CAPE COMMUNICATION STUDIES

MODULE 3 –SPEAKING AND WRITING- TOOL KIT

GENERAL OBJECTIVES

On completion of this Module, students should:

1. use the structures of Caribbean Standard English correctly and appropriately, as well as
with a degree of elegance;
2. evaluate examples of written and spoken communication, including arguments, taking
into consideration the form and content of the communication and the context in which it
is presented or constructed;
3. produce different types of communication relevant and appropriate to their social,
academic, professional and vocational needs;
4. demonstrate knowledge of the major forms of communication (oral, written, non-verbal)
and assess their appropriateness for use in specific communication situations;
5. express themselves in speech and writing with precision, accuracy, clarity and fluency;
6. demonstrate competence in organising oral and written communication;
7. use different forms, media, channels and technologies of communication to maximise
effective communication in specific contexts;
8. appreciate the possibilities which technology offers to the communicative process.

SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES

Students should be able to:

1. speak and write with effective control of grammar, vocabulary, mechanics and
conventions of speech and writing in the use of Caribbean Standard English;
2. describe the process of communication;
3. apply specific communication concepts to different situations;
4. identify the specific features of verbal and non-verbal communication and appropriate
contexts of use;
5. describe the mental and social processes involved in speaking and writing;
6. manipulate non-verbal elements and modes of speech and writing, appropriate to specific
purposes and audiences;
7. employ appropriate channels (mediums) for specific oral and written presentations;
8. speak in Caribbean Standard English on prepared topics, using appropriate non-verbal
9. use appropriate organising and formatting strategies in producing specific types of oral
and written communication;
10. evaluate their own communication according to set criteria: intention, audience
awareness, coherence, mechanics and depth;
11. describe the uses to which information communication technologies can be put in the
April 2022

learning process.
[Date]

CAPE COMMUNICATION STUDIES – MODULE 3 – TOOL KIT WAMaxwell 1

CONTENT

Expression (oral and written)

i. Grammar.
ii. Usage.
iii. Word choice.
iv. Spelling.
v. Punctuation.
vi. Pronunciation.
vii. Enunciation.
viii. Revising and editing drafts.

Process of Communication

i. Identifying the elements in the process (sender, message, channel/medium, receiver,

feedback).
ii. Describing the process (conceptualisation, encoding, selection of channels/mediums,
decoding, interpretation, feedback).
iii. Mass media, channels (mediums) and technologies.
iv. Facilitators and barriers.

Forms of Communication

i. Verbal (speech, writing).

ii. Non-verbal:
a. body language (for example, gestures, posture, facial expression);
b. use of space;
c. use of objects;
d. dress;
e. graphics (charts, tables, diagrams);
f. integrating forms for specific purposes and situations (practice cases, role play
and simulation).

Contexts of Communication

i. Intrapersonal (for example, thinking, solving problems, imagining).

ii. Interpersonal (for example, interviews, conversations, intimate communication).
iii. Small group (for example, leadership meetings, role-taking, goal setting).
iv. Organisational (for example, business, government, educational purposes).
v. Academic (for example, essay, research paper).
vi. Public (for example, speeches, debates).
vii. Intercultural (for example, communicating across social sub-groups, in tour guiding).
April 2022

Types of Speaking and Writing

[Date]

CAPE COMMUNICATION STUDIES – MODULE 3 – TOOL KIT WAMaxwell 2

 i. Speaking:
(i) conversation;
(ii) short expository, persuasive and argumentative speeches.
ii. Writing:
(i) reflective (for example, journals, diaries);
(ii) academic essays (for example, argument, exposition, persuasion).

Organising Skills (oral and written)

(a)  Introductions and conclusions.

(b)  Focus and emphasis (that is, defining scope; streamlining; placing and keeping
central ideas in the foreground; and highlighting).
(c)  Logical linkages (linkages within and between paragraphs [for example, the use of
transitional words such as ‘although’, ‘therefore’, and ‘however’; and variation of
sentence structure to achieve coherence]).
(d)  Formatting (selecting and using particular styles of arrangement correctly, for
example, appropriate headings and sequences of headings for a short informal report).
(e)  Revising and editing drafts (via conferencing, peer-evaluation, self-evaluation).

Process of Communication

(a)  Identifying the elements in the process (sender, message, channel/medium, receiver,
feedback).
(b)  Describing the process (conceptualisation, encoding, selection of channels/mediums,
decoding, interpretation, feedback).
(c)  Mass media, channels (mediums) and technologies.
(d)  Facilitators and barriers.

Forms of Communication

(a)  Verbal (speech, writing).

(b)  Non-verbal:

i. body language (for example, gestures, posture, facial expression);

ii. use of space;
iii. use of objects;
iv. dress;
v. graphics (charts, tables, diagrams);
vi. integrating forms for specific purposes and situations (practice cases, role play and simulation).
April 2022
[Date]

Contexts of Communication

CAPE COMMUNICATION STUDIES – MODULE 3 – TOOL KIT WAMaxwell 3

 a) Intrapersonal (for example, thinking, solving problems, imagining).
b) Interpersonal (for example, interviews, conversations, intimate communication).
c) Small group (for example, leadership meetings, role-taking, goal setting).
d) Organisational (for example, business, government, educational purposes).
e) Academic (for example, essay, research paper).
f) Public (for example, speeches, debates).
g) Intercultural (for example, communicating across social sub-groups, in tour guiding).

Types of Speaking and Writing

a) Speaking:
a. conversation;
b. short expository, persuasive and argumentative speeches.
b) Writing:
a. reflective (for example, journals, diaries);
b. academic essays (for example, argument, exposition, persuasion).

Organising Skills (oral and written)

a) Introductions and conclusions.

b) Focus and emphasis (that is, defining scope; streamlining; placing and keeping central ideas in
the foreground; and highlighting).
c) Logical linkages (linkages within and between paragraphs [for example, the use of transitional
words such as ‘although’, ‘therefore’, and ‘however’; and variation of sentence structure to
achieve coherence]).
d) Formatting (selecting and using particular styles of arrangement correctly, for example,
appropriate headings and sequences of headings for a short informal report).
e) Revising and editing drafts (via conferencing, peer-evaluation, self-evaluation).

No feedback is still feedback.

If the sender does not get a direct response from the

receiver, it tells him/her that the message was not received
or not understood or that some barrier might have affected
the process.

The sender can then follow up his/her original message and

keep the communication going until the process is
complete.
April 2022
[Date]

CAPE COMMUNICATION STUDIES – MODULE 3 – TOOL KIT WAMaxwell 4

Communication is a process. In order for it to happen, there is a procedure that needs to be
followed. To describe the process you need to always remember the elements involved in the
process and the role that each plays.

Elements in the communication process

 Sender or encoder
 Message
 Medium or channel
 Receiver or audience
 Feedback
 Context

Describing the process

• Conceptualisation

Communication begins with someone - the sender - thinking about what to include in the
message.

Encoding and transmission

The message is then put in a particular form (written or oral) and transmitted to the receiver
through a particular medium or channel.

Reception and decoding

The audience receives the message and decodes (interprets) it.

Feedback

The receiver responds to the sender of the message by sending feedback.

This feedback serves as evidence that the message was communicated, be it effectively or
ineffectively.

Once the original sender receives the feedback, the process can be considered complete.

Understanding the elements

April 2022

• Encoding
[Date]

CAPE COMMUNICATION STUDIES – MODULE 3 – TOOL KIT WAMaxwell 5

Putting the message into language form - verbal or non-verbal.

• Medium or channel

These two words mean much the same thing.

The medium or channel is the way in which the message is sent to the receiver.
It may be by electronic means, printed media, face-to-face communication, etc.
Examples: newspapers, television, billboards, the Internet (email, social media pages, YouTube,
etc.), radio, etc.

• Context

This is two-fold.
It is situational - where the interaction takes place and what it is about.
It is also social - who is involved in the interaction and their relationship to each other. Are they
friends or strangers? Do they belong to the same language community? Are they from the same
cultural background?

Facilitators of the communication process

A facilitator of the communication process is anything that helps the communication process.
The aim of communication is for the message to be received and understood.

When talking about how facilitators contribute to effective communication, you need to identify
the facilitator and explain how it helps in the process.

Facilitators include:

Appropriate message format

The format of the message will aid the communication process if it is suitable for the message
and the audience.

Example: if the prime minister of a country wants to address the nation on a current state of
emergency, a suitable format would be a speech.

Appropriate language

The language of the message must be one that is known to the audience.

The sender must consider the audience's knowledge and ability to decode the text of the message
and this should influence his/her choice of words, etc.
April 2022

In the Caribbean, the situation is complicated by the existence of a continuum between Creole
and Caribbean Standard English.
[Date]

CAPE COMMUNICATION STUDIES – MODULE 3 – TOOL KIT WAMaxwell 6

The sender must ensure that the language he/she uses is appropriate to the context of the situation
in which he/she is communication.

Accessible channel

For communication to be effective, reaching the target audience is key. When choosing a
channel, the sender must ensure that the channel is available to the audience and that a message
sent by that channel will reach all of the target audience.

Example: consider again the prime minister addressing the nation. A suitable channel might be
television, as this would reach the majority of the nation at the same time. However, if the
majority of the population is without access to television or electricity or any of the other
elements that enable the reception of television programmes, then this is not going to be a
suitable channel and alternative channels need to be considered.

• Aids that enhance the encoding of the message

Audio, visual and audio-visual aids may help to make the message more audience-friendly and
easier to understand.

Examples: microphones, projectors, ICT.

Barriers to the communication process

A barrier to communication is anything that interferes with or hinders the communication

process.

Anything that causes understanding of the message to be negatively affected is considered a

barrier.

Barriers to communication are often context-specific. Some of the common ones are explained
below, but when identifying barriers you will need to look at the communicative context and
identify things that may adversely affect communication.

Ambiguous message

Ambiguity comes in when the message is unclear or if there is more than one possible
interpretation of the message.

It can cause confusion and may result in the message being misunderstood.
April 2022

Inappropriate message format

[Date]

CAPE COMMUNICATION STUDIES – MODULE 3 – TOOL KIT WAMaxwell 7

If the message format selected is not suitable for the audience, this will affect how well the
message is interpreted.

Example: if the audience is a group of people who were not exposed to education and who
therefore have a reading level below that of a third grader, an inappropriate format would be a
letter or any other form of written communication that uses a lot of words since they would not
be able to read it because of their level of literacy. A message communicated in this way would
be highly ineffective.

Inaccessible channel

A channel needs to be available and reachable in order for communication to be effective.

Example: if postal mail is being used as the channel to send a message and there is no postal
service where the receiver is or he/she has to commute several miles in order to receive mail, this
is likely to adversely affect the communication process.

Language barrier

If the sender and the receiver are from different language communities, the language chosen for
communication needs to be one that is known to both.

If this is not the mother tongue of either or both the sender and the receiver, this is going to
adversely affect communication by affecting the encoding and/or the interpreting of the message.

The use of jargon

This can be seen as similar to a language barrier, in fact the use of any words not familiar to the
receiver will make the message less easy for him/her to understand.

Cultural differences

If the sender and the receiver are from different cultural backgrounds, in addition to the likely
existence of a language barrier there may be additional factors adversely affecting
communication.

Examples: different cultures use body language differently. Additionally, the sender needs to be
mindful that some words may have different connotations in different cultures and this may
affect how the receiver interprets the message when he/she decodes it.

Expectations and prejudices

These can affect both the encoding and the decoding of the message, with the result that the
April 2022

message is not received as it was intended.

[Date]

Internal barriers

CAPE COMMUNICATION STUDIES – MODULE 3 – TOOL KIT WAMaxwell 8

Internal barriers are those conditions peculiar to the receiver that may affect his/her ability to
focus on and/or interpret the message accurately or even at all.

Examples: fatigue, hunger, stress, headache or other kind of pain, hearing impediment.

External barriers

These are conditions outside the receiver's control that may have a negative impact on his/her
ability to interpret the message accurately.

Examples: actual noise or other distractions in the environment, the speaker having a speech
impediment.

Verbal and non-verbal communication

Verbal communication is any form of communication that includes the use of oral (spoken) or
written language.

The message is communicated to the receiver using words. So we use speech and writing to
communicate verbally. There are four skills associated with verbal communication:

 reading;
 writing;
 speaking;
 listening.

Communication is a step-by-step process that works like a loop.

For written communication to be effective the skills of both writing and reading need to be
employed - the sender must write the message and the receiver must read it before
communication can be said to have taken place.

Similarly, for spoken communication both speaking and listening skills are required - the sender
must deliver the message through speech and the receiver must listen to it in order for
communication to take place.

Always remember that context plays a large role in the communication process and as such
verbal communication can be either formal or informal, depending on the context.

It tends to be formal:

 when occurring between strangers;

April 2022

 in business contexts such as meetings, conferences and business negotiations;

[Date]

 in legal contexts such as court proceedings and parliamentary debates.

CAPE COMMUNICATION STUDIES – MODULE 3 – TOOL KIT WAMaxwell 9

It tends to be informal:

 when occurring between family members, friends or co-workers;

 when the subject matter is inconsequential, such as small talk, which can occur even
between strangers;
 when there is no structure, no time limit or no topic guidelines to the communication.

Oral communication

 On a day-to-day basis we communicate a lot of information orally.

 Oral communication consists of all spoken exchanges.
It can occur in a face-to-face meeting of two people or in a manager's presentation to a
large audience; you communicate orally with your peers, family and teachers every day.
 Oral communication can be formal or informal and it can be planned or accidental.
 It takes place just about everywhere.
 Examples include interviews, counselling or helping colleagues, meetings, conferences.

Types of oral communication

• Dialogue

Conversations between two or more people. They can be either casual or formal.

• Debate

o Generally a formal discussion or argument, although there can also be informal

debates.
o Generally in politics, educational settings or business meetings in which
colleagues may disagree on a point of view or decision.
o The argument tends to be structured - each side is given the opportunity to present
a position on the issue.

• Discussion

o The process of talking about something in order to arrive at a decision.

o Discussions happen in various settings, for example school, home, the workplace,
in the street.
o They can be either formal or informal.

• Speeches
April 2022

o Differs from the other categories by being almost or completely one-sided.

[Date]

CAPE COMMUNICATION STUDIES – MODULE 3 – TOOL KIT WAMaxwell 10

 o The sender broadcasts his/her message but may not receive feedback from the
audience.

Advantages of oral communication

 Can enable speedy exchange.

 Immediate feedback is possible.
 People can ask questions and clarify points.
 In a face-to-face interaction, the effect of the message on the audience can be noted.
 The sender is able to check whether the message is clear or has created confusion.
 Spoken instructions are flexible and easily adaptable to many diverse situations.

Disadvantages of oral communication

 Depending on the context, it can be time-consuming

 Can be difficult to meet the objective of the communication.
 Poor presentation of the message can result in misunderstanding and undesired responses.
 Spoken communication is influenced by non-verbal communicative behaviour, such as
tone and body language, which may affect the meaning of the message in the mind of the
receiver.
 Usually there is no record of the communication.

Written communication

Types of written communication

 Texts
 Memos
 Books
 Letters
 Emails
 Notices
 Magazines
 Newspapers
 Personal journals
 Notes

Advantages of written communication

 Written communication is good for complicated and/or vital instructions. They can be
April 2022

given in a precise and uniform manner and they can be referred back to.
 There is less chance of the message being misunderstood.
[Date]

 Written communication provides a record of the communication.

CAPE COMMUNICATION STUDIES – MODULE 3 – TOOL KIT WAMaxwell 11

  Authority is transmitted more effectively with a written order than with an oral one.
 The message can be carefully prepared and then directed to a large audience through
mass mailings.
 Written communication can also promote uniformity in policy and procedure and can
reduce costs in some cases.

Disadvantages of written communication

 It is impersonal.
 People may not always read written communications.
 There is no immediate feedback
 It is not possible for the receiver to obtain immediate clarification if they do not fully
understand the message.
 It may create mountains of paper work.
 It can be poorly expressed by ineffective writers

Understanding non-verbal communication

Non-verbal communication is communication that does not involve the use of speech or writing.

It is those wordless cues, which include facial expressions, body language, tone of voice,
distance, artefacts, etc., that communicate messages.

Although non-verbal communication can and does work by itself, it is also used in conjunction
with verbal communication and can either complement or contradict the message.

You will often find that the terms 'non-verbal communication' and 'communicative
behaviours' are used interchangeably. The reason is that non-verbal communication is the use of
physical actions and manipulations to convey meaning and so it is considered to be
communicative behaviour - behaviour that communicates meaning.

Types of communicative behaviour

Body language

 This is the use of the body (postures and movements), be it conscious or unconscious, to
convey attitudes and feelings.
 It includes posture (e.g. slumping at your desk), gestures (e.g. waving), facial expressions
(e.g. smiling), eye contact (gazing at someone) and other actions (e.g. yawning).
 The same aspect of body language can communicate different messages. For example,
yawning may communicate that the individual is bored or tired; failure to make eye
contact may be a sign of shyness, embarrassment, lying or nervousness; making eye
contact may communicate brazenness, defiance, an invitation or a challenge.
April 2022

 Because body language can be interpreted in different ways, it is easy for it to be

[Date]

misconstrued.

CAPE COMMUNICATION STUDIES – MODULE 3 – TOOL KIT WAMaxwell 12

Proxemics

 This is the use of space and how it communicates different impressions and meanings.

Example: a person is sitting on a public bus which is almost empty and the next person who gets
on the bus sits right next to him/her. If the first person immediately gets up and moves away, it
communicates that he/she is not happy about the other person's behaviour. The other person's
choice to sit next to him/her also communicates a lot about how he/she relates to others, his/her
interests and his/her type of personality.

Chronemics

 This relates to the use of time - being early or late, keeping people waiting or the use of
pauses when speaking.
 Chronemics can communicate a particular attitude or status. Examples: if a person turns
up early for a job interview this may communicate respect; it may also communicate that
he/she is genuinely interested in the job or that he/she really needs the job that is at stake.
 If a young person constantly gets home after his/her curfew this may communicate a lack
of respect for the rules set by his/her parent(s).
 If a more senior person keeps someone who has made an appointment to see him/her
waiting, it could be seen as demonstrating his/her authority.
 When politicians are speaking, timing is used throughout the speech to create various
effects. For example, they may pause, in order to grab and maintain the audience's
attention.
 Comedians also use timing a lot as this is important in delivering punchlines that work.

Artefacts

 Any object - a piece of jewellery or clothing or a vehicle - may be used to communicate

something about the type of person you are, or that you belong to a particular group.
 As the saying goes, first impressions last. How are these first impressions created? They
are created because when you meet someone, you look at him/her and, among other
things, you notice the various artefacts associated with him/her. You use what you see to
form an opinion about the type of person he/she is. This is, of course, why it is important
to dress smartly for a job interview.
 Communicative behaviours, especially artefacts, tend to perpetuate stereotypes. What this
means is that we expect a certain type of person to dress in a certain way or to possess or
use certain objects.

Paralanguage (vocalics)
April 2022

 Paralanguage adds dimension and meaning to words.

[Date]

 Paralanguage is one way in which people reveal emotions and attitudes. It can be
conscious or unconscious.
CAPE COMMUNICATION STUDIES – MODULE 3 – TOOL KIT WAMaxwell 13
  Paralanguage or vocalics (it is called vocalics because the voice 'surrounds' the words)
can be divided into three categories: how people speak, human sounds and interjections.
 People can change, consciously or unconsciously, the volume, tone and pitch of their
voices and the speed at which they speak.
For example, people often raise their voices and shout when they are angry.
How words are spoken can also be used to clarify meaning. Remember that sentences can
be ambiguous, especially because in regular everyday conversation people tend to speak
mostly in phrases instead of complete sentences.
 For example, the expression 'Put the bag there' could be a command or a question. The
receiver can tell by how the expression is uttered and where the speaker places the stress.
If the stress is on 'put' as in 'Put the bag there!' then it is a command. If the stress is on
'there', as in, 'Put the bag there?' and it is spoken with rising intonation, it is a question.
People can vary the speed at which they speak and this can be used to create an effect.
For example, politicians may speak very slowly and deliberately to suggest that what they
are saying is of great importance. In this highly technological era, paralanguage is also
evident in written communication, mostly informal communication via electronic media.
By convention, writing in capital letters and/or an increased font size is taken to mean the
writer is shouting. Even in the past there was the exclamation mark to indicate emotion
such as anger, surprise or forceful ness. In recent times, multiple exclamation marks are
used informal communications. There are also now emoticons, to aid the expression of
attitudes and emotions. All of these things fall under the category of paralanguage.
 Paralanguage also encompasses the sounds people can make. These include laughs, cries
and moans. The different sounds have different meanings and communicate different
feelings and emotions which people recognise.
 The third category of paralanguage is interjections. These are expressions such as 'oh',
'eh', 'ugh' and 'hmm'. Although they may seem incomprehensible, each has some special
meaning whether it is acceptance, agreement, uncertainty, disgust or displeasure.

The five senses

 The five senses (sight, hearing, touch, taste and smell) are used in non-verbal
communication.
 Examples: a bad odour on a person may communicate that he/she does not practise
proper hygiene, or it could suggest that the person is unwell.
 A particular engine sound in the driveway may communicate the arrival of a family
member.
 The sound of a siren in the distance may communicate that there is an emergency
somewhere.
 Overly salty, peppered or burnt food by a generally excellent cook may communicate to
the recipient the cook's displeasure.

Graphics and symbols

April 2022

 These are used in different areas to communicate different things.

[Date]

 Examples: information is often presented graphically to aid in the communication of

ideas.
CAPE COMMUNICATION STUDIES – MODULE 3 – TOOL KIT WAMaxwell 14
 The periodic table is used in chemistry to symbolically represent the various elements.
Braille uses patterns of raised dots to represent letters, numbers and words that a visually
impaired person can recognise.
Sign language involves the manipulation of the hands and fingers to communicate with
the hearing-impaired.
Semaphore is a system of communication using two flags held in different positions to
represent letters of the alphabet.
Hand signals, sometimes enhanced with flags, batons, paddles or gloves, are used for
directing traffic.

Functions of non-verbal communication

There are six basic functions.

• Substituting

o Non-verbal communication may be used to replace verbal communication.

o Examples: using head motions to point out someone without saying anything.
o Beckoning for someone to come to you without calling out to them. Waving goodbye
instead of saying it out loud.

• Reinforcing

o Non-verbal communication may be used to reinforce or complement verbal

communication.
o Example: pounding your hand on a table when arguing to reinforce the point being made.

Regulating

o The regulating function of non-verbal communication is used mostly in conversation to

control the flow of messages.
o Example: raising your hand and waiting your turn to answer or ask a question in class.

Contradicting

 Sometimes non-verbal communication is used to contradict the meaning of the verbal

communication it accompanies.
 The most common example of this is using vocalic sarcasm - when a person says one
thing but the tone of his/her voice tells the listener that he/she means the opposite.
 An example of when the non-verbal communication may unconsciously contradict the
April 2022

verbal communication is when someone states that he/she is attentive to someone while
at the same time he/ she is looking around or even yawning.
[Date]

Managing impressions
CAPE COMMUNICATION STUDIES – MODULE 3 – TOOL KIT WAMaxwell 15
  Non-verbal communication is often used to manage impressions.
 The most common example of this is the way people dress.
 A person will often choose to dress in a way which coincides with the impression he/she
want others to have of him/her. Dressing smartly for a job interview.

Establishing relationships

 Non-verbal communication may be used to show the sender's relationship with another
person or that he/she belongs to a particular group.
 Example: the wearing of a wedding band is a non-verbal indication that the person is
married.

Contexts of communication

 The context of a communicative event includes what the communicative event is about,
why it occurs and where it takes place and the relationships and roles of the people
involved.
 Communicative events occur on a spectrum from formal to informal.
 A formal situation is one where behaviour is dictated by social norms and patterns.
 An informal situation is one where there are no constraints on behaviour and
communication.
 The relationship between speakers influences the context. An employer and an employee
discussing a sports report is in a different context from two friends who are discussing the
same sports report.
 Remember that there are two aspects to context: situation and social.

Situational

 Where the event is taking place, for example at the office, at a bar or in court.
 Why the event is taking place, for example at a party, at a funeral or at a political rally.
 What the event is about, for example, someone's health or the latest sports results.

Social

 Who is participating in the event.

 The culture to which the participants belong also plays a part in communication.
 People's cultural backgrounds introduce a broader set of circumstances and beliefs that
influence how conversation happens. What happens at a funeral, for instance, differs
according to cultural beliefs and practices. In some cultures men and women may not
have open dialogue while in others it is acceptable.
April 2022

 The media influences the cultural context within which people operate as it introduces
other cultures into daily life through news, music, films and television programmes, for
[Date]

example. These can impact on how people speak and what they speak about.

CAPE COMMUNICATION STUDIES – MODULE 3 – TOOL KIT WAMaxwell 16

Types of communication

Intrapersonal communication

 This is communicating within yourself.

 Examples: thinking, daydreaming, solving problems.
Hunger, pain and pleasure are messages sent by parts of the body to the brain.

Interpersonal communication

 This is any communication that happens between two or more people.

 Examples of interpersonal communication between just two people include interviews,
conversations and intimate communication, but all of the following types of
communication are interpersonal communication.

Small group communication

 This is communication that takes place within groups of approximately 3-20 individuals.
 It tends to involve some sort of leadership and is characterised by shared beliefs and
norms. Ideas are generally being exchanged among members.
 The small group is one of the most important communication settings.
 Examples of small groups include the family, interview teams, work groups, legislative
subcommittees and military and business groups.

Organisational communication

 This is communication that occurs in a business, government or educational context.

 It relates to messages travelling up, down and around a large collection of individuals.

 It may involve any of the other types of interpersonal communication, such as small
group, public or mass communication.

Intercultural communication

 This may also be referred to as cross-cultural communication and happens when

information is shared between members of different cultures or social groups.
 It is found in any type of interpersonal communication in which an individual
communicates with another individual from a different culture.
 It is important to take into consideration the differences between the cultures in order to
ensure successful intercultural communication.

Public and academic communication

April 2022

o This occurs when one person (or more, depending on the occasion) communicates with
[Date]

an audience in either a public or an academic setting in order to deliver a message to that

audience.

CAPE COMMUNICATION STUDIES – MODULE 3 – TOOL KIT WAMaxwell 17

 o Often, the communication is one-way, with one person sending a message and the
audience receiving the message, although debates are an exception to this.
o The size of the audience can vary but is generally a large number.
o Examples of public communication include speeches, debates and communication via a
town crier.
o Examples of academic communication include essays, research papers and seminars.

Mass communication

o This occurs when information is disseminated on a large scale to a large number of

people.
o It is almost exclusively one-way.
o It involves the use of the mass media to transmit information. This includes print
(newspapers, magazines and billboards), electrical (radio, television and video) and
electronic (computers and phones).
o The mental and social processes of communication
o Communication is a process and it starts with conceptualisation. This is related to the
mental processes of speaking and writing. First you must think of the ideas you wish to
convey, allow your thoughts to formulate and then you articulate them, either in speaking
or writing.
o The social processes of speaking and writing allow various forms of social interaction
between individuals and between smaller and larger groups.
o As you have seen, people adapt their communication to suit the context they are
communicating in, and this is a social process.

Communicating appropriately

 You are expected to not only be aware of the different non-verbal means of
communication and modes of speech and writing but also how and when to use them.
 For instance, if you were asked to deliver the eulogy at a funeral and a candidate's
address during a 'student leaders' campaign', you would dress differently for each
occasion and your tone of delivery as well as your body language during the delivery of
each would be different.
 As another example, if you were addressing a group of room attendants in the hotel
industry in a rural part of the country, you would not use language that would alienate or
offend your audience nor would you use irrelevant technical terms that would interfere
with effective communication.
 A final example would be if you were applying for a job. You would not do this by
writing a text. In your letter of application you would use formal language and much of
the standard wording associated with such letters.

Channels of communication
April 2022
[Date]

Exam Tip
CAPE COMMUNICATION STUDIES – MODULE 3 – TOOL KIT WAMaxwell 18
The Module 3 question
on Paper 2 might ask you about the media/channels
you would use to reach a particular audience. Often
this is related to advertising.
 Oral presentations that have featured on Paper 2

A channel of communication refers to how the sender gets his/her message to the audience
he/she wants to communicate with.

Many channels can be used for a number of purposes. It depends on how they are used and the
information that is included on them. Some channels are more likely to reach particular
audiences.

Some channels of communication and what they are used to advertise

Medium/Channel Campaign Seminars Presentations Speeches/Addresses Proposals

Posters * *
Banners * * * *
Billboards *
Flyers and * * * *
Brochures
Town crier * *
Interviews on radio * *
or television or in
newspapers
Announcements on * *
radio or television
or in newspapers
as pop-ups on
social media sites
The Internet (social * * *
media, websites
and emails)
Articles in * *
newspapers
(national, school);
newsletters
April 2022

(community, clubs)
[Date]

Celebrity * *
endorsement

CAPE COMMUNICATION STUDIES – MODULE 3 – TOOL KIT WAMaxwell 19

 Debates and *
discussion
Lectures * *
Workshops * *
Dramatic * *
presentations
Concerts *
Jingles * *
T-shirts and other * * *
promotional items
Slides * * * * *
Film and * * *
documentaries
Face-to-face * *
interaction

Using channels of communication Posters, banners and billboards

 Once strategically placed, posters, banners and billboards can reach a large audience.
 They need to be placed in high-traffic areas which are frequented by the audience you
want to attract.
 They are good for reaching students as you can place them in the school or college they
attend.
 They can be used to disseminate information or to lure people to a function or event.
 Posters, banners and billboards can stick in the minds of viewers and so the purpose
needs to be considered carefully when they are being designed.
 They can be relatively cost-effective.
 Another good point is that you can have several of them in one area or in close proximity,
which will increase visibility.
 If you want viewers to take some action, for example, attend an event, volunteer their
services, make a donation, don't forget to include that on the poster.
 If you're promoting to teenagers or young people, the posters and banners need to be
bold, colourful and catchy. More graphics (cartoons, emoticons, etc.) and pictures may be
used. For an adult audience, you still want attractive posters because the idea is to grab
attention, but you may want fewer emoticons and pictures.

Flyers and brochures

 Flyers and brochures are also very easy to prepare and can be produced in large numbers.
 Whilst brochures are mainly used for passing on information, flyers are multifunctional
and may be used both to pass on information and to promote events.
 Flyers and brochures should be easy to read and attractively designed so that they will
April 2022

grab the audience's attention.

 Flyers and brochures allow you to give more in-depth information than is possible with
[Date]

posters, banners and billboards.

CAPE COMMUNICATION STUDIES – MODULE 3 – TOOL KIT WAMaxwell 20

  They may enable you to get feedback that can further help your purpose.
 Brochures given at an event have the benefit of recapping information given at the event
and can also provide additional information that may not have been covered.

Town crier

 A town crier has the ability to jolt listeners because announcements are loud and
persistent.
 The town crier forces the target audience to pause what they are doing and take notice, so
they are likely to hear the information being conveyed to them.
 The town crier uses repetition and may visit one area several times. This constant replay
helps to make the information stick with the audience, so much so that after a few trips
the hearers are able to follow the announcement and even repeat it along with the town
crier.
 The town crier is an effective way to reach a large number of people from a particular
locality.
 It is one of the few ways of reaching audiences that lack access to mass media or who
are unable to read.

Mass media

o Mass media includes newspapers, TV, radio and the Internet. They have the potential to
reach a large number of people.
o Using mass media really helps to get your information out to your audience and can be
used whether your aim is to inform, encourage or promote.
o A downside can be cost. To actually place an advert may be expensive but there are ways
to get a message on mass media without placing an advert. For example, you could get an
article about a campaign in a newspaper or give an interview about an event on the radio.
o Information can be disseminated via social media free of charge if you have the ability to
reach your audience in this way.
o Most people access at least some of these different kinds of medium, often several times
every day. It is important to consider which are most accessed by your target audience
and when they are accessed. When it comes to using television as a means of
communication the aim is to push your content during the timeframe that you know your
target audience is likely to be watching. That way you can capture and engage their
attention.
o People listen to the radio in their cars, on buses or in taxi cabs on their way to and from
work, school or other places, and so communication via this medium is also very
effective.
o The Internet allows for communication to take place at just about any time and any place.
Through smartphones, tablets and laptops on the go or via a computer, audiences can
access information at any time. You can provide up-to-date information to your
audiences, which helps to keep your content current and relevant.
April 2022

o Using social media is a particularly effective way of reaching teenagers and young adults
[Date]

as this group are particularly heavy users of this channel.

o Effective use of mass media relies on you knowing the habits of your target audience.

CAPE COMMUNICATION STUDIES – MODULE 3 – TOOL KIT WAMaxwell 21

Celebrity endorsement

 Local celebrities are useful as a medium of communication at seminars and campaigns.

They might be musicians, artists, actors, sports men and women or TV personalities.
 They are very effective in promotions. People are drawn to celebrities whom they admire
and may want to emulate, and they are therefore more likely to listen to what they have to
say.

 For example, if you are having a seminar about healthy lifestyles or organising a
campaign to promote them, having a sports star speak on the topic will get your audience
to pay attention and listen.
 The presence of celebrities may also be used simply to encourage your target audience to
attend your event.

Debates, discussions, lectures, workshops, dramatic presentations and concerts

 These are all channels that can be used in different kinds of presentations as well as for
different target audiences.
 Debates and discussions allow you to pass on information to the audience as well as
engage them in an active forum where they can share their ideas, ask questions and give
feedback. They really facilitate interaction, which enables you to determine whether your
purpose is being achieved and allows you to modify your message accordingly if
necessary.
 Lectures are better for more mature audiences and are suitable only for particular topics -
largely academic ones.
 During seminars and even campaigns you can use workshops as a means of
communication. They have the benefit of having your audience directly involved in what
is taking place and this can help to keep your audience engaged and interested. Being
directly involved in a particular process will also enhance memory so your audience is
likely to leave your seminar with the information you wanted them to have. Also when
people are directly involved in something they are more likely to feel they have a vested
interest in it and so if your aim was to get their involvement in a cause then a workshop
can help to pull them in.

Dramatic presentations

 Dramatic presentations are fun and entertaining and can be used to capture the attention
of a diverse audience.
 They can be used for education as well as promotion and because they utilise so many
non- verbal means of communication along with the verbal, the messages being conveyed
are enhanced.
 The nature of dramatic presentations captures and maintains the attention of the audience,
which makes them very effective as a means of communication.
April 2022

 A concert can be used as a channel for communicating information.

[Date]

 During a campaign, for instance, you may have a concert during which you may have
performances of songs, poems, stories and dramatizations which pass on information to
CAPE COMMUNICATION STUDIES – MODULE 3 – TOOL KIT WAMaxwell 22
 your audience. This might be new information or reiterate information already presented.
Local celebrities can be incorporated here as they can be involved in giving
performances.

Jingles

 Jingles are catchy and easy to remember.

 Once your audience hears a jingle a few times, the information sticks in their
consciousness.
 Jingles are generally used for promotion and are shared via the Internet, radio or
television.
 They are especially effective when they are performed by celebrities. This way the target
audience is more likely to pay attention to the information being shared through the
jingle.

T-shirts and other promotional items

 Although T-shirts and other promotional items are not conventional mediums of
communication they can be very useful.
 You can put information on T-shirts, cups, pens, notepads or other tokens that you can
give to audience members as memorabilia for them to take away from your seminars,
campaigns or speeches.
 You can also wear the T-shirts during your presentation so that the audience has a visual
image of your theme or slogan, whichever you choose to put on the shirt.
 These tokens are keepsakes and so, unlike a flyer for instance, which may be read (or not)
and then immediately discarded, people are more likely to hang on to them, which means
your message stays with them.

Slides, films and documentaries

 Slides, films and documentaries as mediums of communication are helpful as they

provide visual or audio-visual aids which can help to retain audience attention.
 During an oral presentation incorporating slides, films or documentaries may help to re-
energise the audience.
 They can also be used to provide additional information or clarification for the audience.

Face-to-face interaction

 With face-to-face interaction there is a direct line of communication between yourself

and the target audience.
 Each party gets to exchange information - you not only get to share information with
your target audience but the audience is able to make queries and you are able to provide
explanations that can clear up any misunderstandings.
April 2022

 It provides immediate feedback and this immediacy creates the opportunity for
[Date]

improvement. For example, you can focus on members of the audience who do not
appear interested, to try to convince them of the merits of your promotion.

CAPE COMMUNICATION STUDIES – MODULE 3 – TOOL KIT WAMaxwell 23

  You are better able to build rapport and, out of that, develop relationships with your
target audience and ultimately trust. This will result in a greater level of cooperation and
support.

Note

It is possible to combine different channels

with the various media. For instance, you
can post flyers on social media sites or
have local celebrities talk about your event
on radio or television.

Organising and formatting strategies for oral and written communication

Organisation and formatting is the structural framework of your speech or writing. It is all about
how you put your information together to ensure that your presentation - be it oral or written - is
coherent, easy to follow and captivating.

Some types of written communication that may be required of you:

• letter
• memo
• proposal

Some types of oral communication that may be required of you:

 speech
 presentation
 lecture
 interview
 video conference
 podcast
 VoIP (Voice over Internet Protocol, e.g. Skype, FaceTime, etc.)
April 2022
[Date]

For both oral and written communication, the introduction (how you begin) and the conclusion
(how you end) are important.

CAPE COMMUNICATION STUDIES – MODULE 3 – TOOL KIT WAMaxwell 24

Also remember that in the introduction you want to capture and captivate your audience and in
the conclusion you want to leave them on a high and remembering the essence of your
information.

The writing process

In order to properly prepare for written and oral communication, remember to engage in the
writing process. Through the process you will make choices on how best to organise and format
your information.

Steps in the process

Prewriting

 Brainstorm - think of and jot down all your ideas on a topic.

 Create a visual picture of your ideas where you group all related ideas together - you
could use clustering or semantic mapping.
 Create an outline.

Drafting

 Put your ideas into sentences and paragraphs.

 Expand and explain your ideas.

Revising

 Review your original and subsequent drafts - focus on audience and purpose and make
amendments as necessary.
 Consider these questions:

o Does it come across as if you are speaking directly to the audience?

o Is the information clear and concise?
o Do you have enough evidence to support what you say?
o Have you defined all relevant terms and given all necessary information for ideas to
be understood?
o Do your ideas flow as a cohesive unit?

Editing and proofreading

April 2022

 Check your work and make corrections where necessary.

[Date]

 You are checking for:

CAPE COMMUNICATION STUDIES – MODULE 3 – TOOL KIT WAMaxwell 25

  grammar and mechanics;
 spelling - you can and should use the computer to check your spelling but be
aware that it doesn't tell you if you have used the wrong word.

General organisation skills

o Begin with a hook.

o Develop the middle using appropriate organisational strategies.
o End with a bang.
o Connect ideas (sentences and paragraphs) using relevant and logical linkages.
o Create focus and emphasis:
o Define the scope - outline the objectives and what needs to be done in order to achieve
these objectives.

Streamline:
 Prepare opening lines.
 Offer positive reinforcement.
 Use appropriate vocabulary.

In written communication:

 List any personal details of the addressee that you will use in the communication.
 Write as if you are talking to the reader.
 Stick to one main topic - stop when you are finished.
 Emphasise your central ideas using literary devices - you want to ensure that the devices
you use draw attention to the idea you want at the centre
 Highlight important information so it stands out:

 Consider using bold, italics, underlining.

 Present figures using charts and graphs.
 Consider using different font styles and/or sizes, particularly for headings. Think
formatting:

 Use a succinct title and subheadings.

 Consider incorporating bulleted points.
 Use short sentences to give details about data.
 Use extra space between paragraphs and bulleted points.
 Consider breaking the page into columns.

Don't forget that different types of communication will have different organising and formatting
styles; some have traditional styles that you must adhere to, like a letter, a report or a memo.
Refresh your memory by reviewing these styles.
April 2022

Information communication technologies and the learning process

[Date]

CAPE COMMUNICATION STUDIES – MODULE 3 – TOOL KIT WAMaxwell 26

Information Communication Technology (ICT) is a broad area and involves using computers,
television, radio, telephones and the Internet. The various information communication
technologies can be further categorised accordingly:

Input

 Computers and laptops

 Tablets and iPads
 Document readers
 Application software
 Word processors
 Web browsers
 Spreadsheets
 Database programs

Output

o Projectors
o Interactive whiteboards
o Television

Other

 Digital cameras
 Digital recorders
 Smartphones
 Digital books
 Films and videos

 Audio clips

Uses of ICT

 ICT is very useful in the learning process. It can be used in developing writing, thinking
and speaking and presentation skills. Each ICT device has its own use, which determines
its contribution to the learning process.
 With the aid of ICT it is easier to conduct research, analyse findings and produce
documents.

ICT and writing skills

 Write posts for blogs, status updates for social networks, posting and responding to
tweets, commenting on articles and news items on the Internet.
April 2022

 Create a web page for a particular content area and have written interaction between
[Date]

classmates and teachers - students can give feedback and post comments.
 Create an online journal.

CAPE COMMUNICATION STUDIES – MODULE 3 – TOOL KIT WAMaxwell 27

  Design and create different products.
 Make notes when conducting research, and summarise findings.
 Access different kinds of writing styles.

ICT and speaking and presentation skills

 Help with explaining concepts.

 Enhance retention of ideas.
 Make presentations interactive.
 Make it easier for participants to follow a presentation.
 Create visual aids to emphasise a point or add detail.
 Help to generate ideas.
 Show slides and transparencies.
 Create podcasts with classroom news.
 Record students' work.
 Allow for webinars.
 Have videoconferences or teleconferences with experts sharing views.

Other uses of ICT in the learning process

 Multimedia and storytelling

 Simulation exercises
 E-books
 Assessment
 Publishing work
 Virtual activities
 Global learning environment
 Animation, simulations and models
 Web research
 Demonstration

April 2022
[Date]

CAPE COMMUNICATION STUDIES – MODULE 3 – TOOL KIT WAMaxwell 28

 April 2022
[Date]

CAPE COMMUNICATION STUDIES – MODULE 3 – TOOL KIT WAMaxwell 29