead that child into the maladaptive tendency
which Erikson calls “sensory maladjustment”. Overly trusting, even gullible, this
person cannot believe anyone would means them harm, and will use all the
defenses at their command to find an explanation or excuse for the person who did
him wrong. Worse, of course, is the child whose balance is tipped way over on the
mistrust side: they will develop the malignant tendency of “withdrawal”,
characterized y depression, paranoia, and possibly psychosis.

Virtue

If the proper balance is achieved, the child will develop the virtue of
“hope”, the strong belief that, even when things are not going well work out well in
the end. One of the sign that a child is doing well in the first stage is when the child
isn’t overly upset by the need to wait a moment for the satisfaction of his or her
needs: mom and dad doesn’t have to be perfect. I trust them enough to believe
that, if they can’t be here immediately, they will be here soon, things may be tough
now, but they will work out. This is the same ability that, in later life, gets us
through disappointment in love, our career, and many other domains of life.

Stage Two

Stage 2

_____________
Too much ________ Too much _____

Maladaptation Psychosocial Crisis Malignancy

________________ ___________________ _________

---_

Virtue

will power or determination

Psychosocial Crisis

The second stage is early childhood, from about eighteen months to

three or four years old. The task is to achieve the degree of autonomy while
minimizing shame and doubt. If mom and dad, or caregiver permits the child, now a
toddler, to explore and manipulate his or her environment, the child will develop a
sense of “autonomy or independence”. The parents should not discourage the child,
but neither should they push. A balance is required. People often advice new
parents to be “firm but tolerant” at this stage, and advice is good. This way, the
child will develop instead a shame and doubt. If the parents come down hard on
any attempt to explore and e independent, the child will soon give up with the belief
that he/she cannot and should not act on their own. We should keep in mind that
even something as innocent as laughing at the toddler’s effort can lead the child to
feel deeply ashamed, and to doubt his or her abilities.

And there are other ways to lead children’s to shame and doubt. If you
give children unrestricted freedom and no sense of limits, or if you try to help
children do what they should learn to do themselves, you will also give them the
impression that they are not good for much. If you aren’t patient enough to wait for
your child to tie his or her shoe-laces, your child will never learn to tie them, and will
assume that this is too difficult to them.

Maladaptation/Malignancy

Nevertheless, a little “shame and doubt” is not only inevitable, but

beneficial. Without it, you will develop the maladaptive tendency Erikson calls
“impulsiveness” a sort of shameless willfulness that leads you, in later childhood and
even adulthood, to jump into things without proper consideration of your abilities.
Worse, of course is too much shame and doubt, which leads to his malignancy
Erikson calls “compulsiveness”. The compulsive person feels as if their entire being
rides on everything they do, and so everything must be done perfectly. Following all
the rules precisely keeps you from mistakes must be avoided at all costs. Many of
you know how it feels to always be ashamed and always doubt yourself. A little
more patience and tolerance with your own children may help them avoid your path
and give yourself a little slack, too!

Virtue

If you get the proper, positive balance of autonomy and shame and
doubt, you will develop the virtue of “will power or determination”. One of the most
admirable – and frustrating – things about two or three years old is their
determination. “Can do” is their motto. If we can preserve that “can do” attitude
(with appropriate modesty to balance it) we are much better off as adults.

Stage Three

Stage 3
___________
Too much _______ Too Much _________

Maladaptation Psychosocial Crisis Malignancy

__________ _________ __________

Virtue
____________
Psychosocial Crisis

Stage three is the early childhood stage, from three or four to five or six. The
task is to learn initiative without too much guilt. Initiative means a positive response
to the world’s challenges, taking on responsibilities, learning new skills, feeling
purposeful. Parents can encourage initiative by encouraging trying out their ideas.
We should accept and encourage fantasy and curiosity and imagination. This is a
time for play, not for formal education. The child is now capable, as never before, of
imagining a future situation, one that isn’t a reality right now. Initiative is the
attempt to make that non-reality a reality.

But if the children can imagine the future, if they can plan, then they can e
responsible as well, and guilty. If my two year old flushes my watch down toilet, a
can safely assume that there were no “evil intention” it was just a matter of shiny
objects going round and round and down. What fun! But if my five years old does
the same thing …. Well, she should know what’s going to happen to the watch,
what’s going to happen to daddy’s temper, and what’s going to happen to her! She
can be guilty of the act, and she can begin to feel guilty as well. The capacity for
moral judgment has arrived.

Erikson is, of course, a Freudian and as such, he includes the oedipal

experience in this stage. From this perspective, the Oedipal crisis involves the
reluctance a child feels in relinquishing his or her closeness to the opposite sex
parent. A parent has a responsibility, socially, to encourage the child to “grow up –
you’re not a baby anymore!” But if this process is done too harshly and too abruptly,
the child learns to feel guilty about his or her feelings.

Maladaptation/Malignancy

Too much initiative and too little guilt means a maladaptive tendency

Erikson calls “ruthlessness”. To be ruthless is to e heartless or unfeeling or e

“without mercy”. The ruthless person takes the initiative alright; they have their
plans, whether it’s a matter of school or romance or politics or career. It’s just that
they don’t care who they step on to achieve their goals. The goals are the only
things matter, and guilty feelings and mercy are only signs weakness. The extreme
form of ruthlessness is sociopathy.

Ruthlessness is bad for others, but actually relatively easy on the

ruthless person. Harder on the person is the malignancy of too much guilt, which
Erikson calls inhibition. The inhibited person will not try things because “nothing
venture, nothing lost” and, particularly, nothing to feel guilty about. They are so
afraid to start and take a lead on a project. They fear that if it fails, they will be
blamed.

Virtue

A good balance leads to the psychosocial strength of purpose. A sense

of purpose is something many people crave in their lives, yet many do not realize
that they themselves make their purposes, through imagination and initiative. I think
an even better word for this virtue would have been cocrage, the capacity for action
despite a clear understanding of your limitations and past failings.

Stage Four
Stage 4
_______
 Too much ____________ Too much_______
Psychosocial Crisis Malignancy
Maladaptation
_________________ ___________ ________

Virtue
___________
Psychosocial Crisis

Stage four is the school-age stage when the child is from about six to twelve.
The task is to develop a capacity for industry while avoiding an excessive sense of
“inferiority” children must “tame the imagination” and dedicate themselves to
education and to learning the social skills their society requires of them. There is a
much broader social sphere at work now. The parents and other family member are
joined by teacher and peers and other member of the community at large. They all
contribute. Parents must encourage, teachers must care, peers must accept.
Children must learn that there is pleasure not only in conceiving a plan, but in
carrying it out. They must learn the feeling of success weather it is in school or on
the playground, academic or social.

A good way to tell the different between a child in the third stage and one in
the fourth stage is to look at the way they play games. Four year-olds may love
games, but they will have only a vague understanding of the rules, may change
them several times during the course of the game, and e very unlikely to actually
finish the game, unless it is by throwing the pieces at their opponents. A seven
year- old , on the other hand, is dedicated to the rules, consider them pretty much
sacred, and is more likely to get upset if the game is not allowed to come to its
required conclusion.
If the child is allowed too little success, because of harsh teachers or
rejecting peers, for example, then he or she will develop instead a sense of
inferiority or incompetence. An additional source of inferiority Erikson mentions is
racism, sexism, and other form of discrimination: if a child believes that success is
related to who you are rather than to how hard try, then why try?

Maladaptation/Malignancy

Too much industry leads to the maladaptive tendency called “narrow

virtuosity”. We see this in children who aren’t allowed to “be children” the ones that
parents or teacher push into one area of competence, without allowing the
development of broader interests. These are the kids without a life: child actors,
child athletes, child musician, child prodigies of all sorts. We all admire their
industry, but if we look a little closer, it’s all that stands in the way of an empty life.

Much more common is the malignancy called “inertia”. This includes all of us
who suffer from the “inferiority complexes” that Alfred Adler talked about. If at first
you don’t succeed, don’t ever try again! Many of us didn’t do well in mathematics,
for example, so we’d die before we took another math class. Other was humiliated
instead in the P.E. class, so we never try out for a sport or play a game of
basketball. Other never developed social skills- the most important skills of all – and
so we never go out in public. We become inert.

Virtue

A happier things is to develop the right balance of industry and inferiority –

that is, mostly industry with just a touch of inferiority to keep us sensibly humble.
Then we have the virtue called “competency”.

Stage Five

Stage 5
________
Too much________ Too much_________

Maladaptation Psychosocial Crisis Malignancy

__________ _________ ____________

Virtue
__________
Psychosocial Crisis

Stage five is adolescence, beginning with puberty and ending around 18 or

20 years old. The task during adolescence is to achieve ego identity and avoid role
confusion. It was adolescence that interested Erikson first and most, and the
patterns, he saw here were the bases for his thinking about all the other stages.

Ego Identity means knowing who you are and how you fit in to the rest of
society. It requires that you take all you’ve learned about life and yourself and mold
it into a unified self-image, one that your community finds meaningful.

There are a number of things that make things easier. First, we should have
a mainstream adult culture that is worthy of the adolescence’s respect, one with
good adult role models and open lines of communication.

Further, society should provide clear rites of passage, certain

accomplishment and rituals that help to distinguish the adult from the child. In
primitive and traditional societies, an adolescent boy may be asked to leave the
village for a period of time to live on his own, hunt some symbolic animal, or seek
an inspiration vision. Boys and girls may e required to go through certain tests of
endurance, symbolic ceremonies, or educational events. In one way or another, the
distinction between the powerless, but irresponsible, time of childhood and the
powerful and responsible time of adulthood, is made clear.

Without these things, we are likely to see role confusion, meaning an

uncertainty about one’s place in society and the world. When an adolescent is
confront y role confusion, Erikson says he or she is suffering from an identity crisis.
In fact, a common question adolescents in our society ask is a straight- forward
question of identity; “Who am I?”

One of Erikson’s suggestions for adolescence in our society is the

psychosocial moratorium. He suggests you take a little “time out”. If you have
money, go to Europe. If you don’t, um around the US quit school and get a jo and
go to school, take a break, smell the roses, get to know yourself. We tend to want
to get to “success” as fast as possible, and yet few of us have ever taken the time to
figure out what success means to us. A little like the young Oglala Lakota Indian
that Erikson study, perhaps we need to dream a little.

There is such a thing as much as” ego identity” where a person is involved in
a particular role in a particular society of]r subculture that there is no room left for
tolerance. Erikson calls this maladaptive tendency “fanaticism”. A fanatic believes
that his way is the only way. Adolescents are, of course, known for their idealism,
and for their tendency to see things in lack-and-white. These people will gather
other around them and promote their beliefs and life-style without regard to other
right to disagree.

The lack of identity is perhaps more difficult still, and Erikson refers to the
malignant tendency here as “repudiation”. To repudiate is to rejects. They reject
their membership in the world of adults and, even more, they reject their need for
identity. Some adolescent prefers to go to groups that go against the norms to form
their identity: religious cults, militaristic organizations, group founded on hatred,
groups that have divorced themselves from the painful demands of mainstream
society. They may become involved in destructive activities, drugs, or alcohol or you
may withdraw into their own psychotic fantasies. After all, being “bad” or being
“nobody” is better than not knowing who you are!

If you successfully negotiate this stage, you will have the virtue Erikson
called “fidelity”. Fidelity means loyalty, the ability to live in societies standards
despite their imperfections and incompleteness and inconsistencies. We are not
talking about blind loyalty; we are not talking about accepting the imperfection.
After all, if you love your community, you will want to see it become the best it can
be. But fidelity means that you have found a place in that community, a place that
allows you to contribute.

Stage Six

Stage 6
Young Adulthood
Too much________ To much________

Psychosocial Crisis Malignancy

Intimacy exclusion
 Maladaptation
promiscuity

Virtue
love
Psychosocial Crisis

If you have made it this far, you are in the stage of young adulthood, which
last from about 18 to about 30. The age in the adult stage is much fuzzier than in
the childhood stages, and people may differ dramatically. The task is to achieve
some degree of intimacy, as oppose to remaining in-isolation.

Intimacy is the ability to e close to others, as a lover, a friend, and as a

participant in society. Because you have a clear sense of which you are, you no
longer need to fear “losing” yourself, as may adolescent do. The “fear of
commitment” some people seems to exhibit is an example of immaturity in this
stage. This fear isn’t always so obvious. Many people today are always putting off
the progress of their relationships: I’ll get married (or have a family, or get involve
in important social issues) as soon as I finish school, as soon as I have a job, as
soon as I have a house, as soon as… if you’ve been engage for the last ten years,
what’s holding you back?

Neither should the young adult need to prove him or herself anymore. A
teenage relationship is often a matter of trying to establish identity through (couple-
hood). Who am I? I’m her boyfriend. The young adult relationship should be a
matter of two independent egos wanting to create something larger than them. We
intuitively recognize this when we frown on a relationship between a young adult
and a teenager; we see the potential for manipulating of the younger member of
the party y the older.

Maladaptation/Malignancy

Erikson calls the maladaptive form “promiscuity” referring particularly to the

tendency to become intimate too freely, too easily, and without any depth to your
intimacy. This can be true in your relationship with friend and neighbors and your
whole community as well as with lovers.

The malignancy he calls “exclusion”, which refers to the tendency to isolate

oneself from love, friendship, and community, and to develop certain hatefulness in
compensation of one’s loneliness.

Virtue

If you successfully negotiate this stage, you will instead carry with you for
the rest of your life the virtue or psychosocial strength Erikson’s called “love”. Love,
in the context of his theory, means being able to put aside differences and
antagonism through “mutuality of devotion”. It includes not only the love we find in
a good marriage, but the love between friends and the love of one’s neighbor, co-
worker, and compatriot as well.

Stage Seven

Stage 7
Middle Adulthood
Too much________ Too much___

Maladaptation Psychosocial Crisis Malignancy

Overextension Generativity and Stagnation Rejectivity

Virtue
Capacity for caring

Psychosocial Crisis

The seven stages is that middle adulthood. It is hard to pin a time to it, but
it would include the period during which we are actively involved in raising children.
For most people in our society, this would put it somewhere between the middle
twenties and the late fifties. The task here is to cultivate the proper balance of
“generativity and stagnation”.

Generativity is an extension of love into the future. It is a concern for the

next generation and all future generation. As such, it is considerably less “selfish”
than the intimacy of the previous stage: Intimacy, the love between lovers and
friends, is a lover’s between equals, and it is necessarily mutual. With generativity,
the individual, like a parent, does not expect to be repaid for the love he gives to his
children, at least not as strongly, few parents expect a “return on their investment”
from their children; if they do, we don’t think of them as very good parent!

Although the majority of people practice generativity by having and rising children,
there are many other ways as well. Erikson considers teaching, writing, invention,
the art and science, social activism, and generally contributing to the welfare of
future generations to be generativity as well – anything, in fact, that satisfies that
old “need to be needed”. Stagnation, on the other hand, is self-absorption, caring
for no-one. The stagnant person stops to be a productive member of society.

Maladaptation/Malignancy

It is perhaps hard to imagine that we should have any “stagnation” in

Our lives, but the maladaptive tendency Erikson called “overextension “illustrates
the problem. Some people try to be so generative that they no longer allow time for
themselves, for rest and relaxation. The person who is overextended no longer
contributes well. I’m sure we all know someone who belongs to so many clubs, or is
devoted to so many causes or tries to take so many classes or hold so many jobs
that they no longer have time to any of them!

More obvious, of course, in the malignant tendency of “rejectivity” too

little generativity and too much stagnation and you are no longer participating in or
contributing to the society. And much of what we call “the meaning of life” is a
matter of how we participate and what we contribute.

This is the stage of “midlife crisis”. Sometimes men and women take a
look at their lives and ask that big, ad question “what am I doing all this for?”.
Notice the question carefully: because their focus is on themselves, they ask what,
rather than whom, they are doing it for. In their panic and getting older and not
having experienced or accomplish what they imagined they would when they were
younger, they try to recapture their youth. Men are often the most flambouyant
example: they leave their long-suffering wives, quit their humdrum jobs, buy some
“hip” new clothes, and start hanging around singles bars. Of course, they seldom
find what they are looking for, because they are looking the wrong thing!

Virtue

But if you are successful at this stage, you will have a capacity for
caring that will serve you through the rest of your life.

Stage Eight

Stage 8
________________
Too much__________ To much___

Maladaptation Psychosocial Crisis Malignancy

_______________ _____________________ ________

Virtue
______________
Psychosocial Crisis

This last stage, referred to delicately as late adulthood or maturity, or

less delicately as old age, begins sometimes around retirement, after the kids have
gone, say somewhere around 60. Some older folks will protest and say it only starts
when you feel old and so on, But that’s an effect of our youth-worshipping culture,
which has even old people avoiding any acknowledgement of age. In Erikson’s
theory, reaching this stage is a good thing, and not reaching it suggests that earlier
problems retarded your development!

The task is to develop ego integrity with a minimal amount of despair.

This stage seems like the most difficult of all. First comes a detachment from
society, from a sense of usefulness, for most people in our culture. Some retire from
jobs they’ve held for years; other find their duties as parents coming to a close,
most find that their input is no longer requested or required.

Then there is a sense of biological uselessness, as the body no longer

does everything it used to, women go through a sometimes dramatic menopause;
men often find they can no longer “rise to the occasion” then there are the illnesses
of the old age, such as arthritis. Diabetes, heart problems, concerns about breast
and ovaries and prostate cancers. There come fears about things that one was
never afraid of before - - the flu, for example, or just falling down. Along with the
illness come concerns of death. Friends die, relatives die. One’s spouse dies. It is, of
course, certain that you, too will have your turn, faced with all this, it might seem
like everyone would feel despair.

In response to this despair, some older become preoccupied with the

past. After all, that’s where things were better. Some become preoccupied with their
failures, the ad decisions they made, and regret that (unlike some in the previous
stage) they really don’t have the time or energy to reverse them. We find some
older people become depressed, spiteful, paranoid, hypochondriacally, or developing
the patterns of senility with or without physical bases.

Ego integrity means coming to terms with your life, and thereby coming to
terms with the end of life. If you are able to look back and accept the course of
event, the choices made, your life as you lived it, as being necessary, then you
needn’t fear death, although most of you are not at this point in life perhaps you
can still sympathize by considering your life up to now. We’ve all made mistake,
you wouldn’t be who you are. If you have been very fortunate, or if you have played
it made very few mistakes, your life would not have been as rich as is.

Maladaptation/malignancy

The maladaptive tendency in stage eight is called presumption. This is

what happens when a person “presumes” ego integrity without actually facing the
difficulties of old age. The person in old age believes that he alone is right. He does
not respect the ideas and views of the young. The malignant tendency is called
disdain, by which Erickson means a contempt of life, one’s own or anyone’s. the
person becomes very negative and appears to hate life.
VIRTUE

Someone who approaches death without fear has the strength erikson calls
wisdom. He calls it a gift to children, because “healthy children well not fear life if
their elders have integrity enough not to fear death”. He suggest that you
understand “gifted” in as broad a fashion as possible: I have found that there are
people of very modest gift who have taught me a great deal, not their wise words,
but by their simple and gentle approach to life and death, by their “generosity of
spirit”

Synapse Strengtheners

1. Read on Erickson’s ideas about the work he did with the Sioux Indians and
his research on Gandi.
 APPLICATION

1) Make a synthesis of the concept of erikson’s theory. Apply these concepts

by thinking of suggestions on what the teacher
2) r should remember and do in order to facilitate learning and development
of the virtues in each of the stage below.

Life stage/ Significant Virtue Suggestions for

Psycho social relationship issues teachers
crisis
Infancy Hope and drive( faith, inner
calm grounding, basic feeling
that everything will be okay-
enabling exposure to risk, a
trust in life and others, inner
resolve and strength in the
face of uncertainly and risk)
Toddler hood Willpower and self control (self
determination, self belief, self
reliance, confidence in self to
decide things, having a voice,
being one’s own person
persistence, self-discipline,
independence of though,
responsibility, judgment
preschool Purpose & direction ( sence of
purpose decision –making,
working with the leading
others, initiating project and
ideas, courage to instigate,
ability to define personal
direction and aim and goals,
able to take initiative and
appropriate risk)
School age Competence and
 method( making things,
producing result, applying
skills and processes
productively, feeling valued
and capable of contributing,
ability to apply method and
process in pursuit of ideas or
objective, confidence to seek
and respond to challenge and
learning, active busy
productive outlook)
Adolescent Fidelity& devotion( self-
period confidence and self-esteem
necessary to freely associate
with people and ideas based
on merit, loyalty, social and
interpersonal integrity,
discretion, personal standard
and dignity, pride and personal
identity, seeing useful personal
role(s) and purpose(s) in life )
Young adult Love & affiliation (capability to
give and receive love –
emotionally and physical,
connectivity with others,
socially and inter-personally
comfortable, ability to form
honest reciprocating
relationship and friendship,
capacity to bond and commit
with others for mutual
satisfaction- for work and
personal life, reciprocity- give
and take- towards good)
 Application

5 Minute Non-Stop Writing begins…… NOW!

From the module of erikson ‘s psycho- social theory of development

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