Chapter 3. Presented by : Er.

NP Dawadi

Canal irrigation system

3.1 Classification of canals
3.2 Components of canal irrigation system
3.3 Alignments of canal
3.4 Alluvial and non alluvial canals
3.5 Canal standards and balancing canal depth
3.6 Canal distribution system
3.0 Canal Irrigation System

Canals :
Canals are the artificial conveyance media for the supply of water from the source river / reservoir to the inlet of water
courses or even up to the field. They have open channel flow under the action of gravity. Generally, Canals have trapezoidal
cross section and may be in fully cutting, in fully banking or even in partially cutting and filling.
3.1 Classification of canal
i) Based on nature of source of supply of water
a) Permanent Canal - can supply for all season
b) Inundation canal - only for flooded season
ii) Based on purpose / function
a) Irrigation canal b) water supply canal c) Power canal
d) feeder canal e) Navigation canal f) Carrier canal
iii) Based on Alignment
a) Watershed / Ridge canal b) contour / valley canal c) Side slope canal
Classification of Canal
d) Based on carrying capacity
a) Main canal b) Branch canal Q >30 m 3/s c) Major distributary Q < 30m3/s
d ) Minor distributary Q < 2.5 m3/s e) Water courses - field channels Q < 0.25 m3/s
e) Based on financial output / contribution
a) Productive canal b) Protective canal

f) Based on lining on bed and sides

a) Lined canal b) Unlined canal / Earthen canal

g) Based on soil on which canal is constructed

a) Alluvial canal b) Non alluvial canal
3.2 Components of canal irrigation system / irrigation system
1. Source of water: Perennial river or storage reservoirs.
2. Head works & silt controlling structures : constructed on the river bed to head up and divert water to canal i.e. weir/
barrage / dams, excluders / ejectors / settling basins.
3. Intake and Regulating structures : To regulate flow by maintaining required discharge, depth and velocity. Head regulator,
cross regulators, falls / drops, flumes, escapes, modules/outlets etc.
4. Conveyance and Distribution system : Canals and their networks carry and distribute water to required commands. Main,
branch, distributaries, water courses/ field channels.
5. River training works: To maintain river depth, flow , velocity as well as to prevent damages and losses by river water and
train it as our requirements so that water can be fully utilized for various purposes. Embankments, guide banks, spurs,
launching apron, pitched islands, artificial cut off etc.
6. Road networks and green zones/forest belts and drainage system.
7. Cross drainage structures: For crossing canal and drain. Aqueducts, syphons, super passage, level crossings, inlet outlets
etc.
8. Field application systems / methods
3.2 Components of canal
1. Canal banks / Embankments : Provided at both sides of canal along the longitudinal direction of flow so
that they permit canal water to flow in between them without over topping.

2. Free board: It is the vertical distance gap between FSL and Top level of embankment provided to achieve
secure flow of water without over topping the bank in case of more water entry in the system.
3. Inspection Road : Road provided on single side or both side of the banks for the inspection purpose or to
transport vehicles / machines / equipment during construction or maintenance period.
width >5m for repair & maintenance, road top 0.50 to 1m above FSL.
4. Spoil banks : When quantity of soil cutting from the canal section is more and it may not be fully utilized
in filling purpose. At this condition, remaining excessive soil have to be transported to other
place for its disposal which increases the transportation costs. So, for achieving economical
mode of disposal, it can be collected on the edge of the embankment itself as spoil banks. The
soil stored in spoil bank can be used later as burrow pit for filling other area / section.
5. Burrow pits : If the quantity of soil in cutting is less than that required for filling the section, in that case
extra soil have to be burrowed from the burrow pits. It is of two types.
i) internal burrow pit – With in the canal section from the bed of canal
ii) external burrow pit – Out side the canal section-
(4D – 6D) = 5D away from outer toe end, upto 0.30m depth.
B/2 gap B
burrow pit
L ≤ 10m L/2
cutting depth up to maxm 1m Plan of internal burrow pit.
6. Berm
Horizontal distance left at ground level between toe edge of cutting and toe of banking. When the canal flow at FSL, silts
particles are deposited on the berm and makes the final side slope of ½ : 1 and width of berm becomes equal to depth of canal.
Functions :
1. Provides wider water way.
2. Increases strength of the banks against erosion and breaching.
3. Keeps saturation line within the canal
4. Provides scope for further widening of canal
5. Provides path for inspection
6. Helps to control seepage / water loss by depositing silt particles on sides and bed. So, they act as lining membrane.
Generally, width of berm :
(1) In partial cut & fill when F.S.L is above ground level – 2 x Full Supply Depth
(2) In filling – 3 x Full Supply Depth
(3) In complete cutting – 2 x Full Supply Depth

7. Dowel : For the safety purpose , raised projection of soil called dowel is provided along canal water side of the inspection
road. Its top width is 0.50m and height of 0.5 m above the road level and side slope of 1.5: 1.

Brem
3.3 Alignment of canal
Canal alignment refers to the layout of canal networks with short and economical route so that supplied water can be
distributed to the maximum area without any obstruction . Also system should not provide disturbance and harm to the people
and environment. The alignment should be selected in such a way that cross drainage works is minimum which increases the
cost of the project.
Types of Alignments :
1. Ridge / watershed alignment: This is the best alignment which is widely possible in the terai region / plain area. Canal is
aligned along the water shed line / Ridge line so that water can be supplied towards both the sides of canal easily by
gravity flow. Ridge line is the highest level of ground line which divides the catchment area of two streams/ river / drains.
Since, streams are far away from the watershed line, canal does not cross it and no need of cross drainage works.
2. Contour / Valley alignment : Such canal alignment is generally done in hilly area where it is not possible to align the
canal along the watershed line because the source is at valley and the ridge line is far above it. So , the canal is aligned
nearly parallel to the contour of the ground. The flow velocity is high but maintained by providing drop structures at
suitable places. Such canal can only supply water to the single lower side of the contour because on the other side land is
at higher level. Since, contour canal may need to cross drains at various points , cross drainage structures (CDS) are
required.
3. Side slope alignment: Side slope alignments are done in the hilly area having steep terrain in which canal are aligned
perpendicular to the contours of the ground which is neither in ridge nor in valley. Such alignment does not meet the
natural drains so no need of CDS.
Alignments selection criteria
1. To ensure maximum command area, ridge alignment should be chosen as far as possible.
2. Alignment at center of command area.
3. Length is minimum.
4. Straight alignment is preferred, curved alignment avoided as far as possible and if required larger radius should be used.
5. Should cross minimum nos. of drains / minimum CDW.
6. Should not pass through residential areas, roads, workshop places, properties etc.
7. Minimum cutting / filling. No deep cutting and filling.
8. Pass through stable soil , no water logging , salinity, alkalinity, cracks & fissures etc.
9. No environment degradation due to alignment.
10. Cost of alignment should be in proportion to the total project cost.
11. Cost of acquisition should be minimum / considered.
3.4 Alluvial & Non Alluvial Canal

Alluvial Canal : Canal which is aligned in the alluvial soil layer is called alluvial canal.
Alluvial soil : It is the soil layer which is formed by continuous deposition of silt / sand particles by the river
water flown in the flood plains. Such soil permits water to seep into ground i.e. they are highly permeable in
nature in one hand in another they may be easily washed away by the flowing water and courses of rivers may
be changed easily. So, special precautions and design methods should be adopted while designing &
constructing canal and other hydraulic structures on such soils. Direct irrigation system by constructing weir/
barrage is more preferred than storage irrigation system (high dam).

Non alluvial canal : In case of mountainous region , soil over the surface may be disintegrated over the long
period of time by the flowing water and the rocky plain area may be formed. Such area is called non alluvial
area and it has uneven land topography with hard surface. Hence, the water flowing through such area does not
have tendency of changing courses and while designing irrigation structures and canals do not create much more
problems as that of alluvial soil region. So, canals passing / aligned on such non alluvial area of soil are called
non alluvial canals. The non alluvial soil may be permeable or impermeable but they are generally non
permeable. Precautions should be taken in case of hard rocky surface having cracks and fissures from where
water may be lost. Storage irrigation system is preferred in this system.
3.5 Canal Standards

S.N Particulars Minor distribution Major distribution Branch and Main

1 Discharge m3/s Up to 0.30 0.3-1.0 1-5 5 - 10 10 - 30 Above 30
2 Minm crest width m 0.60 1.0 1.5 2.0 3.5 5.0
3 Free board. m 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.75 ≥ 0.90
4 Width of road. m - 3.5 3.5 5.0 5.0 6.0
Depth of earth cover over GL . 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.8 1.0
5 m
6 Berm width Equal depth of cutting Dc. Dc
Fully cutting Min. width = (0.60+1/4 width of cross slope of cut
& fill)

Partly Cutting /Filling Max. width = (0.60 + ½ width of cross slopes of cut
& fill)

7 Land width acquired (clear of ½ Ht. of bank above ground, subjected to min.m of
banks) 1.5m
When Dc> D bal.
8 Land width acquired (clear of Full ht. of bank above ground + 1.5m Full ht. of bank + 5
banks)
When Dc < D bal.
Canal banks slope ( Side slope) : Depends upon type of soil and angle of repose of soil
Typical used slopes: (H:V)
Hills – 1:1 in soil and 0.50:1 in rock
Terai – 1.5:1 to 2:1 for primary and secondary canals (Main & branch canals)
1:1 to 1.5:1 for distributaries.
Soil type Cutting slope Filling/ banking slope
Clay 1.5:1 2:1
Sand 3:1 4:1
Loam 1.5:1 2:1
GMS: Gravel mixed soil 0.75:1 1.5:1
Rock 0.25 to 0.50:1 0.25 to 0.50:1
Soft rock Murom / hard 0.75 to 1.5:1 0.75 to 1.5:1
soil
Sandy, Gravel 1 to 2:1 1 to 2:1
Sandy, loam, black cotton 1 to 5:1 2:1
Very light loose sand to 1.5 to 2:1 2 to 3:1
average sandy soil
Top Embankment width:
Depends on: soil type, capacity of canal, width of service road, type of canal, seepage gradient.
Seepage gradient / saturation gradient should not cross the out face of embankment to prevent piping problem. A cover of
at least 0.50m over the saturation line must be provided.

Suggested minimum embankment width:

Discharge Without inspection With inspection road (m)
m3/s road (m)
Soil type Seepage gradient Hill Terai Hill Terai
Clays 3:1 < 1.0 0.75 1.0 - 3.0
Loams 4:1 1.0 – 5.0 1.50 1.5 - 4.0
Coarse sand 7:1 5.0 – 10.0 2.0 2.0 - 5.0
Fine sand / silty materials 6:1 10.0 – 15.0 - 3.0 - 5.0
> 15.0 - 3.5 - >5.0
Free Board: FB

As per USBR ; FB = √CD where, C = 0.46 to 0.76 and D = Depth of flow

Lacey’s formula, FB = 0.20 + 0.15 Q 1/3

Discharge Q m3/s Free Board m Lining works in FB

= 0.50 FB m
<1 0.3 - 0.4 0.20
1 to 5 0.50 - 0.60 0.30
5 to 10 0.60 – 0.70 0.35
10 to 30 0.80 0.40
>30 1.0 and above 0.5 & above
 B/D ratio

D = 0.50 √B UP state of india Curve Radius : Generally canal is aligned straight but for
Discharge Depth m
unavoidable situations of providing curved canals, circular
Q m3/s curves of larger radius is provided.
For lined canal , Radius of curve = 3 times top water surface.
15 1.70
30 1.85 Location Soils Radius m
75 2.30 Alluvial, erodible R = 25 x Ws
150 2.60 Terai Cohesive R = 10 x Ws
300 3.0 Rock, conglomerate R = 3 x Ws
Hills of stiff clay
Other soils R = 7 x Ws
Longitudinal slope: Bed slope of canal so that water flows by the action of gravity. Descending from head to tail.

Designed with non silting and non scouring condition.

In hilly area 1 in 50 to 1 in 1000 & in terai 1 in 1000 to 1 in 2500 (V:H)

Velocity of flow: Designed with non silting and non scouring principle. Minimum velocity 0.40 m/s to prevent weed
growth and transport sediment load. Generally, earthen canal is designed with velocities ranging from 0.60 to 0.90 m/s.

Type of soil Maxi. Per. Velocity m/s Type of soil Maxi. permissible velocity m/s
Coarse sand 0.30 - 0.60 PCC 2.50 - 4.00
Sandy loam 0.75 - 0.85 Shot Crete 2.50
Loam 0.85 – 0.90 Hard rock 6.00 – 8.00
Clay loam 0.90 – 1.15 Boulder lining 1.5
Dry stone / dry brick 1.50 Cement pointing / plaster over 2.00 - 3.00
masonry
Gravel 1.20 RCC 4.00 – 6.00
Disintegrated rock 1.5 Steel lining 10.00
Dressed masonry 2.00 HDP pipes 3.00
3.5 Balancing Canal Depth
When the canal section is in fully cutting, excavated soil has to be deposited in the spoil banks. Similarly, for the section in
fully filling, extra soil has to be taken from the burrow pits. In both the above cases double handling of soil is required and
increases the cost of E/W.

So, to minimize this problem , canal section with the depth of cutting is maintained in such a way that the quantity of
excavation or cutting is equal to quantity of earth required for filling the banks. This excavated depth of cut is called balancing
depth of canal / economical depth of cut (d) .
b1 b2
from figure,
Area of cut (Ac) = bd + s d2
Area of fill = (b1 +b2) h +4 (1/2 S1. h. h)
⸫ Af = bd + s d2
Ac = Af
bd + s d2 = (b1 +b2) h +4 (1/2 S1. h. h) ; all values are known but ‘d’ is unknown
on solving, d can be calculated.
3.6 Canal distribution system
Canal distribution system refers to the networks of canals to distribute water from the source to the different parts of
command areas as their requirements. Canal network system is required for both the storage as well as direct irrigation system
to distribute water. For this, off taking canal, main canal, branch canal, major distributary, minor distributary as well as water
courses are provided.
1. Off taking canal (Head reach) : As discussed earlier in the pervious chapter in canal alignment section, as far as possible
canal is aligned along the water shed line/ ridge line to cover maximum command area. The source of water is at valley
and this water is to be diverted into the canal system but ridge line is at higher level than the source. Hence, to deliver
water from source to ridge line canal ( Main Canal) , off taking canal is aligned with high cutting of ground below the
natural level of the ground. During this, it may cross drains and may required CDW/CDS to be constructed. Off taking
canal is the main canal that delivers water to aligned canal along ridge line. All irrigation systems do not have off taking
canal. Main canal directly off takes water from the source in contour and side slope alignment.
2. Main canal ( Below head reach) : It is the canal which takes off its supply directly from the headwork / source or from
the off taking canal. The discharge carrying capacity is high so that easily water can be supplied and distributed to all the
parts command area. Generally, direct irrigation is not done from it and feds water to the branch as well as major
distributary. It is generally passed from the center of the command area.
3. Branch canal : It is the canal which gets its supply from main canal and feds water to the major distributary and minor
distributary. Direct irrigation may be possible from it. Its discharge carrying capacity is greater than 30 m3/s.
4. Major distributary : It is the canal which gets its supply from main or branch canal and supplied water to minor
distributary and water courses. Direct irrigation is possible from it. Its discharge carrying capacity is less than 30m3/s.
5. Minor distributary : Canal which gets its supply from branch and major distributary is called minor distributary. It
supplied water to water courses and direct irrigation is possible from it. Discharge carrying capacity is less than 2.5 m3/s.
[Link] courses:
Water courses are not the canals but they are field channels or ditches constructed by the farmers by themselves to deliver or
supply water to their individual field from the canal outlets provided at suitable interval of canal system because all the canals
or their networks may not be passed to the individual villages / fields. Field channels get their supply from major distributary
or minor distributary or even from branch canal.
End of Chapter 3…

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