Training Manual

Fundamentals

JAR 66
B2--M13.8 E

Instrument Systems

Lufthansa
Technical Training GmbH For Training Purposes Only
Book No: JAR B2 M13.8 E Lufthansa Base Lufthansa
For training purpose and internal use only.
Copyright by Lufthansa Technical Training GmbH.
All rights reserved. No parts of this training
manual may be sold or reproduced in any form
without permission of:

Lufthansa Technical Training GmbH

Lufthansa Base Frankfurt

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Tel. +49 69 / 696 41 78
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 Lufthansa Technical Training
JAR 66
INSTRUMENTS
M13.8

ATA 31/34 INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

For Training Purposes Only

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Lufthansa Technical Training
JAR 66 CLASSIFICATION
INSTRUMENTS
M 13.8
INSTRUMENTS
CLASSIFICATION
The flight instruments in the cockpit of commercial planes are divided into the Instruments can also be classified according to their working method.
following groups of usability. There are measurements of:
Flight Control Instruments Temperature
To supply important data to the pilots for flight accomplishment. Barometric Pressure
Example: Liquid pressure
-- Altimeter Electro--Dynamics
-- Airspeed Indicator Electro--Statics
-- Horizon Indicator Gyroscopic Effect
-- Heading Indicator Acceleration.
-- Turn and Bank Indicator
-- Vertical Speed Indicator
-- Mach Indicator
-- Command pointer
Airplane Control Instruments
All instruments belonging to the terms Airframe/Engine, will inform the pilots
about the condition of the airplane.
Example:
-- Hydraulic pressure Indicator
-- Cabin pressure Indicator Airframe
-- Flap position Indicator
-- Tachometer
-- Oil pressure Indicator Engine
For Training Purposes Only

-- Exhaust Gas Temperature Indicator

Navigation Devices
To hold the airplane heading without ground visibility.
Example:
-- Radio Compass
-- Beam Indicator
-- Inertial Navigation System
-- Radio Navigation.

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INSTRUMENTS
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Figure 1 Main Panel

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Lufthansa Technical Training
JAR 66 ATMOSPHERE
INSTRUMENTS
M 13.8

THE ATMOSPHERE
The characteristics of the atmosphere have important effects on the operation The remaining 0.003% is made up of minute quantities of many other gases
and maintenance of aircraft. such as neon, helium, krypton, hydrogen, methane, xenon etc.
The nature of the atmosphere may vary considerably from day to day at any The atmosphere is classified into four regions based on the variation of temper-
given place and it also varies from place to place at any given time. Because of ature with altitude.
these variations and because aircraft move from one place to another pretty Aircraft fly only in the troposphere and the lowest part of the stratosphere.
quickly, they continually experience changes in the air in which they fly. Civil aircraft would rarely exceed altitudes of 45000 ft (nearly 14 km).
These changes affect aircraft and their systems. Changes in the density of the Note that in the English speaking countries that have adopted a metric system
atmosphere alter lift, drag, and engine power. These changes affect aircraft of measurements, aircraft altitude is still measured in units of feet.
performance. Changes in density result from changes in atmospheric pressure,
The troposphere is the lowest layer of the atmosphere. It extends from sea
temperature, or humidity.
level to the tropopause. From the earth’s surface the temperature falls as alti-
During maintenance operations atmospheric effects often need to be taken into tude increases.
account. A few examples are when:
This process continues up to a height where the temperature stabilizes at
ground running and testing piston and turbine engines, about -55 C. The tropopause is the height where this occurs. At medium lati-
adjusting control components, tudes the tropopause is about 36 000 ft (11 km). At the Poles it is lower at
monitoring and adjusting instruments, and about 28 000 ft (8.5 km). Over the Equator it is at its highest, about 55 000 ft
(16.8 km).These heights and temperatures vary substantially due to seasonal
when applying paint or other surface finishes.
effects. For about 50 000 ft above the tropopause, temperature remains fairly
This chapter describes important characteristics of the atmosphere. It shows constant at about -55 C to -60 C.
something of how these are measured and expressed.
The upper two of the four temperature classified regions have no bearing on
The general nature of the atmosphere aircraft operation except for the layers of ionized atmosphere within them that
exist at altitudes of 80 km and more. These layers of ionized atmosphere are
The atmosphere consists of a layer of air many kilometers thick. The weight of
collectively known as the ionosphere.
the atmosphere on the earth’s surface causes an air pressure of about 100 ki-
lopascals (kPa). The ionosphere affects the transmission of radio waves sent out from aircraft
and the earth below. Depending on their frequency, some radio waves are ab-
This pressure progressively falls off with height (altitude) above the earth. The
sorbed by the ionosphere, others are reflected back to earth, and others are
atmosphere extends more than 300 km (190 miles) above sea--level, but it is
passed through to outer space.
extremely thin (rarefied) at altitudes above about 16 km (10 miles).
For Training Purposes Only

Nearer the earth’s surface the atmosphere is much denser: about half of its
total weight occupies the relatively shallow layer under the 5.5 km (approxi-
mately 18000 ft) level.
Air is a mixture of gases in the following proportions:
Nitrogen 78.084 %
Oxygen 20.946 %
Argon 0.934 %
Carbon Dioxide 0.033 %

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JAR 66 ATMOSPHERE
INSTRUMENTS
M 13.8
For Training Purposes Only

Figure 2 Atmosphere
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JAR 66 ATMOSPHERE
INSTRUMENTS
M 13.8

Oxygen Requirements
Above 10 000 ft (3 km) altitude the atmosphere contains insufficient oxygen to 25 C and no water vapour is added, the relative humidity will decrease. This is
maintain a person’s physical comfort and safety. Lack of oxygen becomes a so because more water vapour is required to saturate the air at a higher tem-
medical hazard causing a sickness called hypoxia. This is characterized in its perature.
early stages by a feeling of well being bordering on overconfidence. Further Conversely, humidity increases with reduction of temperature.
hypoxia leads to unconsciousness and then to death.
If it reaches 100% further cooling produces fog, dew, or frost depending on the
Aircraft that operate at high altitudes usually have their crew and passenger local circumstances.
compartments pressurized to a pressure equivalent to that at altitudes substan-
tially less than 10 000 ft. Humidity and Air Density
Alternatively, occupants of aircraft flying above 10 000 ft may breathe supple- Humid air is slightly less dense than dry air at the same temperature and pres-
mentary oxygen from a storage bottle. This is fed to them through a face mask, sure. The humid air is lighter because the mass of a water molecule is only
where it is usually mixed with air. about 5/8 of the mean molecular mass of dry air. The density of dry air at sea
level is about 1.225 kg per m .
Water Vapour and Humidity
At 15 C, saturated air is only about one per cent less dense than dry air be-
The atmosphere is never entirely dry. It contains moisture in the form of an in- cause water molecules are only a small proportion of the mass of humid air.
visible gas called water vapour. The proportion of water vapour in the atmo- However at 39 C, this rises to 4%. That is why humidity has a bigger influence
sphere varies widely from place to place, and from time to time. at high ambient temperatures,in the tropics for example. Even in saturated air
When the proportion of water vapour is small the air is said to be dry. When the most of the molecules are dry air.
proportion is significant the atmosphere is described as moist, damp, wet, or
humid. Evaporation of water on the earth’s surface supplies water vapour to the Air Density and Aircraft Operations
atmosphere. Air close to oceans, seas, lakes, and above tropical regions tends Changes in air density affect the operation of aircraft regardless of whether the
to be wetter than that above a desert. The atmosphere tends to become dryer changed density results from changes in pressure, temperature, humidity, or
as height increases. any combination of these. If the air density drops there will be a reduction in:
When water vapour in the troposphere cools it may condense and return to the the lift produced by wings or helicopter rotors,
earth’s surface as drizzle, rain, hail, dew, frost, or snow. Fog is not water va- the thrust produced by propellers or jet engines,
pour but tiny particles of water held in suspension by the air. Clouds are gener-
ally composed of fog, but at high enough altitudes they will consist of ice crys- and
tals. the power or torque produced by piston or turboshaft engines.
For Training Purposes Only

The maximum proportion of water vapour that air can hold depends mainly on The last two of these are also significant when checking engine operation on
its temperature. At the same pressure, air at high temperature can hold more the ground.
water vapour than when at a lower temperature. When the air holds all the wa-
ter vapour it can it is said to be saturated. When air is cold it cannot hold much
water vapour. At 40 C saturated air holds ten times more water vapour than at
0 C.
The proportion of water vapour in the air at a particular time and place is said in
weather reports to be the ”humidity”. This really means relative humidity. If the
humidity is, say, 60% at 18 C it means that the air holds 60% of the water va-
pour that would saturate it at 18 C. If the air temperature increases say to

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INSTRUMENTS
M 13.8

Altitude (km)

e
For Training Purposes Only

Density

Figure 3 Air Density

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JAR 66 ATMOSPHERE
INSTRUMENTS
M 13.8
Barometers
The pressure of the atmosphere, especially at and around sea level, is usually
measured with an instrument called a barometer. There are two principles of
barometers, the mercury barometer and the aneroid (aneroid no fluid) barome-
ter.( Modern barometers have electronic sensors).
Standard sea--level pressure is 1013.23 hPa,1013.25 millibars or 29.92 inches
mercury. The pressure is higher at ground locations below sea level. In the
standard atmosphere it is 1050.4 mb at minus 1000 feet. On a mountain or a
high altitude airfield the pressure is much lower.
The barometric pressure at any given place changes from day to day. During
fine, sunny conditions caused by a ‘high’ the pressure may rise toward 1035
mb (30.56 in Hg). During a cyclone the barometric pressure may fall to a ‘low’
of about 960 mb (28.35 in Hg).

Temperature, Pressure, and Density versus Altitude

As altitude increases both temperature and pressure decrease, the former
tending to increase air density and the latter to decrease it. One effect does not
exactly compensate for the other because the pressure drop affects density
more than the temperature effect. The net result is a gradual fall in air density
with increasing altitude.
At the tropopause the air temperature ceases to fall, stabilizing at -56.5 C
(standard atmosphere).
At 20000 ft (about 6 km) pressure and density are approximately only a half of
their sea--level values. At 60 000 ft they are less than a tenth of sea--level val-
ues.
For Training Purposes Only

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JAR 66 ATMOSPHERE
INSTRUMENTS
M 13.8
For Training Purposes Only

Figure 4 Barometers
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JAR 66 ATMOSPHERE
INSTRUMENTS
M 13.8

THE STANDARD ATMOSPHERE

Since the temperature, pressure, and density of the atmosphere varies from
place to place and from day to day it is necessary to have a standard set of
conditions with which observed readings can be compared. This facilitates the
correction of aircraft and engine performance calculations for any off standard
conditions.
The set of standard conditions is usually known as the International Standard
Atmosphere (ISA). In the aircraft industry this is also known as the ICAO Stan-
dard Atmosphere. ICAO stands for International Civil Aviation Organization.
At sea level the standard pressure is1013 hPa,1013 mb or 29.92 in Hg, and the
standard temperature is 15 C.
The standard density is 1,225 kg/m3.
For Training Purposes Only

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Figure 5 Standard Atmosphere

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INSTRUMENTS
M 13.8

PRESSURE ALTITUDE AND DENSITY ALTITUDE

These terms relate to important aspects of aircraft operation and performance.

Pressure Altitude
Pressure altitude is the altitude listed for a given pressure in a table of the stan-
dard atmosphere. Because of day--to--day and place-- to--place variations of
pressure from the standard, an aircraft’s pressure altitude may differ from its
true altitude. In relation to air density and its affect on aircraft performance, it is
pressure altitude and not true altitude that matters. However, there is also the
factor that the air density at any particular pressure altitude is much effected by
temperature.

Density Altitude
Density altitude is the altitude listed for a given density in a table of standard
atmosphere. The density altitude will differ from the pressure altitude when the
temperature is not standard.
There are no aircraft instruments that directly measure air density, but there are
instruments that measure pressure altitude and air temperature. If these two
factors are known, the air density can be found by reference to altitude conver-
sion graphs. These graphs could be used during flight, and they are also used
in measuring the performance of engines during test runs on the ground.

Aircraft Altitude Indications

Aircraft altimeters indicates altitude in feet on a scale responding to a pressure
measuring mechanism based on the aneroid barometer. Altimeters are cali-
brated to the Standard atmosphere, but because local conditions are rarely
Standard, they have a ready means of adjusting the mechanism to allow for
local variations. This is done by a knob that sets the altimeter’s ‘barometric
correction mechanism and dial’ to the local sea--level pressure.
For Training Purposes Only

When the barometric correction dial is set to 1013.25 mb, the altimeter indi-
cates ‘pressure altitude’. When the dial is set to the local sealevel pressure the
altimeter indicates altitude above sea level. If with the aircraft on the ground the
barometric correction knob is turned to make the altimeter read zero altitude,
the barometric correction scale will indicate ambient pressure at the aircraft
location.

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INSTRUMENTS
M 13.8

Height
Temperature
Pressure
For Training Purposes Only

Density
Figure 6 ISA Table
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JAR 66 PITOT-STATIC-SYSTEM
INSTRUMENTS
M 13.8
PITOT STATIC SYSTEMS
GENERAL
The barometry needful for the flight supervision gives data as:
static pressure (atmospheric pressure) and
dynamic pressure
to the
Altimeter for barometric altitude
Vertical Speed Indicator
Air speed Indicator, and
Mach Meter.
Furthermore, as temperature correction factor to the:
True Airspeed Indicator (TAS)
Static Air Temperature (SAT) Indicator
The method of operation of air data instruments are different. It depends on the
vendor and his technological stage of development. Either the transforming will
be directly (Pressure--Mechanic-- Indicator), or separately in a Air Data Com-
puter (Pressure--Mechanic--Electric--Indicator). The ADC transforms the pres-
sure into a electrical signal and sends this signal to a indicator (digital or ana-
log).
For Training Purposes Only

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For Training Purposes Only

TEXTFETT:14PKT

Figure 7 Air Data Instruments

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JAR 66 PITOT-STATIC-SYSTEM
INSTRUMENTS
M 13.8
STATIC PRESSURE
The static pressure is the atmospheric pressure surrounding the airplane.
The air pressure depends on:
air density
temperature T
The International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) has established Interna-
tional Standard Atmosphere (ISA) for aviation.
The definition of ISA on “Mean Sea Level” (MSL) is as follows:
air density 0 = 1.225 kg/m
temperature t0 = 15 C
air pressure p0 = 1013 hPa

STATIC PORTS
The static pressure is sensed through static ports. The static ports are con-
nected in pairs, so that each pair consists of a port on the left and on the right
side of the airplane in zones with low air turbulence and low disturbance of dy-
namic pressure, mostly between the cockpit and the leading edges.
Air pressure indicators and Air Data Computer are connected by tubes and
pipes.
Some aircraft have electrically heated static ports.
Attention:
All zones of static ports must be absolutely clean. The surface must be plain,
otherwise the air pressure inputs are disturbed by air turbulence.
During maintenance duties the static ports must be secured by conspicuous
tape.
After removing the tape all remainders must be removed carefully.
For Training Purposes Only

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JAR 66 PITOT-STATIC-SYSTEM
INSTRUMENTS
M 13.8
For Training Purposes Only

Figure 8 Static Ports

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M 13.8
STATIC SOURCE ERROR
It is not always possible to find on airplanes zones free of turbulence and ram
air effects.
The metered static pressure can be inaccurate due to static source error
(SSE).
The error depends on:
the Mach number M
by angle of attack
the landing flap position.
This error is negligible with slow moving, prop.--airplanes. The tolerance of
static pressure error, required by the legislative authority, can be exceeded on
jet airplanes which fly close to the sonic barrier. In this case, it is necessary to
correct the data by an air data computer or sensor.
Correction tables from the respective flight or operation manual make it pos-
sible for crew members to find out the actual static pressure.
The graph below shows two examples of static source error on different types
of aircraft.
It is even possible that in the course of time, the static source error varies by
alterations on the airplane surface.
For Training Purposes Only

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JAR 66 PITOT-STATIC-SYSTEM
INSTRUMENTS
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For Training Purposes Only

Figure 9 Static Source Error

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JAR 66 PITOT-STATIC-SYSTEM
INSTRUMENTS
M 13.8
PITOT PRESSURE PITOT TUBES
Pitot--pressure means: an air pressure built up in a tube which is directed The Pitot tube is mostly installed near the fuselage nose or below the cockpit.
against the air flow. The Pitot tube is adjusted against the air flow.
The Pitot pressure Ptot will be calculated by: The Pitot tube consists of a cylindrical pipe.
q = Impact Pressure During flight condition the total pressure is effective into the forward part of the
ps = Static Pressure Pitot tube. This pressure comes to the connected instruments and systems by
pipe couplings.
Ptot = q + ps
A small drain hole (without influence on the total pressure) drains intrusive wa-
ter outside.
To protect the Pitot tube against icing, the tube will be electrically heated.
Attention:
danger of burning
In no case should the pipe be deformed.

For measurements of airplane velocity contrary to the ambient air, the dynamic
pressure q is sufficient. As the static pressure ps is known by barometry at the
static ports, the dynamic pressure can be determined by differential pressure
measuring:
Dynamic pressure q = Ptot -- ps
For Training Purposes Only

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Lufthansa Technical Training
JAR 66 PITOT-STATIC-SYSTEM
INSTRUMENTS
M 13.8
For Training Purposes Only

Figure 10 Pitot Tube

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JAR 66 PITOT-STATIC-SYSTEM
INSTRUMENTS
M 13.8
PITOT STATIC TUBE
Some types of aircraft do not need Pitot tubes and static ports separated as air
pressure measuring points for speed information, rather they are measured
from a single pressure tube the Pitot Static Tube .
The pressure tube combines a Pitot tube with a probe, necessary for measure-
ment of static pressure. At the measuring point A, the total pressure ptot and at
the measuring point B the static pressure ps will be metered.
Comparing both measuring points together, the result will be the differential
pressure
q = ptot -- ps

The Pitot Static probe is mounted, similar to the pitot tube, near the nose of an
aircraft or below the cockpit.
The cylindrical inlet port “feels” the ptot.
For Training Purposes Only

Small boreholes at the side parts give the information for one or two connected
static leads.
Plate and drain hole are deflected, preventing water inlet into the pitot lead.
The Pitot Static tube will be electrically heated against icing.
Attention:
danger of burning
no deformation at the muzzle
no roughness on the tube surface, otherwise static pressure disturbances.

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For Training Purposes Only

Figure 11 Pitot Static Tube

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ERROR OF IMPACT PRESSURE
(Error of Compressibility)
The equation Ptot = ps + q is relevant only for incompressible gases or liquids.
However, air is not incompressible. Therefore the variation of speed affects the
equation.
The charge of density , as the result of increase of pressure (by increase of
speed), has primarily the effect that the measured impact pressure is too high.
The speed indicator (deduced from Ptot) shows at higher speeds inaccurate
indications and needs to be corrected.
Therefore: Ptot = ps + q + q
The value of correction q, similar to the static pressure source error, a Mach--
dependent value that is added to the formulas follows:
with q = 1/4 ¯ q ¯ M
is Ptot = ps + q (1 + 1/4 M )
For Training Purposes Only

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JAR 66 PITOT-STATIC-SYSTEM
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For Training Purposes Only

Figure 12 Error of impact pressure

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PITOT / STATIC PRESSURE DISTRIBUTION
There are a large number of different pitot / static instruments and control sys- Vertical Speed Indicator (VSI); which displays the aircraft‘s rate of climb or
tems in use. The three most common types found on any aircraft are the: decent in thousands of feet per minute.
Altimeter; which displays the aircraft altitude. These instruments are supplied with pitot and static pressure from the ap-
Airspeed Indicator (ASI); which displays the speed of the aircraft through propriate source.
the air, usually calibrated in knots (Nautical miles per hour).
For Training Purposes Only

Figure 13 Simplified Pitot/Static System

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Figure 14 Pitot/Static System A 320

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Modern commercial planes have, for safety reasons, three separate pitot/ static Pressure Shifting
pressure systems. In case of faults in the Cpt’s or FO’s static system, in some airplanes,a switch
They are, corresponding to the aneroid instruments or systems, marked with: over to an auxiliary system is possible by static source selector valve.
Cpt’s System But a switch--over for Pitot pressure is not possible in any aircraft.
FO’s System
Auxiliary System (Additional System)
For each static pressure system on the starboard and portside, a pressure
measuring point is attached. Both measuring points are connected together to
balance the measurements of pressure.

Drain Trap and Test Fitting

To test the air data on airplanes, test fittings for each line are provided. With
the help of an air data tester, the altitude and speed can be simulated.
In case of a slope between the measuring points (Pitot tube, Static port), a
drain trap is installed on the deepest part; also a drain trap and test fitting could
be at this position.
For Training Purposes Only

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PITOT TUBE
For Training Purposes Only

Figure 15 Pitot / Static System (Boeing)

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Temperature Variation
The static ports are taped for protection or test reasons. At temperature varia-
tion, a pressure variation in the static system occurs.
Cold airplanes in a warm hanger have an increase of pressure.

Protection Covers
These are moulded covers and plugs that are fitted to pitot / static vents to pre-
vent the entry of foreign matter, when ever the aircraft is to be left standing for
any length of time. They are of a prominent color and have a red streamer at-
tached to ensure they are removed prior to flight.
Before fitting a protective cover, always ensure the appropriate heater is
switched off, and inhibited by opening the appropriate circuit breaker or switch.

Water in the Tube

There is no draining cycle for pressure tubes. Water in the tube results in fluc-
tuation of indication.

Air Data Test

The following basic points should be observed with air data tests:
The static pressure should never be higher than the Pitot pressure.
Never exceed the maximum allowed change of pressure p.
Connected systems (depending on the type of aircraft) must be in the oper-
ating condition (e.g air data sensor, flight recorder).

Pitot Tube - Icing

The effect depends on the intensity of icing.
Intake icy, drain hole free (for less filament energy consumption). The pitot
pressure passes and will be reduced to static pressure.
q = ptot -- ps = 0 because ptot=ps
For Training Purposes Only

b) Intake and drain hole icy (defective or deactivated heater).The Pitot

pressure remains constant. The dynamic pressure q is thus height depen-
dent on: q = const. -- ps

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Figure 16 Pitot / Static System (Airbus)

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INSTRUMENTS
M 13.8
TEMPERATURE MEASURING
For safety reasons, the legislative authority ordered an outside air temperature
indicator in all commercial airplanes as minimum equipment.
The temperature indication is useful to:
detect ice accretion
calculate the engine performance (by knowledge from further engine data)
detect the engine limits.
The areas of application for the outside air temperature are:
indication instruments
calculation of indirectly measured data within the air data computer (ADC)
N1--limit computer or performance data computer (PDC)
flight recording.

MEASURING AND INDICATION

Usual temperature test probes:
for ram air temperature, RAT, the probe lies flat on the skin surface of the
airplane.
for TAT, total air temperature, the probe is mounted so that there is a dis-
tance between the probe and the airplane surface.
With conventionally constructed analogous indicators the circuit is directly
installed into the indicator. (Exception: sensing elements for measurement pur-
poses.)
Modern systems performing digital display and computation separated.
It is not possible to determine the static air temperature SAT directly. The com-
putation (analogous or digital) will be performed, with the help of further data,
For Training Purposes Only

by the air data computer (ADC).

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Figure 17 TAT Indicating

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TEMPERATURE TEST PROBE (TAT)
The TAT test probe contains 2--3 temperature dependent resistances (ptc).
These resistances become surrounded by air flow (inlet and outlet). The air
velocity is slowed down until the Ram--effect occurs.
Heating Elements prevent ice accretion. The heating has no influence on the
measurement during flight.
Often the heating is switched off on the ground automatically.
Aspirated TAT probes have the advantage that influences on the ground by
solar radiation
temperature of airplane covering
could be neglected.
The ambient air is sucked by the bleed air.
For Training Purposes Only

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For Training Purposes Only

Figure 18 TAT Probe

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M 13.8
TEMPERATURES
The kind of temperature measurement can be differed between:
TAT (Total Air Temperature)
RAT (Ram Air Temperature)
SAT (Static Air Temperature or OAT Outside Air Temperature)
The temperatures TAT and RAT are directly determined data by the test
probes.
The temperature rise effect at the probes during flight is normal. The tempera-
ture rise is explained by air compression. (Ram Rise = RR).
TAT = SAT + RR
In case the air velocity at the probe is not reduced to zero (e.g. the probe is flat
fitted to the fuselage), the manufacturer has to detect the recovery Factor Fr.
TAT = SAT + RR Fr.
At the TAT--probe (Rosemount probe), the Recovery Factor Fr = 1.
The temperature SAT is the outside air temperature. It is not possible measure
the SAT directly during flight.
For computation an air data computer is necessary.
The temperature rise, caused by ram rise, is a Mach dependent variable.
RR = SAT 0,2 M
TAT = SAT + RR
TAT = SAT + SAT 0,2 M
TAT = SAT (1 + 0,2 M )
When the TAT and the Mach number are known, the SAT can be calculated:
SAT = TAT : (1 + 0,2 M2)
For Training Purposes Only

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JAR 66 TEMPERATURE MEASURING
INSTRUMENTS
M 13.8
For Training Purposes Only

Figure 19 SAT - TAT Table

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Lufthansa Technical Training
JAR 66 ALTIMETER
INSTRUMENTS
M 13.8
ALTIMETER
PRINCIPLE OF ALTIMETER TYPES
An Altimeter is a sensitive pressure gauge which operates on the principle of There are various instruments:
the aneroid barometer to indicate the change in atmospheric (static) pressure two pointer altimeter
which occurs with a change in altitude.
three pointer altimeter
In the altimeter, static pressure is applied to the sealed case surrounding an
drum altimeter.
evacuated diaphragm, which expands as the height increases, and atmo-
spheric pressure decreases. The selection of type depends on:
The scale is calibrated in feet or meters. type of aircraft
The scale is calibrated in accordance with an International Civil Aircraft Orga- region of operation
nization (ICAO) law which assume, amongst other factors, a standard sea level statutory range of tolerance.
pressure of 1013,25 hPa
In order to compensate for deviations away from this standard pressure, the
instrument datum can be altered by rotating the mechanism via the knob on the
front of the instrument. (barometric correction)
The barometric correction is a correction of indication and not a correction of
the diaphragm itself.
For Training Purposes Only

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JAR 66 ALTIMETER
INSTRUMENTS
M 13.8

1000 ft POINTER

100 ft POINTER
For Training Purposes Only

BARO SKALA

BARO SET KNOB

BARREL ALTIMETER

Figure 20 Altimeter
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JAR 66 ALTIMETER
INSTRUMENTS
M 13.8
DEFINITION OF HEIGHTS
There are three common altimeter datum settings based upon the ICAO ’Q’ QFE: Setting the pressure prevailing at an airfield to make the altimeter
Code of communication. read zero on landing and take off.
QNE (ISA Standard):Setting the standard sea level pressure of 1013,25 QNH: Setting the pressure datum to make the altimeter read airfield eleva-
hPa This is normally set during cruise, to ensure all aircraft are reading alti- tion above sea level for landing and take off.(current sea level pressure)
tude from a uniform datum.
For Training Purposes Only

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JAR 66 ALTIMETER
INSTRUMENTS
M 13.8
For Training Purposes Only

Figure 21 Heights
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 Lufthansa Technical Training
JAR 66 AIRSPEED INDICATOR
INSTRUMENTS
M 13.8
AIRSPEED INDICATOR
PRINCIPLE OF AIRSPEED INDICATOR
h(m)
The airspeed indicator is a differential pressure device with a scale calibrated in
knots.
1 knot = 1 nautical mile per hour
1 nautical mile = 1.852 km
The measuring element consists of a pressure differential [Link] is a
total pressure ptot from the pitot system inside the diaphragm. The diaphragm
is located within a housing which has static pressure ps from the static system;
the diaphragm is thus surrounded with static pressure.
The difference in pressure results in the dynamic pressure q.
q = ptot -- ps

TYPES
Depending on the type of aircraft, different airspeed indicators are encoun-
tered:
simple speed indicator with limited speed range for little sporting planes.
speed indicator, combined with maximum permissible speed indication
(VMO) and speed bug setting.
combined Mach/airspeed indicator with maximum permissible speed indica-
tion, speed bug setting and speed marker.
INDICATED AIRSPEED (IAS)
The simple speed indicator gets the indication from the dynamic pressure q.
For Training Purposes Only

Therefore V IAS is a dynamic indication.

IAS is valid for:
lifting
control pressure simulation
maximum loads for flaps and airframe.
IAS and True Airspeed (TAS) indication correspond only at standard condition
in sea level
With increasing altitude (decreasing density) the difference between IAS and
TAS grows.

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JAR 66 AIRSPEED INDICATOR
INSTRUMENTS
M 13.8

VMO POINTER
For Training Purposes Only

REF MARK
SPEED POINTER

REF KNOB

Figure 22 Airspeed Indicator

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JAR 66 AIRSPEED INDICATOR
INSTRUMENTS
M 13.8
Errors
Between the indicated and true airspeed are differences which are effected by:
Scale error
Static source error (SSE)
Compressibility error
Change of density, depends on altitude and temperature.

SPEED DEFINITIONS
Speed definitions are determined as:
IAS:Indicated airspeed
Speed indication is determined by dynamic pressure q -- affected by instru-
ment error. But the compressibility error is corrected at MSL (mean sea
level) .
CAS:Calibrated airspeed.
CAS = IAS + (corrected instrument and static source errors)
EAS:Equivalent airspeed
EAS =CAS 4+(corrected height-dependent compressibility error)
TAS:True airspeed in the surrounding air.
TAS = EAS + (corrected air density)
The following indications are in the cockpit:
IAS and CAS as lift information.
TAS as navigational aid.
EAS is only important for design data and mathematical investigations.

Charts for Correction

In cases of no air data computer being installed, correction charts must be on
For Training Purposes Only

hand.

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JAR 66 AIRSPEED INDICATOR
INSTRUMENTS
M 13.8

DYNAMIC PRESSURE
For Training Purposes Only

Figure 23 Speed Definition

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Lufthansa Technical Training
JAR 66 MACHMETER
INSTRUMENTS
M 13.8
MACHMETER
The Machmeter displays the speed of the aircraft as percentage of the local
speed of sound, which varies with the altitude.
If an airplane approaches the velocity of sound a (that means: TAS a) it is in
the zone of Mach number M=1. In this zone, the flight characteristics are vary-
ing remarkably. The shock excitation, generated by compression of the air, pre-
vents a laminar flow around the airframe and the wings. The drag increases,
the lift decreases.
Therefore the purpose of a Mach meter is to fly :
within the speed boundary MMO (maximum Mach operating) and
economically.
The last point is of more and more importance because of the rising costs of
fuel.

PRINCIPLE OF MACHMETER
The velocity of sound a is a function of the temperature T. Again the tempera-
ture T is -- in standard conditions -- a function of the height h. Therefore, the
TYPES
velocity of sound a is representable as a function of the height h: Three types of Mach meters are in use:
a = f(h). As a solo instrument, with an additional marker on it, to indicate the maxi-
Inside the Mach meter is: mum allowable Mach number (MMO) for the corresponding type of aircraft.
a differential bellow (v) This MMO marking can be stuck or adjusted in maintenance shops.
an aneroid diaphragm (h, a) As a combination instrument, which has already been described in the
chapter “air speed indicator”.
For Training Purposes Only

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Lufthansa Technical Training
JAR 66 MACHMETER
INSTRUMENTS
M 13.8
For Training Purposes Only

Figure 24 Machmeter
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Lufthansa Technical Training
JAR 66 MACHMETER
INSTRUMENTS
M 13.8
MACH EQUATION
The Mach number is the relation between the airspeed V and the velocity of
sound a.
M = V/a

The velocity of sound is a function of the temperature, a = f( T).

At standard conditions again the temperature is a function of the height.

T = f (h)
With that:
a = f ( h)
With a constant velocity V, but increasing height h, the Mach number rises.

Definition of Mach indication

Mi (Indicated Mach number) is the calculated Mach number by pitot and
static pressure, affected by
-- instrument error and
-- static source error
MT (True Mach= number) is determined by air data computer, (without
instruments and static error).
For Training Purposes Only

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Lufthansa Technical Training
JAR 66 MACHMETER
INSTRUMENTS
M 13.8
For Training Purposes Only

Figure 25 Machnumber
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Lufthansa Technical Training
JAR 66 VERTICAL SPEED INDICATOR
INSTRUMENTS
M 13.8
VERTICAL SPEED INDICATOR
The Vertical Speed Indicator (VSI) or rate of climb and descent indicator shows
wether the aircraft is climbing or descending. The scale is gauged and the
scope is reached from 0 to 2000 ft/min (on small sporting planes), respec-
tively 6000 ft/min (on commercial planes).

PRINCIPLE OF VSI
In the VSI, static pressure is connected to a differential pressure diaphragm
and to the instrument case via a calibrated metering unit, which introduces a
’leak’ into the instrument.

When flying level the pressure in the diaphragm and in the case are equal and
the needle remains at zero.

When the aircraft descends increasing static pressure expands the diaphragm
and the needle indicates a descent.

When the aircraft climbs decreasing static pressure contracts the diaphragm
and the needle indicates a climb.

A constant vertical movement is detected and indicated correctly. The transition

from one vertical speed to another vertical speed is likewise retarded. The in-
dication limps afterwards.
For Training Purposes Only

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JAR 66 VERTICAL SPEED INDICATOR
INSTRUMENTS
M 13.8
For Training Purposes Only

Figure 26 VSI
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JAR 66 VERTICAL SPEED INDICATOR
INSTRUMENTS
M 13.8
INSTANTANEOUS VERTICAL SPEED INDICATOR
To compensate for the retardation, an acceleration--piston is inserted into the
system.
The principle picture shows, by the direction of arrow, the effect of the piston in
coordination with the second capillary tube, during the start of a descent, to the
non--retarded indication.
Attention: Either the turn in or the turn out of a bank gives an error indication.
For Training Purposes Only

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JAR 66 VERTICAL SPEED INDICATOR
INSTRUMENTS
M 13.8
For Training Purposes Only

Figure 27 IVSI
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Lufthansa Technical Training
JAR 66 VERTICAL SPEED INDICATOR
INSTRUMENTS
M 13.8
ELECTRONIC VSI
In modern aircrafts a electrical indicator indicates the vertical speed informa-
tion. This indicator receives a analog or digital electrical signal, which corre-
sponds to the vertical speed, from the Air Data Computer (ADC) the Inertial
Reference Unit (IRU) or from both.
In the figure below we have some examples for electrical vertical speed indica-
tion from several aircrafts.
For Training Purposes Only

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Lufthansa Technical Training
JAR 66 VERTICAL SPEED INDICATOR
INSTRUMENTS
M 13.8

727
737B

737-300 /400 /500

A 310
For Training Purposes Only

A 340
A 320

Figure 28 Electronic VSI

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JAR 66 AIR DATA COMPUTER
INSTRUMENTS
M 13.8
AIR DATA COMPUTER
DUTY The Airspeed Module transduces the difference between total (ptot) and static
(ps) pressure inputs and provides output stations for all computed airspeed re-
In the course of aircraft development, or rather the complexibility of aircraft quirements (differential pressure transducer).
there are increasing demands for
The Mach Module receives the two inputs from the Airspeed and the Altitude
Air data variety modules. The ratio of these two inputs is computed into a mach number. The
Air data accuracy computation is performed by a mechanical--logarithmic method.
Keeping conventional air data conversion for each system using air data, this With the additional input of the Total Air Temperature (TAT), the Mach Module
would mean integrating numerous aneroid and pressure--difference transducers calculates the true Airspeed through the ambient air (TAS) and the Static Air
into the aircraft, in accordance with legal existing tolerances. Temperature (SAT).
Instead of all these different kinds of pressure transducers, the aircraft The Air Data Computer is equipped with a master failure monitor and a self--
manufacturers have installed a Air Data Computer (ADC). testing device, which enables the system to be tested with regard to its func-
Basically, the main tasks of the air data computer are the following: tional capability.
the measuring and the conversion of the aircraft ambient data (Flight Envi- In modern aircraft a digital ADC (DADC) is installed. A computer calculates all
ronment Data), e.g. pitot pressure, static pressure and temperature. the different output signals (TAS,SAT etc.) .
static source error correction and instrument error correction (diaphragm
characteristic).
determination of values which are not directly measurable.
availability of air data and transfer to the connected instruments and sys-
tems.

PRINCIPLES OF AIR DATA COMPUTER

The classical analogue air data computer consists of three modules:
Altitude Module
Airspeed Module
For Training Purposes Only

Mach Module.
Input data is:
ps static pressure from the static ports
ptot pitot pressure from the pitot tube
TAT from the outside temperature probe.
The Altitude Module transduces altitude from the static pressure input and pro-
vides output stations for altitude requirements (aneroid).

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JAR 66 AIR DATA COMPUTER
INSTRUMENTS
M 13.8

ALT. RATE

SSEC

SSEC

M f (Ps)
Ps SSEC

ADC Valid

AIR DATA COMPUTER (ANALOG)

For Training Purposes Only

Figure 29 Air Data System

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JAR 66 AIR DATA COMPUTER
INSTRUMENTS
M 13.8
INPUT DATA CONNECTED SYSTEMS
In addition to classical input data The following systems can be connectedto the air data computer.
static pressure Air data Indicators, e.g. Altimeter, Air Speed Indicator/Mach--Meter, Vertical
pitot pressure Speed Indicator, TAS and SAT Indicators
temperature Autopilot and Flight Director System
the following input data and conditions can determine the operational mode of Cabin Pressure Controller
the air data computer: Inertial Navigation System (INS/ANS)
selection of the Static Source Error Correction (SSEC) Altitude Alert System
ATC--Altitude Transfer Command (ATC=Air Traffic Control) Ground Proximity Warning System
Hold commands for the Flight Operation Modes (Autopilot) „ALT HOLD, IAS ATC--Transponder (Altitude Transmission)
HOLD, Mach number HOLD. Flight Recorder
barometric correction (on digital air data computers). Performance Data Computer PDC
Sometimes there is the possibility of remote--test from the cockpit. Maximum Operating Airspeed Warning (VMO/MMO)
Power supply is 115 V AC. Reference voltage for output data is 26 V AC.
Output Data and Types of Transfers In addition to the classical output data
Altitude (ALT)
Air Speed (A/S)
Mach number and
TAS/SAT
The type of transfer depends on the output data, ranging from synchro--values
to switching conditions (ARING 545, 565).
Digital Air Data Computers provide output data in serial digital form transferred
by a so called Data Bus (ARINC 429).
For Training Purposes Only

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JAR 66 AIR DATA COMPUTER
INSTRUMENTS
M 13.8
For Training Purposes Only

Figure 30 Air Data Computer

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JAR 66 AIR DATA COMPUTER
INSTRUMENTS
M 13.8

TRANSDUCER
The function of the transducers is to change the pressure ps, ptot or q into an
electrical Signal. The electrical signal is fed into the Computer unit, to be avail-
able there for the required output signals.
The kind pressure transducing varies greatly as a result of continuous progress
in this field of technology.
The first transducers built contain metal diaphragms(similar to metal dia-
phragms in diaphragm instruments) and work eiectromotorically in accordance
with the Follow--Up--Principle.
The diaphragms or pressure chambers of the new generation consist of semi--
conductor material with integrated memory for error characteristic. The output
signal is in digital form. Reference pressure is vacuum or 1013 hPa.
As electromotive force is used for the output transformation, the transducers
can be smaller than the transducers in diaphragm instruments.
For Training Purposes Only

Vibration Transducer

Figure 31 Pressure Transducer

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JAR 66 AIR DATA COMPUTER
INSTRUMENTS
M 13.8
For Training Purposes Only

Figure 32 Transducer
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 Lufthansa Technical Training
JAR 66 AIR DATA COMPUTER
INSTRUMENTS
M 13.8
ANALOGUE ADC
The illustration shows a typical analogue ADC with the three modules for Alti-
tude, Mach and Airspeed. The pressure conversion results from force compen-
sating metal--bellows, the electrical transformation results with the aid of
E--Pickups.
The adaptation of the ADC to the aircraft type is effected by a pre--selected
Airplane Adapter.
Failure monitors monitor the separate function (Alt, A/S, Mach--Flag), as well
as the complete function of the ADC -- (ADC--Flag).
For Training Purposes Only

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JAR 66 AIR DATA COMPUTER
INSTRUMENTS
M 13.8
For Training Purposes Only

Figure 33 Analogue ADC

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JAR 66 AIR DATA COMPUTER
INSTRUMENTS
M 13.8
DIGITAL ADC Therefore , a hybrid DADC can take place an analogue ADC, but not vice-
versa.
The digital Air Data Computer receives the information directly from the sen-
sors or from Air Data Modules and computes the output signals. In a DADC is no of ALT, A/S and Mach Modules. No mechanical part necessi-
ates an expensive overhaul.
The output data are available in digital form (ARINC 429).
The complete electronic function capability of the DADC is continuosly moni-
A special case is the hybrid DADC . The name hybrid comes from the fact that tored by an internal self-test circuit.
the data processing occurs in digital form, whereas the output data are avail-
able in digital form (ARINC 429) as well as in analogue form (ARINC 565).
For Training Purposes Only

Figure 34 Digital Air Data Computer

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JAR 66 AIR DATA COMPUTER
INSTRUMENTS
M 13.8
For Training Purposes Only

Figure 35 Digital ADC - Schematic

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JAR 66 AIR DATA COMPUTER
INSTRUMENTS
M 13.8
ADC MAINTENANCE
For the continued operation of all user systems of air data information from the The appropriate steps will be listed in the aircraft Maintenance Manual but typi-
ADC, it must be reliable in operation. cally a self test operation, when activated, drives the instruments up to a simu-
However, faults can, and do, occur and to protect against unreliable and inac- lated airspeed, altitude figure, with the appearance of failure flags. A valid ADC
curate operation of the user systems, an ADC valid signal is provided to control will be indicated by the correct meter indication light or code.
the operation of these systems. In addition, because the aircraft pitot and static lines have been disturbed,
If a fault occurs in the ADC the valid signal, which is a voltage present on the some form of pressure leak test must be carried out.
line, is removed, i.e. zero volts. All the user systems are signalled to go to a fail
safe condition, and failure flags drop into view on the appropriate instruments
to warn the flight crew of an unreliable condition.
Thus if a number of systems and instruments are reported to be inoperative on
an aircraft, a likely cause could be the failure of the ADC, which is common to
all those systems and instruments.
To confirm a faulty ADC most systems employ some form of fault indication on
the front panel of the module. This may take the form of electro—mechanical
doll’s eyes, lights, or display codes.

ADC REPLACEMENT
Replacement of the ADC is straightforward. The points to remember are:
isolate all power supplies to the ADC,
disconnect the pitot and static lines,
release the ADC from its mounting tray and remove, without distorting the
backplate electrical connector.
be aware of electro static sensitive devices and do not touch any exposed
pins,
refit the ADC after ensuring the connectors are clean and in a serviceable
condition,
For Training Purposes Only

lock the ADC into the mounting tray,

reconnect the pitot and static lines. ENSURE YOU DO NOT CROSS CON-
NECT THESE LINES.
reapply power.

ADC SELF TEST

After replacing the ADC, some form of functional test must be carried out. This
may take the form of a self test activated by one or more switches .

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JAR 66 AIR DATA COMPUTER
INSTRUMENTS
M 13.8

TEST
ONLY
For Training Purposes Only

Figure 36 ADC Case

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Lufthansa Technical Training
JAR 66 ALTITUDE ALERT
INSTRUMENTS
M 13.8
ALTITUDE ALERT SYSTEM
GENERAL Extended flaps deactivate the Deviation Mode warning.
The Altitude Alert System informs the cockpit--crew by aural and visual (amber On the ground, a system function test is possible without test equipment.
light) indication shortly before reaching a selected altitude.
A further and more important function of the Altitude Alert System is to warn
the cockpit--crew, if departing a selected altitude greater than a certain h. This
warning also gives an aural and visual indication.
There are two differential warning modes:
Approach Warning (approaching a selected altitude)
Deviation Warning (departing a selected altitude).

APPROACH--MODE
The system alerts if the altitude difference ( h) is 750 ft:
a short audio sig .nals sounds
a steady light comes on
The Approach Mode is deactivated if the selected altitude is reached within the
range of h 250 ft.
There is no audio signal when approaching the selected altitude with the auto-
pilot in ALT SEL mode.

DEVIATION--MODE
The system alerts, when the aircraft deviates from the selected altitude by --
more than 250 ft.
a short intermittent audio signal sounds
a flashing light comes on.
For Training Purposes Only

The Deviation Mode is deactivated, when the selected altitude is reached again
or when the aircraft deviates by more than 750 ft from the selected altitude.
By extending the flaps for landing, the Deviation Mode Warning is deactivated.
If the altitude is set by the altitude setting selector, the Autopilot/Flight Director
and the Altitude Alert System are set simultaneously.
The altimeter provides baro setting or the appropriate baro setting can be se-
lected on the altitude alert control panel.
The altitude select error h is transferred;to the Autopilot / Flight Director for
the ALT SEL mode and simultaneously to the Altitude Alert Logic circuit.

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JAR 66 ALTITUDE ALERT
INSTRUMENTS
M 13.8
For Training Purposes Only

Figure 37 Altutude Alert System

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JAR 66 ALTITUDE ALERT
INSTRUMENTS
M 13.8

THIS PAGE INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK

For Training Purposes Only

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 Lufthansa Technical Training
JAR 66 ALTITUDE ALERT
INSTRUMENTS
M 13.8
For Training Purposes Only

Figure 38 Altitude Alert System

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Lufthansa Technical Training
JAR 66 OVERSPEED WARNING SYSTEM
INSTRUMENTS
M 13.8
AIRSPEED WARNING SYSTEM
GENERAL Test
If the test--switch or button is pressed, the electric (electronic) system--part can
For each aircraft there is a maximum airspeed limitation.
be checked. The clacker must sound in test--position.
With the
maximum operating airspeed warning,
overspeed warning or
mach airspeed warning,
you have to differentiate between:
VMO, the maximum operation airspeed.
With increasing airspeed the dynamic air pressure increases and with it the
stress on the fuselage and the airfoil. Up to a certain altitude, the VMO --limit
increases slightly.
MMO, the maximum operation mach number.
With increasing altitude, the outside air temperature decreases, thus also
the sonic speed. With increasing altitude, the airspeed must be reduced, so
that the maximum operation mach number is not exceeded. Otherwise there
is a danger of high speed buffet.

SYSTEM DESCRIPTION
The system--warning occurs:
visually, by the striped or checked VMO --pointer in the Airspeed Indicator
aurally, with a clacker in the cockpit.
The white airspeed pointer may not cross the maximum operating airspeed
pointer (VMO) during normal flight operation.
The warning system consists of:
For Training Purposes Only

the mach airspeed warning switch

the clacker (aural warning)
a test button.
Instead of a separate warning switch, the limitation setting can be effected in
the air data computer or in the airspeed indicator.
If the aural warning sounds, the speed must be reduced immediately.

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JAR 66 OVERSPEED WARNING SYSTEM
INSTRUMENTS
M 13.8
For Training Purposes Only

Figure 39 Overspeed Warning

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JAR 66 OVERSPEED WARNING SYSTEM
INSTRUMENTS
M 13.8

Examples
Example a) shows a maximum operation airspeed warning system with an an-
eroid( B) and a differential pressure diaphragm (A).
The diaphragm B determines the maximum operation airspeed at lever arm I
via lever arm II and the stops.
When crossing the VMO-MMO-limitation, the differential pressure diaphragm (A)
pushes on lever arm I and opens the contact between the two lever arms. The
relay is deenergized and transmits a mass signal to the clacker, which then
alerts.
In test--position the same voltage potential is switched on both sides of the
relay. The switched mass signal activates the warning. It is only an electrical
test.
For Training Purposes Only

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JAR 66 OVERSPEED WARNING SYSTEM
INSTRUMENTS
M 13.8
Example b) shows the maximum operation airspeed warning system by air
data computer and master warning system.
In the ADC a mass signal is switched to actuate the clacker, when the VMO/
MMO limit is passed. The warning only occurs, however, if the ADC is operative
(flags valid).
Included in the VMO/MMO warning there is a flap/slat dependent overspeed
warning to alert the cockpit--crew when extending the flaps at high airspeed.
For Training Purposes Only

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 Lufthansa Technical Training
JAR 66 STALL WARNING SYSTEM
INSTRUMENTS
M 13.8
STALL WARNING SYSTEM
GENERAL
To hold an aircraft airborne and in a constant altitude, an aircraft specific mini-
mum-speed has to be maintained.
If the speed decreases, the necessary lift can be realized by pulling the col-
umn.
By this, the alpha angle (airstream to aerodynamic cord) decreases and in con-
sequence the „coefficient of lift“ increases, as the graph shows.
The higher the alpha angle, also called angle of attack (AOA), the higher the
coefficient of lift.
This phenomenon changes, if the laminar airstream on the top of the wing
changes to turbulent airstream.
That means, the coefficient of the lift increases.
We say, the aircraft is in stall condition (low speed stall).
General Features
Each Stall Warning Computer independently activates its respective stick
shaker motor in response to either normal mode Stall Warning or Speed Floor
Mode.
A normal Stall Warning is given, when the angle of airflow exceeds a specified
value for a given Flap Setting.
Stall Warning is mostly accomplished by two independent computers activating
shaker motors that apply vibrations to their control columns.
Each system consists of an Alpha Vane, Flap Position Transmitter, Stall Warn-
ing Computer and Stick Shaker (Control Column Shaker).
For Training Purposes Only

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JAR 66 STALL WARNING SYSTEM
INSTRUMENTS
M 13.8
For Training Purposes Only

Figure 40 Stall Warning General

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INSTRUMENTS
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INSTRUMENTS
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Figure 41 General Schematic analog Stall Warning System

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INSTRUMENTS
M 13.8

STALL WARNING SYSTEM / DIGITAL FLAP POS

LEFT FCU

FLAP POS
RIGHT FCU

V BFLO GPWS
MASTER
LEFT FMC MONITOR
CARDS
V BFLO
RIGHT FMC LEFT
EIU
NOSE GEAR STATUS
AIR/GROUND
PSEU
CENTER
AOA, TAS, CAS, MACH, EIU
VMO/MMO
SEL ADC
PITCH ANGLE
PITCH RATE RIGHT
LONG ACCEL EIU
SELECTED NORM ACCEL PITCH LIMIT
IRS MAX OP SPEED
LEFT STALL MIN OP SPEED
CENTER FLAP POSITION WARNING MIN MAN SPEED
FCU SYST FAULT
MANAGEMENT CAPT:
SPEEDBRAKE CONTROL COMPUTER
AFCS MODE LEVER POSITION
CONTROL SHAKER MOTOR
PANEL

STALL WARN :TEST

LEFT CMC
28 VDC BAT BUS
For Training Purposes Only

RIGHT CMC 28 VDC BUS 2

RIGHT STALL F/O

WARNING
MANAGEMENT
COMPUTER SHAKER MOTOR

MAWEA

Figure 42 Stall Warning Management Computer System

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INSTRUMENTS
M 13.8

PRIMARY FLIGHT DISPLAY

SEE A

200

MAXIMUM
OPERATING
180
SPEED

160
A

3
142
1

120
MINIMUM
For Training Purposes Only

MANEUVER
SPEED

100 MINIMUM
OPERATING PITCH LIMIT
SPEED

80
AIRSPEED TAPE
Figure 43 Stall Warning System / EFIS Display
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JAR 66 FLIGHTRECORDER
INSTRUMENTS
M 13.8
FLIGHT RECORDER
It is a legal requirement for commercial jets to have a flight recorder which re- A. according to the type and amount of recorded data
cords flight data during flight. B. according to the configuration.
Should there be an incident, the events of flight have to be able to be recon- to A) Type and Amount of Recorded Data
structed.
The data required for smaller commercial aircraft are recorded by a flight
FLIGHT - AND AIRCRAFT DATA recorder which engraves the analogue data continuously on a metal
type. At the end of the tape, the cassette (the tape) has to be changed.
The following Data are required for small comercial or aircraft registered before
1969. On flight recorders with multi--recording parameters, the data are re-
corded (digitally) on metallic magnetic tape. As the maximum recording
Timescale, useally in seconds.
time is 25 hours, the tape is continuously erased and re--recorded. The
Pressure Altitude cassette does not need changing.
Compass Heading
A new technology is a solid state flight data recorder. The recorder
Vertical acceleration stores all aircraft information in CMOS bulk erasable EEPROM decices.
Airspeed The recorder has no moving parts requiring replacement and therefore
A press to transmit marker that is recordet whenever a radio transmission requires only a minimum of maintenance. The recorder has the capability
takes place. This will enable the recordet information to be synchronized to store data over the last 25 hours.
with thw recordet speech information on the cockpit voice recorder. to b) Construction
For larger comercial aircraft, registered after 1969, a number of additional data As flight data have to be available after an accident, crash protection
are required. must be guaranteed.
For example:
Legally, there are differences between
Engine Power
Flap Position I). flight recorders which have no fixed location,
Roll Angle II). flight recorders fixed in a certain location,
Pitch Angle III) flight recorders (ejectable) which are catapulted out of the aircraft,
Longitudinal and lateral acceleration either by mechanical or chemical means (military version).
For Training Purposes Only

Flight Control Surface Position Both Flight Recorders (Crash Recorders) and Cockpit Voice Recorders
Radio navigation Information are painted bright red or yellow so that they can easily be found.
Autopilot Operation
Air Temperature
Electrical Power
Flight deck warnings etc.

DESIGN OF FLIGHT RECORDER

Flight Recorders can be classified

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JAR 66 FLIGHTRECORDER
INSTRUMENTS
M 13.8

ULB
For Training Purposes Only

Figure 44 Flight Recorder

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JAR 66 FLIGHTRECORDER
INSTRUMENTS
M 13.8
FDR OPERATION
Power to the FDR must be applied once the aircraft is capable of flight. It must
be automatic in operation.
This is achieved in a number of different ways. Common methods employ the
use of one or more of the following:
an airspeed activated switch,
an engine operated switch, i.e. engine oil pressure present,
gust lock release,
air/ground sensing is used to ensure operation once the aircraft is in the air.
A test switch, to enable ground testing of the flight data recorder, is provided to
bypass the above conditions. This test switch is co--located with a warning light
or indicator that will indicate whenever power is removed from the FDR, or a
self detected fault has occurred.
This provides a positive indication of FDR failure.
Adjacent to this switch and light panel there is sometimes located a trip and
date module. This will enable a code representing the flight and the date to be
recorded anytime power is first applied to the recorder.
For Training Purposes Only

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JAR 66 FLIGHTRECORDER
INSTRUMENTS
M 13.8
UNDERWATER ACOUSTIC BEACON
For flights over water, it is legally required that the flight recorder is equipped
with a locator device. Normally, ultra--sonic transmitter (underwater locator/
acoustic beacon ULB) are used.
The ultra--sonic transmitters are part of the aircraft and not part of the recorder.

LOCATION
Depending on the aircraft-classification the location whre the flight recorder is
installed varies. Flight recorder of class II in civil aircraft are mainly located in
the aft euipment center.
If the recorder is outside of the pressure cabin ( as on aircraft with a pressure
cabin), there is often a seperate FR-pressure container, which is connected
with the cabin pressure.
For Training Purposes Only

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INSTRUMENTS
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INSTRUMENTS
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Figure 45 FDR Signal Distribution

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JAR 66 FLIGHTRECORDER
INSTRUMENTS
M 13.8
ANALOG DATA RECORDING
The flight recorder contains the electrical and mechanical components to re-
cord the flight data, such as
amplifier
drive unit
scribe arms
cassette with steel tape.
The scribe arms engrave the data onto the recording medium either (in the
case of the one arm) continuously or (for the other arm) in dots (with the pres-
sure bar).
A mechanical feeler in the supply spool magazine senses the supply--tape
andindicates it on the front panel of the FE.
The max. recording time is 400 hours continuously on one side of the tape. By
turning over recording tape (after re--winding), the recording time can be ex-
tended to 800 hours.
The recording speed is 15 cm/hour.
Warning: Edges of recording tape are very sharp. Handle with extreme care.
For Training Purposes Only

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JAR 66 FLIGHTRECORDER
INSTRUMENTS
M 13.8
For Training Purposes Only

Figure 46 Analog Flight Recorder

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INSTRUMENTS
M 13.8

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INSTRUMENTS
M 13.8
For Training Purposes Only

Figure 47 Analog FDR Schematic

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JAR 66 FLIGHTRECORDER
INSTRUMENTS
M 13.8

DIGITAL FLIGHT DATA RECORDING SYSTEM

The digital flight data recorder system digitally records, selected signals re- Accelerometer
ceived from various airplane systems and sensors. The last 25 hours of air- The 3--axis acceleromete measures vertical, lateral and longitudinal accelera-
plane operation are recorded on magnetic tape in the flight recorder. tion and provides a separate output signal with respect to ground for each.
The system has these units: Excitation for the accelerometer is 28 V DC supplied by the FDAU.
Flight Data Acquisition Unit (FDAU)
Underwater Locator Beacon
Digital Flight Data Recorder (DFDR)
The underwater locator beacon is a battery operated unit that transmits pulses
Airplane Condition Monitoring System (ACMS) Printer when immersed in water.
Accelerometer The ULB has a detection range of 2,000 to 4,000 yards and an operating life of
Underwater Locator Beacon (ULB) approximately 30 days. It is mounted to the front panel of the flight recorder.
Flight Recorder Test Module
Flight Recorder Test Module
Flight Data Acquisition Unit (FDAU) The flight recorder test module, part of the FLIGHT RECORDER AND AIR-
All data to be recorded is sent to the FDAU. The FDAU processes and pre- SPEED WARNING MODULE, contains the flight recorder TEST NORMAL
pares all data for recording. Electronic circuits in the FDAU provide isolation, switch and an OFF light.
signal preconditioning, multiplexing, scaling, synchronization, and converting If the flight recorder system is energized and the TEST NORMAL switch is put
the various input signal forms to a digital format. Selected signals are then in the TEST position, the flight recorder will be in operation.
sent to the DFDR for recording. The OFF light will be off during :
Digital Flight Data Recorder System The flight recorder is in operation.
The DFDR records the output data for the last 25 hours of airplane operation. The flight recorder is not installed.
Data is stored on the 1/4--inch wide, 450 feet long magnetic tape. The tape The OFF light will be on during :
and transport are located in a crash--proof container within the DFDR. The MASTER TEST switch is in the TEST position.
The tape transport assembly protects the recorded data against fire and im- The STATUS line from the DFDR indicates an AC power failure.
pact. This protection includes an inner aluminum cover, isothermal protection
The BITE OUT line from the FDAU indicates a BITE failure.
shield, an outer stainless steel casing and an exterior stainless steel dust co-
ver.
For Training Purposes Only

This design enables the DFDR to meet a test of 20,000 pounds of crush per
axis, and provides impact protection of 1000 g’s for 5 msec. When the equip-
ment is subjected to high thermal environments the isothermal insulation main-
tains the inner chamber at a safe temperature.
The DFDR front panel contains a BITE indicator, a test connector and an un-
derwater locator beacon.
The recorder test connector allows a portable tester to be connected to the re-
[Link] underwater locator beacon is a battery operated unit which trans-
mits an ultrasonic signal when the unit is immersed in water.

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JAR 66 FLIGHTRECORDER
INSTRUMENTS
M 13.8

ENGINE GROUND
ACCESSORY SENSING
UNIT RELAY

FLIGHT STATUS
RECORDER/
MACH FLIGHT
AIRSPEED DATA
WARNING RECORDER
MODULE
DIGITAL DATA

FDAU
STATUS

SYSTEM
BITE TEST
FDAU OUT FLIGHT
STATUS DATA PLUG
RELAY ACQUISITION
UNIT

ACCELEROMETER
DATA
LOADER
CONTROL
PANEL

ACMS
PRINTER

DATA
LOADER

ACARS
For Training Purposes Only

ANA LOG
DIGITAL
AND
DISCRETE
INPUTS CDU1

CDU2

Figure 48 DFDR System Block Diagram

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JAR 66 FLIGHTRECORDER
INSTRUMENTS
M 13.8

FUNCTIONAL DESCRIPTION
The flight recorder system is turned on automatically by the ground power
sensing relay as soon as the airplane has lift--off or by the engine oil pressure
switches when any of the engines is operating. It can also be turned on by
placing the flight recorder TEST NORMAL switch in the TEST position.
During operation, all data is processed by the FDAU. The FDAU provides data
to the DFDR as a serial digital data stream.
Monitor or BITE (Built--in Test Equipment) circuits in the FDAU and the DFDR
provide status signals to actuate fault indicators on the front panel of the FDAU
and CDU in the event of malfunction.
The FDAU accepts all input parameter signals and performs the functions of
preconditioning, multiplexing and conversion to place them in standard digital
format for recording. The FDAU accepts analog, digital, and discrete parame-
ter signals. The parameter signals are preconditioned to adjust scale factors,
biases and other signal characteristics to a normalized level so that resolution
will be retained during analog to digital [Link] input signals are multi-
plexed (time shared) in the FDAU and formatted for transmission to the DFDR.
Recorder system data can be displayed, entered and printed out using the
CDU, ACMS printer and PRINT/EVENT switch.
The FDAU clock generator generates the synchronizing signal (clock) for the
functions of multiplexing and analog--to--digital conversion in the FDAU and
recording in the DFDR.
For Training Purposes Only

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JAR 66 FLIGHTRECORDER
INSTRUMENTS
M 13.8

28V DC D183A
BAT BUS 23
2.5
C468 FLT REC DC STATUS
21
26V AC 1 115V AC
XFER NO. 2 POWER 115V AC
2.5 POWER FAIL
C544 POSN SENSORS 2 115V AC GND
115V AC 6 CHASSIS GND
ELEX PWR 1
2.5 D2295E D2295A
C109 FLT REC AC 3 H9
ACAMS DATA DIGITAL A A09 7
14 H10 OUT DIGITAL INPUT
115V AC OUTPUT B B09 8
D2295A
ELEX PWR 1 13 E15 PLAY BACK A J11 9
2.5 ADL DATA 10 PLAY BACK
15 F15 OUT IN B K11
C1216 PRINTER
D2295E MAINT FLAG INPUT
B11 22 MAINT FLAG
P18--2 16 H11 ACMS ENABLE
D2295D M96 FLIGHT DATA RECORDER
AIR D2596 17 H15 FDAU ENABLE A DIGITAL GNDJ15
33 ANALOG GNDK15
32 D2295B
FAIL 19 H12 FDAU ENABLE B
GND D1805
X1 P23--13 DATA LOADER D2295E
R277 GROUND SENSING RELAY CONTROL PANEL SYNCHRO REF--A H3 POSITION SENSORS
D1805 D2295A
XZ A11 BITE OUT
OFF D1458B A2
ENGINE 2 A3 D1963 D2295E
41 DATA A H1
28 IN B ACARS DATA IN
NORM H2
0N
DATA A H3 ACARS DATA
OFF R263 FDAU STATUS OUT B H4 OUT
ENGINE 1 D1458A RELAY
41 ACARS D2295D
28 J15 DIGITAL GND
0N K15 CHASSIS GND
LOW OIL PRESS D1637 D2295A
D1637
8 4 J9
M528 ENGINE ACCUMULATOR UNIT 9 DFDR PLAY OUT
5 K9
D483 D2295C
18 2 11 1 H
115V AC D2649
7 7 C
NORM R 115V AC
10 1 D2295D
11 PRINTER G2 E
H2 F DATA OUT
M1252 SYSTEM TEST IN
TEST PLUG (P18) 1 D2295A
PRINTER C2 H
OUT D2 DATA IN
I
D2295B
For Training Purposes Only

D821 A
2 A F14 ACARS IN
28V DC OUT B
B F15
3 22 MASTER TEST
A P8--54 ACMS PRINTER
4 23 M517 ACCELEROMETER
M675 FLIGHT DATA ACQUISITION UNIT
A 2 20
1 THIS CONNECTOR TO BE READILY ACCESSABLE FOR
1 19 DC GROUND CHECKOUT OF THE FLIGHT RECORDER SYSTEM.
OFF LIGHT DURING FLIGHT THE SHORTING PLUG MUST BE CONNECTED
P5--19 TEST MODULE
Flight Data Recorder System -- Power Distribution and Control
Figure 4

Figure 49 DFDR System

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JAR 66 FLIGHTRECORDER
INSTRUMENTS
M 13.8
AIDS/ACMS
GENERAL
The AIDS/ACMS (Aircraft Integrated Data System/Aircraft Condition Monitoring
System) is used for the continously monitoring and analysis of:
Engine Data ECM (Engine Condition Monitoring)
Aircraft Data APM (Aircraft Performance Monitoring)
APU Data APU
The center of this system is called the DMU ( Data Management Unit).
The DMU contains the SAR (Smart Airborn Recorder). The SAR records pre-
programmed parameters instead of the old DAR or QAR.
The DMU interfaces are the:
-- MCDU (Multipurpose Control and Display Unit)
-- MPRT (Multipurpose Printer)
-- ADL (Airborne Data Loader)
-- ACARS (Aircraft Communication and Reporting System)
The Data is sent to the airline ground stations by ACARS for analysis.
In addition the maintenance crews can take the printed reports of the ADL to
the airline maintenance support for trouble shooting and monitoring.
Software updates are performed with the ADL.
Real time and stored data of all systems connected to the DMU can be ob-
served with the MCDU for trouble shooting.
For Training Purposes Only

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INSTRUMENTS
M 13.8
For Training Purposes Only

Figure 50 Flight Recorder/ACMS-Schematic A320

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INSTRUMENTS
M 13.8
For Training Purposes Only

Figure 51 Expanded AIDS

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INSTRUMENTS
M 13.8
For Training Purposes Only

Figure 52 ACMS-LH Philosophy

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Lufthansa Technical Training
JAR 66 GYROSCOPIC PRINCIPLES
INSTRUMENTS
M 13.8
BASIC OF GYROSCOPIC PRINCIPLES
The gyroscope (gyro) is a rotor having freedom in motion in one or more planes
at right angles to the plane rotation. The gyros are driven electrically or by air.

BASIC PRINCIPLES OF A GYROSCOPE

A gyro has certain characteristics which are used in an artificial horizon, a com-
pass and a turn indicator.
An introductory description of the characteristics (or properties) of a gyro is
necessary to enable the working of these instruments to be understood.
1. A gyro is a mass which is evenly distributed about its axis of rotation and
which rotates at a high speed (high RPM). It tends to maintain the direction
of its axis in space. Its rigidity or resistance to the effect of forces acting
upon it increase with increase of RPM, mass and distance of the mass
from the axis of rotation.
2. A gyro offers no resistance to a force tending to produce a linear or parallel
movement of its axis of rotation.
3. If an external force tries to change the direction of the axis the gyro pre-
cesses i.e. moves at 90 to the applied force and through 90 until the
plane of spin coincides with the line of application of the external force and
the direction of spin coincides with the direction of the external force.
For Training Purposes Only

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INSTRUMENTS
M 13.8
For Training Purposes Only

Figure 53 Gyro Precession

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JAR 66 GYROSCOPIC PRINCIPLES
INSTRUMENTS
M 13.8
THE DEGREE OF FREEDOM OF THE GYRO
Any object may be moved in space about 3 axes. If the movement about an
axis is restricted it is said that the freedom is limited. If the object may move
freely about all three axes it is said to have total freedom.
When applied to a gyro we have:
A. Gyro with one degree of freedom. The gyro can only turn about its
own axis. It has freedom of movement about one axis.
B. Gyro with two degrees of freedom. The gyro is mounted, in bearings,
in a frame. The frame is mounted in bearings which are at right angles
to the plane of rotation of the gyro. The gyro is therefore free to move
about two axes.
C. Gyro with three degrees of freedom. The gyro is universally mounted
within two frames -- an inner and outer cardan frame. The gyro is free to
take up any direction in space and therefore has total freedom
D. A half a degree of freedom. If a gyro mounting frame is located by
springs so that it has a neutral position to which it always tends to return
to if displaced it is said to have half a degree of freedom The gyro
shown in the diagram is said to have 1 1/2 degrees of freedom.
NOTE: IN AMERICAN LITERATURE THE DEGREE OF FREEDOM ABOUT
THE GYRO’S OWN AXIS OF ROTATION IS NOT COUNTED.
Systems which depend on the directional stability of a gyro have a fully car-
danic, or universal mounting similar to that shown in the following picture of a
gyro model (Compass, artificial horizon). The gyro axis may assume any direc-
tion in space.
Due to the rotation of the earth a gyro axis which remains fixed in direction in
space appears to drift or wander.
For Training Purposes Only

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JAR 66 GYROSCOPIC PRINCIPLES
INSTRUMENTS
M 13.8

C.
A.

D.
B.
For Training Purposes Only

Figure 54 Freedom
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JAR 66 GYROSCOPIC PRINCIPLES
INSTRUMENTS
M 13.8
APPARENT DRIFT
If a universally mounted gyro is situated over the North Pole with its axis of
rotation parallel to the earth’s surface it will appear to turn through 360 in 24
hours.
This is because the earth is turning on its own axis while the gyro maintains its
direction in free space. To an observer standing on the earth’s surface the gyro
appears to drift or turn because of the relative motion, or movement, between
the earth and the gyro.
The apparent drift is
360 / 24h = 15 per hour
At lower latitudes the apparent drift is less, reducing to zero at the equator.
The apparent drift is 15 x Sine of Latitude degrees per hour.
Example: In Hamburg (Latitude 53 North) the apparent drift is
15 x Sine 53
= 15 x 0,8
= 12 per hour
For Training Purposes Only

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INSTRUMENTS
M 13.8
For Training Purposes Only

Figure 55 Apparent Drift

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JAR 66 GYROSCOPIC PRINCIPLES
INSTRUMENTS
M 13.8
APPARENT TILTING OR TIPPING
If a universally mounted gyro with its axis vertical over the North Pole, is moved
to the equator it will appear to an observer standing on the earth’s surface that
the gyro axis tilts through 90 until it is horizontal over the equator.
The diagram clearly shows that the gyro axis remains fixed in direction in free
space whereas the vertical axis of the observer moves through 90 as he trav-
els from the North pole to the equator.
Once again it is the relative movement between the observer and the gyro
which causes the apparent tilting of the gyro axis.

REAL DRIFT
Real drift and real tilting of a gyro is caused by mechanical imperfections in the
gyro construction e.g. friction in the gyro and cardan frame bearings, unbalance
in the gyro mass.
For Training Purposes Only

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INSTRUMENTS
M 13.8
For Training Purposes Only

Figure 56 Apparent Tilting

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JAR 66 GYROSCOPIC PRINCIPLES
INSTRUMENTS
M 13.8
GYRO STABILIZED SYSTEMS
VERTICAL GYRO Each synchro drives a locked synchronous repeater which in turn controls a
transformer. This system converts the 3--phase signal from the gyro synchro
The Vertical gyro (horizon gyro) gets its name from the fact that its axis of rota- into a single phase alternating current output signal from the transformer.
tion is vertical to the earth’s surface i.e. it points to the center of the earth.
The system is adjusted so that in horizontal flight the output voltage, or signal,
A universally mounted gyro which is aligned with the center of the earth will from the transformer is 0V.
maintain its direction in space because of its rigidity.
The ATT (attitude) information is fed to
If the aircraft pitches or rolls the gyro maintains its direction and the cardan
the Flight Director (FD) and
frames move about the gyro.
the Weather Radar.
The vertical gyro provides attitude reference (roll and pitch) signals from syn-
chro transmitter mounted to the frames. Important Note
The VG unit consists of a housing which is mounted on anti vibration fittings Gyros are precision mechanical instruments and must be handled with great
and contains the gyro with its mountings, drive system, support and measuring care.
systems.
When possible, gyros should only be installed or removed when they are sta-
Gyro Motor tionary.
The gyro is designed as an asynchronous 2--phase spin motor. The stator If this is not possible (gyros run down time approx. 10 -- 15 min.) the gyro may
windings are inside the rotating mass of the gyro. The torque is generated by be moved if it is running at high speed.
115V/400 Hz electricity via a phase shifting condenser. On no account may a gyro be moved if it is running at medium speed (which
The gyro motor is enclosed in a capsule which is usually filled with Helium. This begins about 3 minutes after power off) as it then tends to topple or tumble.
is because Helium has a lower resistance to movement and the electric current The bearings and cardan frames can easily be damaged if this occurs.
needed to drive the gyro is about 33% reduced. The VG’s are to be found in the electronic Compartment of the aircraft.
2 Pole motors run at approx. 22 000 RPM (High Speed Gyro),
4 Pole motors run at approx. 11 000 RPM (Low Speed Gyro).
Gyro Cardan Frame Synchros
The gyro motor capsule can tilt or move in pitch about an axis parallel to the
aircraft’s lateral axis and is mounted in a cardan frame which can move in roll
For Training Purposes Only

about an axis parallel to the aircraft’s longitudinal axis.

The degree of freedom in roll is 360 and in pitch 85 .
A synchro is fitted to both axes:
a Roll synchro to measure the roll angle
a Pitch synchro to measure the pitch angle.
Both of these synchro signals are fed as Attitude information directly to the
Attitude Director Indicator (ADI) and
the Auto Pilot (AP)

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INSTRUMENTS
M 13.8
For Training Purposes Only

Figure 57 Vertical Gyro

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JAR 66 GYROSCOPIC PRINCIPLES
INSTRUMENTS
M 13.8
DIRECTIONAL GYRO (DG)
The directional gyro, also known as the compass gyro, has its axis of rotation
aligned parallel to the surface of the earth (i.e. horizontal).
The compass gyro provides a steady indication of directional information. It is a
universally mounted gyro.
If a 360 scale is attached to the outer cardan frame it will be fixed in spatial
direction together with the gyro. If the heading of the aircraft is now changed it
will appear to the crew that the direction scale moves whereas it is the aircraft
which is actually moving about its vertical axis.
If the DG scale is set to the actual heading before departure the actual in flight
heading will only be shown for a short time because of the effects of apparent
drift (previously explained) and real drift.
This gyro, which is installed in older aircraft, must therefore be caged, or me-
chanically fixed, at regular intervals and the scale adjusted to the actual head-
ing.
This type of heading information is, of course, not good enough for today’s
conditions.
The principle of the compass gyro is however to be found in today’s aircraft in
the form of the directional gyro (DG). The DG provides short term stability in
the compass information system.
The DG consists of a housing, mounted on anti--vibration fixtures, which con-
tains the gyro, cardan frames, motor, support and measuring systems.
For Training Purposes Only

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INSTRUMENTS
M 13.8

4 3 2 1 0 35 34 33

Lubber Line

Set
For Training Purposes Only

Knob

Figure 58 Directional Gyro

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INSTRUMENTS
M 13.8
GYRO MOTOR
In similar fashion to the Vertical Gyro the DG is driven by an asynchronous,
2--phase, spin--motor. The gyro motor is contained in a Helium--filled capsule.
Gyros with a 2 pole motor running at 22 000 RPM are called “High Speed Oy-
ros”. Gyros with a 4 pole motor running at 11 000 RPM are called “Low Speed
Gyros”.

GYRO CARDAN FRAME SYNCHROS

The direction of the DG axis is fixed in space and with it the cardan frames.
Any movement of the aircraft heading relative to the outer cardan frame is de-
tected and measured by a synchro on the frames vertical axis.
This directional information, called DG--HDG (heading), is fed as a short term
stable signal.
In older aircraft to the ADF/RMI and with a second synchro to the Auto pilot.
In modern aircraft to the Compass Coupler.
In the ADF/RMI or Compass Coupler the DG--HDG signal serves to stabilize
the compass.
Important Note
Gyros are precision mechanical instruments and must be handled with great
care.
When possible, gyros should only be installed or removed when they are sta-
tionary.
If this is not possible (gyros run down time approx. 20 -- 23 min.) the gyro may
be moved if it is running at high speed.
On no account may a gyro be moved if it is running at medium speed (which
begins about 3 minutes after power off) as it then tends to topple, or tumble.
The bearings and cardan frames can easily be damaged if this occurs.
For Training Purposes Only

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Figure 59 DG
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INSTRUMENTS
M 13.8
RATE GYRO
The rate gyro has 1 1/2 degrees freedom.
The axis of rotation is normally horizontal and parallel to the aircraft’s lateral
axis. The gyro axis is mounted in a frame whose movement, about an axis par-
allel to the aircraft’s longitudinal axis, is limited by the action of a return spring.
The principle of a rate gyro is to be found in older aircraft and small private air-
craft in a “turn indicator” and in modern aircraft as a “Yaw Rate Gyro”.
For Training Purposes Only

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INSTRUMENTS
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Figure 60 Rate Gyro

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INSTRUMENTS
M 13.8
TURN INDICATOR
The illustration shows a pneumatically driven gyro in an old type of turn indica-
tor.
If the aircraft turns about its vertical axis the change of direction will be forced
upon the gyro axis via the instrument casing and the gyro mounting frame. This
causes the gyro to precess and turn the frame against spring action.
The angular movement of the frame is indicated by a needle. The turn indicator
is usually so constructed that a needle width represents a 2 minute circle i.e.
the aircraft turns through 360 in 2 minutes.
For Training Purposes Only

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INSTRUMENTS
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Figure 61 Turn Indicator

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INSTRUMENTS
M 13.8
YAW RATE GYRO
Modern aircraft no longer have a combined rate gyro and indicator contained in
a cockpit instrument housing.
The Yaw Rate Gyro is to be found either in the Yaw damper control unit (“black
box”) or in a separate container. The aircraft’s electronic compartment is the
location in both cases.
It delivers Yaw Rate Signals to the following systems:
1. The Yaw Damper Coupler -- which uses the signal to prevent the aircraft
from Dutch Rolling (modern swept wing aircraft have a tendency to “dutch
roll”).
2. The ADI (Attitude and Direction indicator) which uses the signal to drive the
rate of turn needle, or pointer.
The illustration shows the main components of a modern rate gyro. The gyro
movement is detected by the micro switch rotor and stator system then demod-
ulated and amplified and fed to the receiving systems (i.e. those systems which
need yaw rate information).
For Training Purposes Only

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INSTRUMENTS
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Figure 62 Yaw Rate Gyro

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INSTRUMENTS
M 13.8

GYRO STABILIZED PLATFORM

All aircraft need a system which measures the aircraft attitude about the longi-
tudinal (X), lateral (Y) and vertical (Z) axes. The VG and the DG provide this
information.
A gyro stabilized platform combines the properties of a VG and a DG.
The spatial stability of the platform (stable element) is provided by 2 universally
mounted gyros (which have 3 degrees of freedom) or by 3 gyros each of which
have 2 degrees of freedom.
The folliwng description is restricted to a platform stabilized by 3 gyros each
having 2 degrees of freedom.
For Training Purposes Only

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Figure 63 Stabilized Platform

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INSTRUMENTS
M 13.8
HEADING AND ATTITUDE SENSOR (HAS)
The heading and attitude sensor consists of two separate component groups: The electrolytic sensors are parallel to the axis of the gyro which is to be stabi-
the front group which contains the platform lized.
the rear group which contains all the electronics.
The front of the unit is provided with two handles and has two inspection win-
dows:
through the left window a counter may be seen which shows the total run-
ning time of the unit in hours,
through the right window a condition indicator may be seen. If there is an
internal fault in the unit a black and white flag appears.
Platform
The platform is mounted in frames and enclosed in a spherical housing.
Working from the inside to the outside they are:
the Azimuth frame with 360 of freedom. A “stable element” of 3 gyros
(X,Y,Z) and two electrolytic sensors (fluid level switches) may be regarded
as the “platform”,
the inner roll frame, or gimbal, which has a ¦ 60 freedom of movement in
roll,
the pitch gimbal, or frame, which has a + 100 freedom of movement in
pitch
the outer roll mounting with 360 of freedom in roll.
The pitch and outer roll frame, or gimbal, may be considered as one unit.
The ability of the pitch frame to roll through 360 allows for extreme manoeu-
vre s such as looping immediately followed by a roll which are normally per-
formed by military aircraft only.
Each frame has a resolver (synchro signal generator), mounted at one end of
For Training Purposes Only

its axis, to detect and measure angular movement of the frame. At the other
end of the frames axis is a torque motor which can turn the frame.
The platform is stable in space and is maintained parallel to the earth’s surface
by electrolytic sensors -- fluid level switches which function like a spirit level.

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INSTRUMENTS
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Figure 64 HAS
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INSTRUMENTS
M 13.8
Start UP
The working of the HAS is divided into 3 stages or modes OUTPUTS
Initialization
Alignment
Normal Operation
The main components of the system are automatically activated as follows:
Gyros: Warm up, Spin up, Torque Motors excited,
Electrolytic sensors: excited,
Platform: aligned, levelled, stabilized,
Platform resolver: excited.
HAS Output
Heading and Attitude sensor has 5 roll outputs, 5 pitch outputs and one Head-
ing output.
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INSTRUMENTS
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Figure 65 Signal Distribution

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JAR 66 ARTIFICIAL HORIZON
INSTRUMENTS
M 13.8
ATTITUDE REFERENCE SYSTEM
The artificial horizon enables the pilot to determine the aircraft’s attitude when
flying blind (i.e. without visual reference to the earth). It is a substitute for the
real horizon and using it as a reference changes of the aircraft’s attitude in roll
and pitch may easily be seen.
The artificial horizon has a gyroscope rotating on a vertical axis (Vertical Gyro),
which is maintained in a position perpendicular to the Earth’s surface by some
form of gravity seeking device attached to its gimbal.
The gyro remains steady and the gimbals are displaced around the rotor by the
manoeuvres of the aircraft. These displacements are sensed through mechani-
cal linkages that control a white bar representing the horizon, that remains level
with respect to the Earth, whilst a marker, representing the aircraft and fixed to
the instrument face appears to move relative to the horizon bar to show the
changing attitude of the aircraft.
The gyro is driven either pneumatically or electrically. To drive the gyro pneu-
matically air is drawn out of the instruments sealed casing by a suction pump.
Ambient air enters the instrument via one or more jets (because of the pres-
sure difference between the atmosphere and the inside of the instrument). The
air leaves the inlet jet(s) at high speed and impinges on the outside of the gyro
wheel which has, in effect, paddle blades around its circumference and is
driven by a turbine.
The gyro runs at 12 000 -- 18 000 RPM.
If the gyro is driven electrically the gyro wheel is built as an asynchronous
spin--motor running at 22 000 or 11 000 RPM.
The indicator and the gyro of an artificial horizon may be either contained in
one unit or in separate units. The remote indicating horizon system (two units)
has its gyro in the electronic compartment (VG) of the aircraft and its indicator
For Training Purposes Only

(ADI) on the pilot’s instrument panel.

Modern aircraft have both types of artificial horizon. The main system are re-
mote indicating whereas the emergency, or Standby, horizon is a one unit sys-
tem.

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INSTRUMENTS
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For Training Purposes Only

Figure 66 Artifical Horizon

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INSTRUMENTS
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STANDBY HORIZON
The system consists of:
the standby horizon
the static inverter.
Standby Horizon
This is a completely self--contained unit. It contains a gyro with its axis of rota-
tion vertical to the earth’s surface, an erection system for the gyro axis, a trans-
mission system and a roller--type, or drum indicator.
Correct functioning is monitored by a warning flag. If the static inverter is sup-
plying the 3--phase asynchronous gyro motor and all 3 phases are equally
loaded the warning flag will be pulled out of view.
The gyro rotates at approx. 22 000 RPM and takes about 1 minute to reach
this speed. After the power supply is removed use able attitude information is
available for several minutes as the gyro has a run down time of approx. 13
minutes.
The vertical alignment of the gyro axis is achieved via a ball mechanism on the
gyro housing. The alignment or erection of the gyro axis takes place at a rate of
2.7 /min.
At accelerations of more than 1.7 m/s (=10 ) the erection process is inter-
rupted (cut--out). This prevents the gyro from aligning with an apparent vertical.
If the gyro is tilted more than 10 when it is switched on it cannot erect itself.
To allow for this, and also to speed up the normal erection process, a gyro cag-
ing knob is provided on the front of the instrument in the lower right hand cor-
ner.
When pulled it erects the gyro -- when turned the aircraft symbol will be moved
to a new reference or “fixed” position .
For Training Purposes Only

Static Inverter
The static inverter is supplied via a circuit breaker, directly from the 28 V DC
Battery Busbar and produces a 3 phase alternating current of 115 V AC/400
Hz.
The static inverter is to be found in the aircraft’s electronic compartment.

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Figure 67 Standby Horizon

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INSTRUMENTS
M 13.8

REMOTE ATTITUDE SYSTEM

Attitude information is of vital importance to proper flight control and so all civil
passenger aircraft are fitted at least with two remote indicating systems which
work independently.
Aircraft movement about the lateral axis (Pitch) and longitudinal axis (roll or
bank) is measured by either
Vertical pros (VG)
Heading and attitude sensors or
Inertial navigation systems (INS)
The information is fed to
the attitude indicator (ADI)
the Auto pilot and Flight Director
the Weather Radar
The information is transmitted as synchro signals, digital signals or as single
phase signals with a reference voltage.
The following diagrams show a remote attitude indicating system with a Vertical
Gyro.
Pitch and roll synchro signals from the VG are compared in the Attitude Direc-
tor Indicator (ADI) with the indicated position. If the Horizon Indicator position
does not agree with the VG signals a voltage will be created in the Rotor field
of the indirect follow up synchro. This signal is amplified and drives the indica-
tor motor until the synchro is zeroed. The indicator now shows the aircraft atti-
tude as detected by the VG.
A warning flag marked ”ATT” will be visible in the indicator if the signals coming
from the VG are not useable (e.g. gyro being fast erected, signal failure).
For Training Purposes Only

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INSTRUMENTS
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Figure 68 ADI
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INSTRUMENTS
M 13.8
ATTITUDE DIRECTOR INDICATOR (ADI)
The horizon is represented by a spherical, or ball--like indicator, the upper half
of which is colored blue to represent the sky, and the lower half of which is col-
ored black,brown or yellow to represent the earth. The ball is positioned by two
servo motors -- one for pitch and the other for roll.
Generally all artificial horizons have full freedom in roll (i.e. they can turn
through 360 ) whereas some have restricted freedom in pitch (approx. ¦ 90 ).
Artificial Horizon Indicators are known as:
ADI Attitude Director Indicator or
HDI Horizon Director Indicator or
HFDI Horizontal Flight Director Indicator.
Each ADI has 2 repeater synchros ( one for pitch, one for roll). The signals
from both horizons are compared in a NAV warning unit.
If the signals do not agree a warning lamp will be illuminated.

Test
By pressing the test button on the ADI constant pitch and roll signals are fed to
the indicator in addition to the aircraft attitude signals (e.g. +10 Nose up and
20 Right Bank).
If the Indicator reacts correctly it shows that the motor/follow up mechanism is
working normal, i.e. the ADI is serviceable.
Flags
A flag in the ADI monitors the correct operation of the system.
A ”ATT” - Flag occurs in any of the following conditions:
fault in the power supply.
fault in the ADI
For Training Purposes Only

flag voltage from VG or platform missing.

test button operated.

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INSTRUMENTS
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Figure 69 ADI Schematic

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INSTRUMENTS
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ATTITUDE INFORMATION DISTRIBUTION
Because of the vital importance of attitude information it must be ensured that
two displays are available even if one signal source (V.G.) fails.
In older types of aircraft only the Captains ADI was switchable to an alternate
signal source, (Captain is king principle). In modern aircraft both the Captain’s
and Co--pilot’s ADI’s can be switched to an alternate signal source.
When an ADI is switched from one system to another not only the signal
source must be transferred but also the indicator power supply and the warn-
ing flag voltage. This means that a simple switch is not adequate to transfer all
these connections but is used instead to control a multi--contact transfer relay.
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INSTRUMENTS
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Figure 70 Attitude Reference System

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INSTRUMENTS
M 13.8
ADDITIONAL ADI INDICATIONS
Modern ADI’s incorporate other display functions. This integration of systems The FD-Bars are positioned by servo motors, one responding to pitch com-
enables the pilot to read various flight data quickly and easily. mands, the other to roll commands originating in the flight director computer
system.
Turn and Slip
The slip indicator is a mechanical indicator, a ball rolling in a liquid filled Localizer and Radio Altitude
curved glass tube, that acts under the influence of gravity to indicate an un- The localizer pointer and scale is a function of the VHF navigation (ILS) sys-
coordinated turn when the aircraft is subject to skidding or slipping. tem. The runway symbol is positioned by the ILS localizer deviation signal, to
The rate of turn indicator provides an indication of the aircraft’s rate of turning provide a pictorial representation of the location of the runway relative to the
motion. The mark represents a rate one turn of l80 /minute. aircraft. The dots represent approximately one degree deviation (left or right)
from the localizer, the center position.
The indicator is a moving coil meter movement, responding to a change in
electromagnetic flux, which is produced by the turn signal, and derived from a In addition, the runway symbol is positioned by the radio altimeter system, to
rate gyro assembly; in some systems part of the aircraft’s yaw damper system provide an indication of absolute (radio) altitude above the ground. It starts indi-
is used. cating at 200 feet, and will rise up to the aircraft symbol, giving an indication to
the pilot that the aircraft is descending down to the runway, which is hopefully
Glideslope immediately below the aircraft, not to the left or right!
The glideslope pointer and scale are functions of the VHF navigation system The localizer indicator is an electrical servo motor, which drives to position the
or instrument landing system (ILS). The pointer represents the position of the runway symbol to the left or right from a signal derived in the aircraft’s VHF
glideslope radio beam relative to the aircraft. Each dot represents approxi- navigation receiver.
mately one third of a degree deviation away from the glideslope. Radio altitude is also a servo motor driven indicator, the error signal being
The indicator is a moving coil meter movement responding to a change in elec- derived from the radio altimeter system.
tromagnetic flux produced by the deviation signal derived from the aircraft’s
VHF navigation receiver. Decision Height
The DH indicator light illuminates when the aircraft’s radio altitude is less than a
Speed Indicator preset value on the radio altimeter indicator.
The pointer indicates against the scale, the speed of the aircraft relative to a The bulb filament can be tested by pushing on the light assembly (press to
reference speed computed in an auto--throttle or speed command system, the test).
required speed is the central position.
The indicator is a moving coil meter movement, responding to a changing sig-
For Training Purposes Only

nal supplied by the auto--throttle or speed command system.

Flight Director Indicator Bars

The Flight Director Bars are driven by the flight director system, to indicate to
the pilot the direction in which the aircraft must be flown to maintain a com-
puted flight path. This flight path could be a preset heading, a radio navigation
course, localizer and glideslope beams, or a selected altitude.

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FD Pitch Command Bar

Roll Angle Scale

Decision Height Lamp

FD Roll Command Bar

Horizon Line

Speed Indicator and Scale

Pitch Scale
Glide Slope Pointer and Scale

Localizer Course Deviation Fixed Aircraft Symbol

and Rising Runway Sym-
bol
For Training Purposes Only

Test Switch
Slip Indicator
Rate of Turn Pointer and Scale

Figure 71 ADI Indications

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JAR 66 COMPASS SYSTEMS
INSTRUMENTS
M 13.8
HEADING REFERENCE SYSTEM
A compass indication is indispensable to aircraft navigation.
For this reason every civil passenger aircraft must have two independent com-
pass systems, and an emergency compass in addition. The compass systems
use the magnetic North Pole of the earth as a reference.
Modern aircraft have inertial navigation systems which give information using
the true geographical North pole as a reference.
Magnetic information is still indispensable however as VOR station transmit
heading information using Magnetic North as a reference.

EARTH’S MAGNETIC FIELD

The surface of the Earth is surrounded by a weak magnetic field, which culmi-
nates in two magnetic poles, situated near the North and South geographic or
true poles.
The position of these poles is continually changing, for at any point on the
Earth’s surface the field is not symmetrical, and is subject to periodic and irreg-
ular changes.
These changes give rise to magnetic variation, which is defined as the angle
between the true and magnetic direction, usually with reference to North.
Information regarding magnetic variation is given on special charts, which
cover most regions of the world, and are issued every few years.
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INSTRUMENTS
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Figure 72 Variation
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INSTRUMENTS
M 13.8
TERMS USED IN NAVIGATION
The term Course, or heading, is used to describe the angular difference be- The Magnetic Course or Heading
tween north and the direction of the aircraft The compass needle points to magnetic north which as already stated, is not
The simplest way to determine the course for a short flight is to use a map as necessarily the same as geographic north. This declination or variation must be
follows: allowed for when calculating the magnetic heading to fly.
1. Join the starting point A to the destination B by a straight line. If the magnetic north is to the west of the geographic north the declination is
2. Use a protractor to measure the difference (in degrees) between the geo- negative and if to the east then positive.
graphic north line, which is printed on the map, and the line AB. This is the The Magnetic Course or Heading = Map course -- magnetic variation.
heading to be flown and is called the Map Course.
Map Course
This is the angle between geographical north and the path to be covered over
the ground.

VARIATION
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INSTRUMENTS
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The Compass Course
Iron particles in the aircraft structure and the effect of the electric cables influ-
ence the position of the compass needle. This displacement is called Devi-
ation. The compass is “swung” and compensated to eliminate this deviation as
far as possible.
The remaining deviation is listed for easy crew reference in a Deviation Table to
be found close to the compass in the cockpit.

VARIATION
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INSTRUMENTS
M 13.8
STANDBY COMPASS
This is magnetic compass fitted to the center post of the cockpit front windows.
The compass rose contains rod magnets and is supported on a needle point
bearing which allows the rose to turn and align itself with magnetic north.
The aircraft heading may be read off the rose scale.
The rose is contained in a fluid--filled glass fronted chamber and illuminated by
a small lamp. It may be compensated for deviation by adjustable magnets. The
remaining errors are recorded on a deviation card, or table.
The compass is a delicate instrument and should always be handled with care.
The following check items are usually included:
the mountings must be secure,
the scale should be readable,
the liquid should be clear and free from discoloration, sediment and air
bubbles,
when deflected by a magnetic item (such as a screwdriver), the card should
return smoothly to the original reading with little or no overshoot, when the
magnetic influence is removed,
the valid ‘steer--by’ deviation card should be clearly visible and secure in its
holder,
the compass illumination should be operable.
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INSTRUMENTS
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Figure 73 Standby Compass

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JAR 66 COMPASS SYSTEMS
INSTRUMENTS
M 13.8
REMOTE COMPASS SYSTEM
The Heading Reference System measures the aircraft compass course and construction and the effect produced by the upper half is exactly cancelled out
feeds it to the compass indicator and other systems. by the reverse effect produced by the lower half .
The earth’s magnetic field is sensed and measured by a magnetic detector, In the working condition the alternating field strength produced by the exciter
known as a Flux Valve (Transmitter). current and the static earth’s field strength are present. As long as the exciter
The compass information is stabilized by a Directional Gyro or a Platform. current is strong enough to produce complete magnetic saturation in the upper
and lower halves of the detector segments no voltage will be induced in the
The Flux Valve provides long term stability whereas the DG or platform pro-
measuring coils. When the exciter current tends towards zero she half of the
vides short term stability.
segment, in which the effect of the earth’s field is in the same sense as that
The system which detects and stabilizes the compass signal is called the Mas- caused by the exciter, remains magnetically saturated longer than the other
ter Compass. Remote indicating compass systems are of different types -- that half.
is those whose master compass has either a:
At the instant when the exciter current is zero the earth’s field alone acts on
Flux Gate* both segment halves.
ADF/RMI This means that during each cycle of the exciter current a voltage will be in-
Compass Coupler. duced twice into each measuring coil and its size is dependent on the direction
A flux gate system combines the magnetic field detector and gyro in one and strength of the earth’s magnetic field (400 Hz x 2 = 800 Hz).
housing. It is an older type of construction and so will not be described further
here.

FLUX VALVE TRANSMITTER

The magnetic field detector measures the direction of the aircraft’s longitudinal
axis relative to magnetic north and feeds this signal to the Master Compass.
The flux valve is situated in the wing tip or vertical fin tip in order to reduce the
effect of magnetic interference from the aircraft and its electrical systems to an
absolute minimum.
The detector is made of soft iron and is in three segments. It is like a three--
spoked wheel, the rim of which has three equally spaced gaps in it. It is sus-
pended in a dampening fluid and has freedom of movement in pitch and roll. It
For Training Purposes Only

is fixed about the aircraft Z--axis.

A measuring coil is fitted to each segment spoke to detect the effect of the
earth’s magnetic field on it. The effect is proportional to the direction or heading
of the aircraft.
As the earth’s magnetic field is static the measuring coils cannot react to it
without the following technical trick.
An exciter coil is placed around the axis of the detector which magnetically sat-
urates the three segments using 400 Hz current. This produces no effect in the
measuring coils mounted on each spoke because the spokes are of split

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INSTRUMENTS
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Figure 74 Flux Valve

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JAR 66 COMPASS SYSTEMS
INSTRUMENTS
M 13.8
MASTER COMPASS WITH AN ADF / RMI
A Master Compass with an ADF/RMI consists of: from the flux valve. In the worst case, this synchronizing could take 90 minutes
a flux valve and so, to eliminate this, the servo CT is designed so that by depressing and
turning a synchronizing knob (in the top right hand corner of the ADF/RMI) its
a directional gyro (DG)
stator may be repositioned.
an ADF/RMI (Automatic direction finder/ Radio Magnetic indicator)
The synchro rotor which is directly attached to the compass rose follows up
To increase the strength of low voltage signals (e.g. compass card motor volt- and the indication may be quickly adjusted to show the actual magnetic head-
age) amplifiers are provided. These are to be found in the ing of the aircraft as detected by the flux valve, i.e. the slaving CT is zeroed.
IIS--Rack (Integrated Instrument System). The annunciator (top left hand corner of the ADF/RMI) is a pulsing needle indi-
A melting--type fuse protects the transformer in the IIS rack which supplies the cator which shows the sense of output signals from the slaving amplifier when
the 23.5 V AC exciter current to the flux valve. it is trying to adjust the direction of the DC axis (in other words when the com-
pass rose indication disagrees with the flux valve signal).
Working Function
When the annunciator is in the neutral position the slaving CT is zeroed and
The direction of the earth’s field is detected by the flux valve and fed as a 3 the compass synchronized.
phase signal to a synchro (CT, control transformer) in the ADF/RMI.
The axis of rotation of the DC may have any direction relative to magnetic
The rotor of this slaving CT is directly connected to the compass rose, or card. north. The angular difference between the DG axis and magnetic north is com-
If the north direction detected by the flux valve and that shown by the compass pensated for by adjusting the CT synchro as just described.
card agree there will be no output signal from the CT.
During normal operation the direction of the DG axis is constantly monitored
The signal from the flux valve can vary widely over a short time interval while and adjusted by the flux valve. In other words, whatever attitude the DC axis of
giving the correct magnetic heading as a mean value. This signal which is rotation had relative to magnetic north at erection will be maintained.
stable in the long term is too unsteady for use as an indication.
A DG is therefore used to provide a stable signal in the short term.
The axis of rotation of the DG is kept parallel to the earth’s surface by a liquid
levelling switch and a levelling torque motor.
The DC holds its direction in Azimuth (i.e. it is stable about the vertical axis) but
may be direction adjusted by a slaving torque motor. The heading synchro
transmits the direction of the DG axis, using the aircraft longitudinal axis as the
datum reference, to the servo CT of the ADF/RMI.
For Training Purposes Only

The compass rose, or card indicator, is adjusted according to the direction of

the DG axis by the servo circuit (Servo--amplifier, servo--motor, Rate Genera-
tor).
Normally, the DC axis will not be pointing to magnetic north when the system is
switched on and therefore the compass rose will also not be indicating correctly
relative to magnetic north. In this case, the slaving CT sends a signal, strength-
ened by the slavingamplifier, to the slaving torque motor.
The heading of the gyro axis will be changed at a rate of 1 -- 2 /min. until the
compass rose indication in the ADF/RMI agrees with the information coming

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INSTRUMENTS
M 13.8
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Figure 75 ADF/RMI Master Compass

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INSTRUMENTS
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Figure 76 Compass Signal Distrubution (Principle)

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INSTRUMENTS
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Figure 77 Compass Signal Distrubution (Schematic)

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INSTRUMENTS
M 13.8
The heading synchro in the DG transmits the position of the gyro axis of rota-
MASTER COMPASS WITH A COMPASS COUPLER tion relative to the aircraft’s longitudinal axis to the CDX in the Compass Cou-
A Master Compass with a compass coupler consists of pler. The gyro position signal together with the correcting (see page 29)flux
valve signal applied by the stepper motor to the CDX govern the position of the
a flux valve compass rose.
a DG or a platform heading information When the output CX is correctly positioned the servo CT is zeroed.
a compass controller.
a compass coupler DG/FREE Mode
A melting--type fuse protects the transformers in the compass coupler which If the switch on the compass controller is in the position DG (or FREE) only the
supply the 23,5 V AC exciter current to the flux valve. short term stable DG or the platform heading signal is effective in the Compass
Coupler.
Working Function The information from the flux valve is switched off.
The compass system with a compass coupler can be operated in either of two The DG mode is used when the flux valve information is unreliable (e.g. defec-
modes, which can be selected on the operating panel: tive or for navigation in polar regions).
Slaved Mode The DG position is also used for maintenance purposes.
DG Mode (or Free Mode). A short term stable compass information is obtained by using the SET HDG
knob on the compass controller to feed the desired course into the compass
Slaved Mode (Normal Operation) coupler which will position the compass rose to any desired setting
If the switch on the compass controller is in the slaved position both (e.g. If the heading of the aircraft is known the compass may be manually set
the long term stable flux valve signal and and for a short time thereafter the aircraft may be satisfactorily navigated.
the short term stable DC or platform heading signal NOTE:There is now no correction for apparent drift or real drift.)
are fed to the Compass Coupler. The annunciator is switched off and assumes a neutral position.
The direction of the earth’s magnetic field, as detected by the flux valve, is fed
as a 3--phase signal to a synchro (CT, control transformer) in the Compass
Coupler.
The rotor of this slaving CT is directly connected to the repeater synchros (CX)
and the servo CT. The repeater synchros provide signals to systems connected
to the compass.
For Training Purposes Only

If the magnetic direction determined by the flux valve agrees with the slaving
CT rotor position there will be no output signal from this CT.
If there is a difference the differential synchro (CDX = Control Difference Trans-
mitter) will be moved by a stepper motor at a maximum rate of 1 -- 2 /min.
An annunciator in the compass controller shows the output of the slaving ampli-
fier. If the annunciator indicator is in the middle position the slaving CT is
zeroed.
The DG is not corrected in azimuth (Free Gyro).

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INSTRUMENTS
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Figure 78 Compass Coupler

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INSTRUMENTS
M 13.8
Fast “follow up” rotation of the compass roses, or cards, is initiated by the com- Course Setting
pass coupler when When the SET HDG knob on the compass controller is moved a signal is fed
Fast synchronization or directly to the inching motor. This motors the CDX and consequently the servo
circuits.
Set Heading
The direction and speed of rotation are dependent on the sense and position of
modes are in operation.
the SET HDG knob.
Fast Synchronization The SET HDG knob may be moved to the right or to the left in two stages. It
This is an internal switching condition of the compass coupler. The rate of must be held in the desired position as it is spring--loaded to neutral.
movement of the inching motor is increased from 1 -- 2 /min. to 700 /min. The rate of turning is:
Fast synchronization is initiated when In position (1) 60 -- 90 /min.
the system is switched on (provided the compass system has been unpow- In position (2) 800 -- 1200 /min.
ered for some time), If the SET HDG knob is released and the compass mode switch is in the
the Mode switch on the compass controller is moved from DG to SLAVED, slaved position the rate of movement for normal servo follow up is 1 -- 2 /min.
the platform--HDG selector switch is oper- If the mode switch is in the DG position the compass cards respond to the
ated. position of the DG axis of rotation.

7s
PLT
For Training Purposes Only

HDG
Switching
2 min

DG VALID
PWR
ON

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INSTRUMENTS
M 13.8
Compass Monitoring Functional Check
Two monitoring systems are provided: As in all instrument systems, the components, especially the gyroscope and
Compass Coupler Superflag flux valve, are delicate, and must always be handled carefully.
Maintenance Monitor To check the operation of the system:
Apply electrical power and allow time for the gyroscope to run up to speed.
Maintenance Monitor
Ensure that any system failure flags are withdrawn from view, and the indi-
This monitors only the Compass Coupler. It checks whether the servo system cated heading settles down.
is zeroed. Once activated it remains in the warning position (yellow or red indi-
Examine the synchronising indicator. If it is zero or at the reference datum,
cator).
check that the indicated heading matches the actual magnetic heading of
Compass Coupler Superflag the aircraft (compare with the magnetic compass).
This monitors the working of the whole compass system. The illustrated logic Operate the synchronising knob, and ensure the indicated heading moves
diagram shows, on the left hand side, the conditions which must be fulfilled to smoothly away from the initial value.
achieve a logical “1” output. Check the synchronising indicator is offset.
If the conditions are fulfilled a 28 V DC signal shows that the compass system Release the knob and check that the indicated heading slowly changes to-
is working correctly (Compass Coupler Superflag = valid). wards that of the magnetic heading. (In this mode, the system will operate
at up to 2 per minute to return to the magnetic heading.)
rotate the synchronising knob in the opposite direction, ensure the indication
changes smoothly.
Finally, rotate the synchronising knob, until the synchronising indicator reads
zero, and ensure the indicated heading is the same as the magnetic head-
ing.
For Training Purposes Only

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INSTRUMENTS
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Figure 79 Compass Signal Distrubution (Principle)

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INSTRUMENTS
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Figure 80 Compass Signal Distrubution (Schematic)

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INSTRUMENTS
M 13.8

THE HORIZONTAL SITUATION INDICATOR (HSI)

As its name implies, the HSI provides the pilot with a pictorial representation of TO and FROM Indicator
the horizontal situation of the aircraft, primarily its heading with reference to This moving coil meter movement is combined with the aircraft’s set course
North. input and VOR beacon bearing to provide an immediate indication to the pilot
of the direction of a radio beacon from the aircraft.
Heading Indicator
For example, assume the aircraft is flying directly towards the beacon, the indi-
The aircraft is represented by the symbol, fixed in the centre of the instrument,
cator is in front of the aircraft symbol representing a direction TO the beacon.
and the aircraft’s heading is indicated under the fixed index line (lubber line) by
As the aircraft flies over the beacon, the indication rapidly changes to a FROM
the rotation of the compass card.
indication, and the triangular flag appears behind the aircraft symbol.
The compass card is driven by an electric servo motor from an error signal that
is derived in the aircraft’s main compass system. The heading indication is gen- Glideslope Indicator
erally with reference to magnetic north, although in some systems it is possible This operates in exactly the same way as that on the ADI. Refer back to that
to switch the signal to be with reference to true north, as in the case of aircraft item for a review of the glideslope indicator.
flying Polar routes.
Preset Heading Indicator
Course Deviation Indicator
This triangular shaped marke is positioned over the scale of the compass card
The aircraft’s required course, used in conjunction with the aircraft’s navigation by an electric servo motor system which receives a command signal from a
systems, is selected by the pilot at a remote control panel, and is known as the remote selector knob.
set course. The course arrow pointer and tail are driven by a servo motor to
It enables the pilot to select a required heading and to turn the aircraft accu-
indicate the course and its reciprocal on the compass card.
rately until the heading marker, and selected heading are aligned with the lub-
As the course pointer rotates, an additional indicator, the deviation indicator, ber line on the HSI.
rotates along with it. The deviation indicator consists of a moving bar to indi-
An additional function of this facility is to supply an electrical signal known as
cate to the pilot the amount of deviation away from a selected track.
heading error, i.e. the angular difference between the preset heading marker
This deviation could be radio deviation, or deviation from a computed track, and lubber line, to the autopilot and flight director systems.
between route markers, known as waypoints.
In the autopilot system, the heading error signal will automatically turn the air-
The most common type of input is radio deviation, which can be a VOR or a craft onto the correct heading, whilst the flight director system will position the
localiser deviation, part of the VHF navigation system. V--Bars for the pilot to follow, and hence fly the selected heading.
VOR is an en--route navigation aid, and each dot represents 5 deviation away
For Training Purposes Only

from a selected beam, whereas localiser is a landing aid and each dot repre- True Air Speed and Ground Speed
sents 1 deviation away from a selected beam, which in this case is the ex- These two displays provide additional navigation information, in the form of nu-
tended centre line of the landing runway. merical data representing the aircraft’s actual speed over the ground and in the
The deviation indicator is a moving coil meter movement, zero deviation is indi- air.
cated by the bar being in the centre. Then by using a simple mathematical calculation it is possible to calculate the
time taken to arrive at a selected beacon, which may be the destination airfield.
There are some more Indication discribed in other Chapters

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INSTRUMENTS
M 13.8

TAS and GND SPD

Counter Lubber Line and
Compass Card

Preset Heading Indicator

TO / FROM
Drift Angle
Indicator

Glide Slope
Indicator
Course Deviation
Indicator
For Training Purposes Only

Figure 81 Horizontal Situation Indicator

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JAR 66 COMPASS SYSTEMS
INSTRUMENTS
M 13.8

COMPASS COMPENSATION
The compass system, when installed in an aircraft, is affected by the magnetic Then, with the aircraft on a northerly or southerly heading, co--efficient C is ap-
influences of the aircraft structure, and the electrical system. plied to the compass, by adjustment of the N--S or C compensator screw.
These influences distort the Earth’s magnetic field in the vicinity of the com- There is a third co--efficient, known as A, which may have to be taken into ac-
pass, and deflect the compass card away from the magnetic heading. count. It is derived by obtaining the deviation on four or eight headings, and
This deflection is known as deviation, and can be compensated for by placing finding the average.
small magnets in certain directions near the compass. For example, if the co--efficient A was calculated using four headings, then:
It is usual to combine these small magnets in a unit known as a compensator,
and to provide a means of adjustment by two screws usually labelled N--S and Sum of Deviation on N, E, S, W
co efficient A =
E--W, or C and B. 4
The actual amount of compensation required is calculated from a procedure
known as a compass swing.
The actual procedure is detailed in any aircraft’s Maintenance Manual. Co--efficient A is corrected by adjustment of the mounting position of the com-
pass, until the appropriate heading aligns with the lubber line.
Compass Swing This adjustment is made by rotating the compass about bolts in slotted mount-
In a compass swing, the aircraft is placed on fixed headings in a specially iden- ing lugs, or by the addition or removal of non--magnetic spacers (washers) be-
tified area of an airfield known as a compass base. This area is surveyed to hind the mounting screws.
ensure that the Earth’s magnetic field is free from interfering local magnetic When compensating the compass the following precautions are to be ob-
fields, that may be caused by underground cables, drains etc. served:
The aircraft’s compass reading is compared to a reference reading from a cali- Tools must be in their proper place and not left where they can influence the
brated compass, readings are taken on the main cardinal points, i.e. North, compass.
South, East and West.
The control column must be in the neutral position.
The adjustments made are known as co--efficient C and co--efficient B. They
The person adjusting the compass must check to see that he has no metal
are derived from two simple formula:
in his pockets (keys, skrewdrivers,etc.).
After an engine change the motor should be run at maximum speed for a
short time.
co efficient B = Deviation on East Deviation on West
For Training Purposes Only

2 The aircraft systems should be in the normal in flight condition, (window

heating, lighting, engines, etc.).
There should be no vehicle near the aircraft (apart from the towing tug for
co efficient C = Deviation on North Deviation on South
2 larger aircraft).
A report must be completed which contains all the relevant data used during
compensation.
The value of the co--efficient is applied to the compass compensator, to make
the compass read correctly within a specified tolerance.
The adjustment is first made with the aircraft on an easterly or westerly head-
ing, and co--efficient B is applied to the E--W or B compensator screw.

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INSTRUMENTS
M 13.8
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Figure 82 Standby Compass Compensation

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INSTRUMENTS
M 13.8
After the compensation has been carried out, it is necessary to obtain devi-
ations on standard headings at intervals of 45 or 30
The card readings are those which the compass must indicate in order that the
aircraft may be flown on the correct magnetic heading.
The card must be positioned adjacent to the compass and be clearly visible to
the pilot.
There are a number of different occasions when a compass swing must be car-
ried out, in general it will be whenever the compass or compensator device is
installed or replaced.
Compensating Remote Indicating Compass
The adjusting screws for the B and C errors are to be found on the flux valve
compensating device.
The A errors are compensated by angular movement of the flux valve.
For Training Purposes Only

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INSTRUMENTS
M 13.8
For Training Purposes Only

Figure 83 Flux Valve Compensation

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INSTRUMENTS
M 13.8
REMOTE MAGNETIC COMPENSATOR
A remote magnetic compensator may be placed between the flux valve and the
compass coupler. It contains a power unit which supplies an extremely stable
direct current and two externally adjustable precision potentiometers (N--S,
E--W).
The actual compensating effect is achieved by feeding a small DC current
through the field winding of the flux valve which pre--magnetise its soft iron
core.
The potentiometers compensate for the B and C errors.
On the front of the remote magnetic compensator there are, apart from the po-
tentiometer adjusters, 3 measuring points (N--S, common, E--W) for determin-
ing the output voltage of the potentiometers. These valves are to be recorded
on the label provided. This enables rapid and accurate adjustment of a replace-
ment unit.
The A error may be adjusted by a CDX index on some compensators.
For Training Purposes Only

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INSTRUMENTS
M 13.8
For Training Purposes Only

Figure 84 Remote Compensator

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JAR 66 COMPASS SYSTEMS
INSTRUMENTS
M 13.8
MODERN COMPASS TECHNOLOGY
The system that has just been described has evolved over a number of years
to produce an accurate compass for use in modern high performance jet trans-
port aircraft. It incorporates gyroscopes, servo motors and associated elec-
tronic circuitry.
However, modern technology has drastically altered the compass system.
Modern Systems have a new technologie and they are used in aircrafts like
Boeing 757/767 , A320 etc.
In these systems, the flux valve has been removed, and in its place is a com-
puter which has in its memory a map of the Earth’s magnetic field. The air-
craft’s position and direction is derived from an inertial reference unit, utilising
laser gyro technology, between the two units a signal is derived which is the
aircraft’s magnetic heading.
This information is used by a display computer, and the aircraft’s heading is
displayed on a cathode ray tube (CRT) indicator.
In addition, the aircraft’s heading can be displayed on servo driven instruments.
One advantage of this system is that a compass swing is not necessary, as the
indication is no longer dependent upon measuring a magnetic field.
One point to remember is that even on these modern aircraft, they do have to
have a backup system, and the standby compass is of the direct reading mag-
netic type, that does require a compass swing and compensation at specified
times.
For Training Purposes Only

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INSTRUMENTS
M 13.8
For Training Purposes Only

Figure 85 Navigation Display

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JAR 66 INERTIAL NAVIGATION SYSTEM
NAVIGATION
M 13.8

ATA 34 NAVIGATION
INERTIAL NAVIGATION SYSTEM
Principle and Characteristics
In the 1950‘s, the Department of Defense recognized the need for a naviga-
tional system that did not require a reference to its external environment.
The Massachusetts Institute of Technology developed the first Inertial Naviga-
tion System.
This system was completely self-contained and required neither radio nor
visual links to determine position or direction.
The ability to navigate completely without contact with the external environment
of the vehicle, makes inertial navigation systems extremely desirable in todays
aviation industry.
For Training Purposes Only

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JAR 66 INERTIAL NAVIGATION SYSTEM
NAVIGATION
M 13.8
THE ONLY SELF-CONTAINED SINGLE SOURCE FOR ALL
NAV DATA
The modern inertial navigation system is the only self--contained single--source
for all navigation data. After being supplied with initial position information it is
capable of continuously updating extremely accurate displays of: Position,
Ground Speed, Attitude and Heading. In addition it provides guidance or stee-
ring information for the autopilot and flight instruments. The state--of--the art
has enabled production of inertial navigation systems with performance, size
and weight characteristics which far exceed other navigation systems.
For Training Purposes Only

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JAR 66 INERTIAL NAVIGATION SYSTEM
NAVIGATION
M 13.8

LAWS OF MOTION
1. A BODY CONTINUES IN A STATE OF REST, OR UNIFORM MOTION IN
A STRAIGHT LINE, UNLESS ACTED UPON BY AN EXTERNAL FORCE.
2. THE ACCELERATION OF A BODY IS DIRECTLY PROPORTIONAL TO
THE SUM OF THE FORCES ACTING ON THE BODY.
3. FOR EVERY ACTION THERE IS AN EQUAL AND OPPOSITE REAC-
TION.

Newton’s three „Laws of Motion” state:

1. A body continues in a state of rest, or uniform motion in a straight line, un-

less acted upon by an external force.
2. The acceleration of a body is directly proportional to the sum of the forces
acting on the body. . .
3. For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction.

With these laws we can mechanize a device which is able to detect minute
changes in accelerations and velocity, an ability necessary in the development
of an inertial system.
For Training Purposes Only

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NAVIGATION
M 13.8

The Second Law states that the acceleration (that is rate of change of velocity)
is directly proportional to the force acting on the body.
Velocity and distance are computed from sensed acceleration by the applica-
tion of basic calculus.
The relationship between acceleration, velocity and displacement or distance is
shown above.
Note that velocity changes whenever acceleration exists and remains constant
For Training Purposes Only

when acceleration is zero.

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JAR 66 INERTIAL NAVIGATION SYSTEM
NAVIGATION
M 13.8
ACCELEROMETER AND INTEGRATORS
ACCELEROMETER

The accelerometer is basically a pendulous device. When the aircraft accelera-

The basic measuring instrument of the inertial navigation system is the accele- tes, the pendulum, due to inertia, swings off the null position. A signal pickoff
rometer. Two accelerometers are mounted in the system, one which measures device tells how far the pendulum is off the null position. The signal from this
the aircraft’s accelerations in the north--south direction, and the second which pickoff device is sent to an amplifier and current from the amplifier is sent back
measures the accelerations in the east--west direction. into a torquer located in the accelerometer. A torque is generated which will
restore the pendulum to the null position. The amount of current that is going
into the torquer is a function of the acceleration which the device is experien-
For Training Purposes Only

cing.

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JAR 66 INERTIAL NAVIGATION SYSTEM
NAVIGATION
M 13.8
TORQUE REBALANCE ACCELEROMETER NAV-COMPUTER
Fortunately, the same accelerometer mechanization which minimizes nonli- The navigation-computer associated with the inertial system knows the latitude
nearity also reduces the amount of input axis shift. and longitude of the takeoff point and it calculates that the aircraft has traveled
The scheme is called force--rebalancing or torque--rebalancing. so far in a north direction and so far in an east direction. It’s fairly simple fora
digital computer, then, to continuously compute the new present position of the
The theory behind the principle is this: take the demodulated amplified acceler-
aircraft.
ometer output signal and use it to drive electromagnets; position the electro
magnets in the case to interact with permanent magnets on the accelerometer In like manner using stored velocity, and present position the system is able to
mass to return the mass toward the null point; after the current has passed calculate additional navigation data.
through these torquers, drop it across a resistance to develop an analog volt-
age of acceleration.
In effect, instead of measuring a displacement, this method measures the cur-
rent required to build a force capable of offsetting displacement. The end result
is the same a signal proportional to acceleration.
In most systems, an actual proportional displacement exists.
In some, however, in integrating capacitance in introduced into the D. C. am-
plifier feedback loop so that any displacement causes an increasing amplifier
output until the mass has been fully restored to null. At this point, the integrat-
ing amplifier is producing a constant voltage output (a plateau on the integra-
tion curve ).
For Training Purposes Only

Torque-Rebalance Accelerometer Loop

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JAR 66 INERTIAL NAVIGATION SYSTEM
NAVIGATION
M 13.8
GIMBALS AND GYROS ISOLATE ACCELEROMETERS FROM
EFFECTS OF GRAVITY ON ACCELEROMETER EFFECTS OF GRAVITY
Up until now, an accelerometer has been illustrated which is hard mounted to
To keep the accelerometer level, it is mounted on a gimbal assembly, com-
the aircraft.
monly called the platform.
If it were, it would be affected by the attitude of the aircraft.
The platform is nothing more than a mechanical device which allows the air-
In this illustration, the aircraft is shown in a pitch attitude during takeoff. The craft to go through any attitude change and yet the very inner element of the
fact that the device has been tilted tends to make the pendulum swing off the platform on which the accelerometers are mounted is able to stay level.
null position, due to gravity.
Gyroscopes which are used to stabilize.
It would obviously output an erroneous acceleration signal which would result in
The platform are also mounted on the inner most element of the platform.
an erroneous velocity and distance traveled. Therefore, there is a false accele-
ration problem caused by this pitch angle. They provide inputs to amplifiers and motors which control the gimbals and the-
refore the level of the accelerometers.
The solution to this problem, of course, would be to keep the accelerometer
level.
For Training Purposes Only

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JAR 66 INERTIAL NAVIGATION SYSTEM
NAVIGATION
M 13.8
GYROS-TWO DEGREE OF FREEDOM INERTIAL NAVIGATION UNIT
A TDF (two degree of freedom) gyro can accept two different input torques, It has been shown that an inertial navigation unit includes a computer and a
90 apart. stable platform composed of gyroscopes and accelerometers suspended in a
The input axis for one input (IA1) is also the output axis (OA2) for the other gimbal system. The gyros and computer generate signals used to maintain the
axis, the converse is also true. platform’s accelerometers in a level position in relation to the earth’s surface so
that they may accurately measure aircraft accelerations which are converted
Therefore, two TDF gyros provide four sensitive axes, thus the three platform
into velocities.
axes can be controlled by two gyros with the redundant gyro axis usually caged
in a closed loop servo condition. These velocities, when modified by the computer with necessary correction
terms, provide extremely accurate navigational information.
The gyro is mounted with its input axis aligned with the corresponding platform
axis. In addition, the inertial platform can provide attitude outputs of roll, pitch and
platform heading as analog signals which may be used by other aircraft sy-
Only torques felt about the input axis result in a precession of the spin axis
stems.
about the output axis.
This precession changes the angular position of the gimbal relative to the gyro
case, thus generating an error signal which is used as a servo loop to restore
the platform to its original orientation.
For Training Purposes Only

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JAR 66 INERTIAL NAVIGATION SYSTEM
NAVIGATION
M 13.8
EFFECTS OF THE STABILISED PLATFORM EARTH ROTATION RATE COMPENSATION
This illustration shows what would occur if compensation were not made for the
EARTH ORIENTING THE PLATFORM earth’s rotation.
The previously described gyro stabilized platform would remain fixed in space, Take the example of looking down at the earth from a vantage point in space
but the aircraft is not operating in space. Itisoperating on an earth which is rota- over the North Pole.
ting and an earth which is round. At noon, the platform is leveled so that the accelerometers sense only horizon-
In order to keep the accelerometers level with respect to the earth so that they tal accelerations.
sense acceleration of the aircraft in a horizontal direction only, some compen- Now, as the earth rotates, the platform would maintain the same orientation in
sation must be made for these two facts. space.
However, from an earth vantage point, it would appear to tip over every 24
hours.

WITHOUT COMPENSATION WITH COMPENSATION

For Training Purposes Only

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JAR 66 INERTIAL NAVIGATION SYSTEM
NAVIGATION
M 13.8
RESOLVING EARTH‘S RATE INTO VERTICAL AND HORIZON- GYRO CONTROLS GIMBAL
TAL COMPONENTS This illustration shows how the gyro is used to control the level of the platform
The required earth rate compensation is a function of latitude since what is gimbal set.
being compensated for is the horizontal component of earth rate felt by the gy- The gyro and accelerometer are mounted on a common gimbal.
ros, and that varies with latitude. When this gimbal tends to tip of the level position, the spin axis of the gyro re-
At the equator, this value is 15.04 degrees per hour, and with travel either furt- mains fixed.
her north or south, it reduces until it becomes zero at the poles. The case of the gyro, then, is moved of level and the amount that the case is
tipped will be detected by the signal pickoff in the gyro. That signal is then am-
plified and sent to a gimbal drive motor which restores the gimbal to the level
position again.
In this case, the accelerometer is just going along for the ride. Since the acce-
lerometer is always kept level, it does not sense a component of gravity and is
able to sense only the horizontal accelerations of the aircraft as it travels
across the surface of the earth.
Shown here is a single axis platform; in reality, movement may occur in three
axes, the pitch, roll, and heading axes of the platform.
For Training Purposes Only

Single Axis Platform

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JAR 66 INERTIAL NAVIGATION SYSTEM
NAVIGATION
M 13.8
GYRO TORQUING
Torque--Values for X and Y Gyros
Both the earth rate and transport rate compensations are implemented in the
system by torquing the gyro.
Note the gyro platform on the left. Two integrators are shown on the right, and
in actuality, the integrators are part of a computer.
Follow the numbers starting with acceleration from the accelerometer (1). Inte-
grate once to get velocity (2) and then a second time to get distance (3).
There are a number of other compensations generated within the system.
The two examples are shown just to give an idea of how a simplified inertial
system works, but other compensations are necessary because the earth is not
a perfect sphere. Coriolis effects and centrifugal effects must also be compen-
sated for within the system.
For Training Purposes Only

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JAR 66 INERTIAL NAVIGATION SYSTEM
NAVIGATION
M 13.8

8 7

9
10
6 5

11

1 2 3
13

4 = V (1 s)
R
12
For Training Purposes Only

Figure 86 Gyro Torquing

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JAR 66 INERTIAL NAVIGATION SYSTEM
NAVIGATION
M 13.8

INS COMPONENTS
SYSTEM UNITS LTN-72
The LTN--72 is a compact, lightweight, second generation, inertial navigation
system designed to fulfill the navigation requirements of modern jet aircraft.
The system’s form, functions, and outputs are consistent with ARINC 561 cha-
racteristic and will integrate directly with present aircraft flight director equip-
ment and instrumentation.
The LTN--72 consists of four units:
The CONTROL DISPLAY UNIT, on the left, the MODE SELECTOR UNIT on
the right, the INERTIAL NAVIGATION UNIT in the background and the BAT-
TERY UNIT.
For Training Purposes Only

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JAR 66 INERTIAL NAVIGATION SYSTEM
NAVIGATION
M 13.8
INERTIAL NAVIGATION UNIT
The INERTIAL NAVIGATION UNIT, or INU, occupies approximately one cubic
foot of space and weighs approximately 57 pounds.
The four gimbal inertial platform and platform electronics are enclosed in the
forward section of the INU, while the rear section contains the computer, power
supply, and data converters.
For Training Purposes Only

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JAR 66 INERTIAL NAVIGATION SYSTEM
NAVIGATION
M 13.8
MODE SELECTOR UNIT
The MODE SELECTOR UNIT, or MSU, is used to energize and align the sy-
stem prior to flight and then select the navigate and attitude reference modes
of operation.
The MSU mode selector switch is detented in the NAV position to prevent the
INS inadvertently being switched out of the navigate mode. The knob must be
pulled away from the MSU panel before the mode selector switch can be set
out of the NAV position.
The mode selector switch and annunciators perform the following functions:
OFF -- Power is applied only to the MSU and CDU edge lighting. INS primary
power is off.
STBY -- In standby INS primary power is on and the CDU is operated to per-
form display test and to insert the aircraft’s present position. An automatic se-
quench starts during which the platform cages to the aircraft’s axes and plat-
form temperature stabilization and gyro run--up are initiated. When the mode
selector switch is in STBY, the aircraft may be moved because the INS will not
be affected.
ALIGN -- In ALIGN the automatic platform alignment sequence is initiated.
When the automatic alignment sequence is completed, the READY NAV (Re-
ady to Navigate) annunciator comes on and if the COL! display selector switch
is set to DRS TK/STS, the alignment status indication in the right numerical
display will be 02. A 02 indication indicates completion of AL 1 GN mode. The
aircraft must not be moved while alignment is in progress or while the mode
selector switch is in ALIGN.
NAV -- When mode selector switch is set to NAV and the CDU display selector
switch is set to DRS TK/STS, the alignment status indication in the right nume-
rical display will change from 02 to 01. In NAV and with an alignment status
indication of 01, the aircraft may be moved and normal in--flight operations per-
For Training Purposes Only

formed.
NOTE: If the mode selector switch is moved out of the NAV position, the INS
navigational capability is lost and an alignment must be performed on the
ground.

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JAR 66 INERTIAL NAVIGATION SYSTEM
NAVIGATION
M 13.8
CONTROL DISPLAY UNIT BATTERY UNIT
It is used to enter present position and waypoint coordinates, select track stee- In a given aircraft installation, a battery unit should be provided as a back--up
ring, and display navigation data generated by the system. power source.
The CDU controls, numerical displays and indicators perform the following The battery is capable of sustaining normal INS operation for a period of 30
functions: minutes.
DISPLAY SELECTOR SWITCH -- Selects data for presentation on left and The INU contains circuitry for trickle charging of the battery.
right numerical displays.
DIM CONTROL -- Controls intensity of numerical and from/to displays.
WPT SELECTOR SWITCH -- When display selector switch is set to WPT, se-
lects waypoint (1 through 9) for latitude and longitude insertion, or selects way-
point (0 through 9) for presentation of waypoint coordinates on left and right
numerical displays.
TK CHG PUSHBUTTON -- Allows initiation of manual track leg change.
FROM/TO WAYPOINT DISPLAY -- Displays From waypoint number and To
waypoint number of track leg being navigated.
For Training Purposes Only

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JAR 66 INERTIAL NAVIGATION SYSTEM
NAVIGATION
M 13.8
PRACTICAL EXERCISE OF AN INS
ALIGNMENT
To monitor STBY progress set the display selector to Desired Track/ Status Set the Display Selector to Position (POS). This prepares the system for entry
(DSR TK/STS). of present position latitude and longitude.
The STBY status number appears on the right display. The left display reads all zeros.
The number starts at 90, and steps to 80 after the INU has reached operating The right display reads 72 0 until the first present position INSERT has been
temperature. made.
It remains at 80 until present position has been entered and ALIGN has been The INSERT pushbutton is on and will remain on until present position Latitude
selected. and Longitude have been entered.
System alignment and temperature stabilization automatically continue.
For Training Purposes Only

ALIGNMENT DIAGRAM

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JAR 66 INERTIAL NAVIGATION SYSTEM
NAVIGATION
M 13.8
For Training Purposes Only

ALIGNMENT DIAGRAM

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JAR 66 INERTIAL NAVIGATION SYSTEM
NAVIGATION
M 13.8
LEVELING
BASIC SCHEMATIC
This illustration shows how the system operates in the analog leveling mode.
The system operates by sensing aircraft accelerations with a gyrostabilized Rather than taking the output of the accelerometer and putting it into the inte-
platform. grators, the output of the accelerometer is put through some electronics and
Output functions of the system include accurate present--position (lat/long.) into the gyro torquer.
information; navigation data; steering commands, and angular pitch, roll, and This causes the signal to come out of the gyro at the signal pickoff end, and
heading information. causes the gimbal drive motor to move the gimbals until the pendulum of the
The navigation and guidance computations are performed by a compact, pro- accelerometer is lined up with the gravity vector.
grammable general--purpose digital computer. At this point, there is zero output from the accelerometer, and the computer
sets velocity to zero.
For Training Purposes Only

INS INTERFACE

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JAR 66 INERTIAL NAVIGATION SYSTEM
NAVIGATION
M 13.8
For Training Purposes Only

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JAR 66 INERTIAL REFERENCE SYSTEM
NAVIGATION
M 13.8

INERTIAL REFERENCE SYSTEM

general system description
The Inertial Reference System (IRS) represents the newest generation of high
technology navigation systems.
Using three single--degree--of--freedom ring--laser gyroscopes in an all--digital
strapdown system, which is a highly reliable, all--weather, worldwideinertial re-
ference system.
It provides digital outputs of position, attitude, heading, angular rates and linea-
raccelerations in body and local level coordinates, groundspeed and track, hori-
zontal and vertical velocity components, drift angle, flight--path angle, and po-
tential vertical speed.
The system also provides synthetic magnetic heading and track based on pres-
ent position.
All magnetic referenced outputs will be set to NO COMPUTED DATA for lati-
tudes greater than 73 N or 60 S.
Using a true airspeed input, the system computes and outputs windspeed and
wind direction.

STRAPDOWN INERTIAL NAVIGATION SYSTEM

In a strapdown inertial navigator, gimbals are not used.
Nor is the sensor package isolated from aircraft pitch, roll, and yaw motion. The
inertial sensors are literally ”strapped” to the aircraft body.
The required reference is established by computer software prior to takeoff and
stored in memory.
By transferring the task of maintaining the inertiai reference to computer soft-
ware, the gimbaling system, along with its attendant motors, angular measuring
For Training Purposes Only

devices, and electronics, is eliminated.

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JAR 66 INERTIAL REFERENCE SYSTEM
NAVIGATION
M 13.8
For Training Purposes Only

Figure 87 Inertial Reference System General

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JAR 66 INERTIAL REFERENCE SYSTEM
NAVIGATION
M 13.8
RING LASER GYRO
Sagnac Effect
In the SAGNAC effect, the runners become light beams and the track becomes
the closed light path formed by a set of carefully aligned mirrors.
Two beams of light are directed to shine into this ring of mirrors, one beam in
the clockwise direction and the other in the counterclockwise direction.
If the ring rotates, say, clockwise while the light beams are in transit then the
clockwise beam will seem to travel a shorter distance than the counterclock-
wise beam and so exit the ring at the finish line first.
This can be used as a measure of rotation by observing the interference (or
fringe) pattern created at the finish line by the two beams of light when they mix
together.
The faster the rotation, the larger the displacement of the fringe pattern. Revolution
A rigorous derivation of the SAGNAC effect from a mathematical point of view The navigation system on a typical commercial jetliner must be capable of
involves the use of Einstein’s theory of relativity. measuring rotation rates considerably less than one revolution (360 degrees)
The simple pictorial analogy described above is only meant as a guide to aid per second.
understanding the operation of optical gyros. For instance, on a flight from Los Angeles to London (figure), which takes
The Sagnac Effect was first discovered around 1913 about the same time the about ten hours, a total heading error of only one degree (i.e. 1/10 degree for
first crude gyrocompasses (the forerunners of today’s mechanical gyros) were each hour of flight), may cause the plane to end up in Paris instead of England.
being manufactured. The requirement for a typical commercial aircraft navigation system, a fairly
The effect was only treated as a curiosity at that time and did not arouse much modest system by present day standards, has an ability to detect direction
interest as a means of sensing rotation on ships and aircraft. This was because changes of less than about 1/1000 degree per hour.
the effect is very small. As an example, for a reasonably sized light path of a
few inches across (the same size as a comparable mechanical gyro) and a
rotation rate as high as one revolution per second, the Sagnac Effect would
predict a round--trip--path-- length difference between the clockwise and coun-
terclockwise beams of only about 0.000000010 inch (10 billionths of an inch)
For Training Purposes Only

which is about the diameter of an atom. Even using interference fringes of light,
this difference was too small for a practical rotation sensor to detect (figure il-
lustrates interference fringes).

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JAR 66 INERTIAL REFERENCE SYSTEM
NAVIGATION
M 13.8
LITTON RLG IRS SCHEMATIC
The figure shows the four mirror configuration used by Litton. A typical strapdown system contains provisions for measuring, computation,
The medium of the ring laser gyro is helium and neon gas. and display.
When a high voltage is applied to this gas mixture the necessary light is pro- The angular measuring device is the gyro.
duced just as in the red neon signs seen in advertising displays. Litton currently employs three of its ring laser gyros, mounted at right angles to
The laser beams travel in opposite directions around the light cavity as de- one another, to measure aircraft pitch, roll, and yaw rotations.
scribed in the Sagnac Effect but now they just make close to a million round The ring laser gyro, since it contains no moving parts and possesses excellent
trips before exiting at one of the mirrors. This means the mirrors used on ring linearity, is naturally suited to strapdown application.
laser gyros must have very low losses, more than 1000 times less than a typi- The accelerometer is used to measure changes in aircraft velocity.
cal shaving as the beams exit the cavity they mix together.
Three are used and, like the gyros, mounted at right angles.
The phase difference is converted into a frequency difference by a heterodyne
Two provide horizontal acceleration, the third vertical.
detector.
Present position and other desired data is displayed and available for naviga-
A 28 cm RLG will have about 110619 heterodyne counts per radian of RLG
tional use.
rotation, or about 2 arc sec per count.
The display unit also provides means for manual entry of data, such as initial
position, by the aircraft crew.
For Training Purposes Only

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JAR 66 INERTIAL REFERENCE SYSTEM
NAVIGATION
M 13.8
IRS COMPONENTS INERTIAL REFERENCE UNIT
The standard configuration of the IRS consists of three basic units: An inertial reference unit, or IRU, using additional software, generates more
a Mode Selector Unit (MSU), an Inertial Sensor Display Unit (ISDU), and an refined data such as
Inertial Reference Unit (IRU). present position, wind speed, and ground track.
Backup DC power source is also required. System outputs, when supplied to a flight management system, are typically
The MSU and ISDU are located in the cockpit and are the units involved in the used to produce additional navigation data and steering commands.
system operational procedures.
A typical aircraft installation consists of one MSU, one ISDU, and two IRUs.
For Training Purposes Only

IRS SYSTEM

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JAR 66 INERTIAL REFERENCE SYSTEM
NAVIGATION
M 13.8
MODE SELECTOR UNIT
The MSU is a dual unit and controls application of power to each IRS, and se- Annunciators
lects the OFF, ALIGN, NAV and ATT (attitude reference) modes of operation by ALIGN MODE annunciator (white) -- Comes on In ALIGN mode to indicate that
means of mode switches. the automatic alignment sequence is In progress. It goes out when the align-
The mode switch and four annunciators of each section function as follows: ment sequence Is complete and the IRS is switched to NAV mode. If the lati-
tude or 3+3t test fails, the annunciator will flash to Indicate that alignment will
Mode Switch not be completed until a valid latitude is entered.
OFF -- Turns IRS power off; MSU and ISDU edge lighting may be on. ON DC annunciator (amber) -- Comes on when the backup dc voltage is being
The system will remain on for approximately 12 seconds after OFF is selected used, and a DC FAIL condition does not exist.
to provide BITE record storage. DC FAIL annunciator (amber) -- Comes on when the backup dc voltage is less
ALIGN -- Turns IRS power on and starts the automatic alignment mode. than the minimum required to operate the IRS (18 vdc).
The IRU turns on the ALIGN annunciator during automatic alignment. FAULT annunciator (amber) -- Comes on when the IRS outputs are invalid for
When alignment is complete, the NAV mode may be selected and the ALIGN the mode selected (indicating a malfunction). Annunciator flashes to indicate
annunciator is turned off. attitude mode should be selected.
NAV is the normal flight operating mode of the system.
Dim controllannunciator test -- The light Intensity of the edgelit panel Is controlled
NAV -- If the mode switch is set to NAV at turn--on, the system will automati- from the aircraft master lighting control panel.
cally enter the NAV mode after a successful alignment. The annunciator lights are checked by selecting the TEST position on the ISDU
If the mode switch is set to ALIGN at turn--on, then NAV must be manually se- display select knob. All MSU annunciators will be illuminated for 2 seconds af-
lected after a successful alignment. ter the TEST position Is selected. In addition, each of the 8 annunciators has a
On entering NAV mode, the ALIGN annunciator goes out. push--to--test capability, or can be tested using the aircraft master test switch.
NAV Is the primary operating mode in which the system performs its inertial
reference function.
After entering NAV mode, the mode switch must remain in the NAV position;
otherwise system alignment is destroyed and a new alignment must be done
on the ground before NAV mode may be re--entered.
If ground speed (GS) > 20 kts, the system will remain in NAV mode if the mode
switch is placed in ALIGN.
For Training Purposes Only

NOTE: The mode switch Is detented in the NAV position to prevent Inadvertent
shutdown In flight. It must be pulled away from the panel before the switch can
be set out of NAV.
ATT -- Selects attitude reference mode. In this mode, the IRS provides aircraft
body attitude angles, angular rates, and linear accelerations. The selection of
this mode disables the navigation capability of the IRS for the balance of the
flight.

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JAR 66 INERTIAL REFERENCE SYSTEM
NAVIGATION
M 13.8
INERTIAL SENSOR DISPLAY UNIT
The ISDU controls the entry of present position in ALIGN mode and in ATT
mode, set heading into the IRS.
The ISDU displays PPOS (present position), WIND, TRK (track), GS (ground
speed), HDG (true heading in NAV, set heading in ATT), and STS (alignment
status, and action codes).
The ISDU controls and displays functions as follows:
DSPL (display) switch -- Enables entry of present position and set heading
data. Also enables display of present position latitudellongitude, wind direction/
speed, track/ ground speed, and heading/status in the upper and lower dis-
plays, respectively.
In TEST position checks the operation of the displays and the green highlighter
dots on the ENT and CLR pushbuttons. This TEST function can also be initi-
ated externally from the aircraft master lighting control panel. The TEST func-
tion also initiates the IRU Functional Test.
SYS (system select) Switch -- Selects one of the two IRU’s for data entry or
display.
Data pushbuttons -- Ten pushbuttons (0 through 9) for entering present position
and set heading.
CLR pushbutton -- Removes entered data if pressed before ENT is pressed.
Green highlighter dots on the pushbutton light when data is entered via the
keyboard, and go out when either CLR or ENT is pressed. If invalid data is en-
tered, the CLR dots will remain on.
ENT pushbutton -- Transfers entered data into the IRS computer. Green high-
lighter dots on the pushbutton light when data is entered via the keyboard and
go out when either CLR or ENT is pressed. If invalid data is entered, the CLR
dots will remain on.
Upper and lower displays -- Display data selected by display switch.
For Training Purposes Only

BRT -- Controls intensity of the upper and lower displays.

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JAR 66 INERTIAL REFERENCE SYSTEM
NAVIGATION
M 13.8
ALIGNMENT-PRESENT POSITION ENTRY
Aircraft present position must be entered into the IRS for precision alignment to
take place.
Normally, present position is entered into the MCDU from FMC only once dur-
ing alignment of the IRS.
Present position entry inserts present position into all IRU’s.
Setting the SYS switch to L or R verifies that present position has been cor-
rectly entered into the respective IRU’s.
Prior to an alignment the mode selector on the MSU must be turned to ALIGN
or NAV.
In most cases all mode selectors are turned in ALIGN or NAV.
When all IRU‘s are in the align mode at the same time, on input of the present
position will be enough.

Present Position Entry via MCDU

1. manual input of Latitude and Longitude
2. manual input of Reference Airport Code (four letter code)
3. insertion of the Company Route
4. Last Position from the FMC
For Training Purposes Only

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JAR 66 INERTIAL REFERENCE SYSTEM
NAVIGATION
M 13.8
IRS DIAGRAMS-ALIGNMENT / OPERATIONS

IRS OPERATION DIAGRAM

For Training Purposes Only

Figure 88 IRS Diagrams

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JAR 66 INERTIAL REFERENCE SYSTEM
NAVIGATION
M 13.8
MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
The IRS contains internal warn sensors and applies signals to other aircraft
systems that provide warn indicatlons pertaining to IRS operation.
These warn indlcatlons are provided on the MSU annunciators, as action codes
on the ISDU display, and through digital data word 270.
MSU annunclators display the warns as:
FAULT
ON DC (IRS operation on battery and no DC FAIL)
DC FAIL/FAULT (battery voltage < 18 VDC)
The ISDU displays action codes 01 through 12 as shown below when the
DSPL switch is in the HDG STS position.
ISDU
ACTION
CODE CREW ACTION REQUESTS

01 ISDU FAIL Hard failure; remove ISDU for maintenance

02 IRU FAIL Hard failure; remove IRU for maintenance
03 EXCESS MOTION Excess motion was detected during align,
alignment automatically restarts
04 ALIGN FAULT Latitude test has failed. Enter position
05 L DAA FAIL Left DAA failure; remove for maintenance
06 R DAA FAIL Right DAA failure; remove for maintenance
07 ADC FAIL Air data comp fail; remove for maintenance
08 ENTER PPOS Enter present position
09 ENTER MAG HDG Enter magnetic heading
10 ISDU PWR FAIL One of the -15 VDC supplies to the ISDU
has failed; replace appropriate IRU
For Training Purposes Only

and/or check interface wiring

11 TEMP BELOW-15 Lo temperature align engaged
12 REENTER PPOS 3+3T test failure: re-enter position

lf more than one message is transmitted by either or both IRU’s, the requests
will appear sequentially every 2 seconds.

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 JAR B2 M13.8 E

TABLE OF CONTENTS
ATA 31/34 INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 VERTICAL SPEED INDICATOR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
PRINCIPLE OF VSI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
INSTRUMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 INSTANTANEOUS VERTICAL SPEED INDICATOR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
CLASSIFICATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 ELECTRONIC VSI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
THE ATMOSPHERE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 AIR DATA COMPUTER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
THE STANDARD ATMOSPHERE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 DUTY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
PRESSURE ALTITUDE AND DENSITY ALTITUDE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 PRINCIPLES OF AIR DATA COMPUTER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
PITOT STATIC SYSTEMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 INPUT DATA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
GENERAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 CONNECTED SYSTEMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
STATIC PRESSURE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 TRANSDUCER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
STATIC PORTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 ANALOGUE ADC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
STATIC SOURCE ERROR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 DIGITAL ADC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
PITOT PRESSURE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 ADC MAINTENANCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
PITOT TUBES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 ADC REPLACEMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
PITOT STATIC TUBE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 ADC SELF TEST . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
ERROR OF IMPACT PRESSURE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 ALTITUDE ALERT SYSTEM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
PITOT / STATIC PRESSURE DISTRIBUTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 GENERAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
TEMPERATURE MEASURING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 APPROACH--MODE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
MEASURING AND INDICATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 DEVIATION--MODE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
TEMPERATURE TEST PROBE (TAT) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 AIRSPEED WARNING SYSTEM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
TEMPERATURES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 GENERAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
ALTIMETER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 SYSTEM DESCRIPTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
PRINCIPLE OF ALTIMETER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 STALL WARNING SYSTEM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
TYPES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 GENERAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
DEFINITION OF HEIGHTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 STALL WARNING SYSTEM / DIGITAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
AIRSPEED INDICATOR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 FLIGHT RECORDER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
PRINCIPLE OF AIRSPEED INDICATOR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 FLIGHT - AND AIRCRAFT DATA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
INDICATED AIRSPEED (IAS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 DESIGN OF FLIGHT RECORDER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
TYPES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 FDR OPERATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
SPEED DEFINITIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 UNDERWATER ACOUSTIC BEACON . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
MACHMETER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 LOCATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
PRINCIPLE OF MACHMETER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 ANALOG DATA RECORDING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
TYPES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 DIGITAL FLIGHT DATA RECORDING SYSTEM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
MACH EQUATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 FUNCTIONAL DESCRIPTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94

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AIDS/ACMS 96 REMOTE MAGNETIC COMPENSATOR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
GENERAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96 MODERN COMPASS TECHNOLOGY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
BASIC OF GYROSCOPIC PRINCIPLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
BASIC PRINCIPLES OF A GYROSCOPE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
THE DEGREE OF FREEDOM OF THE GYRO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
ATA 34 NAVIGATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
APPARENT DRIFT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104 INERTIAL NAVIGATION SYSTEM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
APPARENT TILTING OR TIPPING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106 THE ONLY SELF-CONTAINED SINGLE SOURCE FOR ALL NAV
REAL DRIFT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106 DATA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
GYRO STABILIZED SYSTEMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108 LAWS OF MOTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
VERTICAL GYRO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108 ACCELEROMETER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
DIRECTIONAL GYRO (DG) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110 ACCELEROMETER AND INTEGRATORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
GYRO MOTOR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112 TORQUE REBALANCE ACCELEROMETER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
GYRO CARDAN FRAME SYNCHROS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112 NAV-COMPUTER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
RATE GYRO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114 EFFECTS OF GRAVITY ON ACCELEROMETER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
TURN INDICATOR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116 GIMBALS AND GYROS ISOLATE ACCELEROMETERS FROM
EFFECTS OF GRAVITY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
YAW RATE GYRO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
GYROS-TWO DEGREE OF FREEDOM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
GYRO STABILIZED PLATFORM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
INERTIAL NAVIGATION UNIT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
HEADING AND ATTITUDE SENSOR (HAS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
EFFECTS OF THE STABILISED PLATFORM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
ATTITUDE REFERENCE SYSTEM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126 EARTH ORIENTING THE PLATFORM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
STANDBY HORIZON . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128 EARTH ROTATION RATE COMPENSATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
REMOTE ATTITUDE SYSTEM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130 RESOLVING EARTH‘S RATE INTO VERTICAL AND HORIZONTAL
ATTITUDE DIRECTOR INDICATOR (ADI) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132 COMPONENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
ATTITUDE INFORMATION DISTRIBUTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134 GYRO CONTROLS GIMBAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
ADDITIONAL ADI INDICATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136 GYRO TORQUING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
HEADING REFERENCE SYSTEM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138 INS COMPONENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
EARTH’S MAGNETIC FIELD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138 SYSTEM UNITS LTN-72 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
TERMS USED IN NAVIGATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140 INERTIAL NAVIGATION UNIT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
STANDBY COMPASS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142 MODE SELECTOR UNIT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
REMOTE COMPASS SYSTEM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144 CONTROL DISPLAY UNIT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
FLUX VALVE TRANSMITTER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144 BATTERY UNIT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
MASTER COMPASS WITH AN ADF / RMI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146 PRACTICAL EXERCISE OF AN INS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
MASTER COMPASS WITH A COMPASS COUPLER . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150 ALIGNMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
THE HORIZONTAL SITUATION INDICATOR (HSI) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156 ALIGNMENT DIAGRAM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
COMPASS COMPENSATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158 BASIC SCHEMATIC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184

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LEVELING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
INS INTERFACE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
INERTIAL REFERENCE SYSTEM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
STRAPDOWN INERTIAL NAVIGATION SYSTEM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
RING LASER GYRO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
LITTON RLG . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
IRS SCHEMATIC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
IRS COMPONENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
INERTIAL REFERENCE UNIT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
MODE SELECTOR UNIT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
INERTIAL SENSOR DISPLAY UNIT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
ALIGNMENT-PRESENT POSITION ENTRY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
IRS DIAGRAMS-ALIGNMENT / OPERATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
MAINTENANCE PRACTICES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195

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Figure 1 Main Panel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 Figure 36 ADC Case . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
Figure 2 Atmosphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 Figure 37 Altutude Alert System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
Figure 3 Air Density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 Figure 38 Altitude Alert System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
Figure 4 Barometers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 Figure 39 Overspeed Warning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
Figure 5 Standard Atmosphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 Figure 40 Stall Warning General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
Figure 6 ISA Table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 Figure 41 General Schematic analog Stall Warning System . . . . . 79
Figure 7 Air Data Instruments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 Figure 42 Stall Warning Management Computer System . . . . . . . 80
Figure 8 Static Ports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 Figure 43 Stall Warning System / EFIS Display . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
Figure 9 Static Source Error . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 Figure 44 Flight Recorder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
Figure 10 Pitot Tube . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 Figure 45 FDR Signal Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
Figure 11 Pitot Static Tube . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 Figure 46 Analog Flight Recorder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
Figure 12 Error of impact pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 Figure 47 Analog FDR Schematic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
Figure 13 Simplified Pitot/Static System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 Figure 48 DFDR System Block Diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
Figure 14 Pitot/Static System A 320 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 Figure 49 DFDR System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
Figure 15 Pitot / Static System (Boeing) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 Figure 50 Flight Recorder/ACMS-Schematic A320 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
Figure 16 Pitot / Static System (Airbus) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 Figure 51 Expanded AIDS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
Figure 17 TAT Indicating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 Figure 52 ACMS-LH Philosophy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
Figure 18 TAT Probe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 Figure 53 Gyro Precession . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
Figure 19 SAT - TAT Table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 Figure 54 Freedom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
Figure 20 Altimeter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 Figure 55 Apparent Drift . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
Figure 21 Heights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 Figure 56 Apparent Tilting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
Figure 22 Airspeed Indicator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 Figure 57 Vertical Gyro . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
Figure 23 Speed Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 Figure 58 Directional Gyro . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
Figure 24 Machmeter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 Figure 59 DG . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
Figure 25 Machnumber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 Figure 60 Rate Gyro . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
Figure 26 VSI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 Figure 61 Turn Indicator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
Figure 27 IVSI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 Figure 62 Yaw Rate Gyro . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
Figure 28 Electronic VSI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 Figure 63 Stabilized Platform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
Figure 29 Air Data System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57 Figure 64 HAS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
Figure 30 Air Data Computer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 Figure 65 Signal Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
Figure 31 Pressure Transducer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 Figure 66 Artifical Horizon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
Figure 32 Transducer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61 Figure 67 Standby Horizon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
Figure 33 Analogue ADC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63 Figure 68 ADI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
Figure 34 Digital Air Data Computer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64 Figure 69 ADI Schematic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
Figure 35 Digital ADC -- Schematic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65 Figure 70 Attitude Reference System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135

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TABLE OF FIGURES
Figure 71 ADI Indications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
Figure 72 Variation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
Figure 73 Standby Compass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
Figure 74 Flux Valve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
Figure 75 ADF/RMI Master Compass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
Figure 76 Compass Signal Distrubution (Principle) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
Figure 77 Compass Signal Distrubution (Schematic) . . . . . . . . . . . 149
Figure 78 Compass Coupler . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
Figure 79 Compass Signal Distrubution (Principle) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
Figure 80 Compass Signal Distrubution (Schematic) . . . . . . . . . . . 155
Figure 81 Horizontal Situation Indicator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
Figure 82 Standby Compass Compensation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
Figure 83 Flux Valve Compensation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
Figure 84 Remote Compensator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
Figure 85 Navigation Display . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
Figure 86 Gyro Torquing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
Figure 87 Inertial Reference System General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
Figure 88 IRS Diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194

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