ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I owe sincere and heartily gratitude to principal Dr.
saroj , [Link] mohanty,hod,Dr. Nishigandha
panda, Mrs. Smita das,Mr. Debendra kumar patra, for
active guidance and persistent encouragement through
study. each and every person directly or indirectly
involved in completing this project.
At last I would like to express my thanks to
Guide [Link] mohanty undoubtly deserve the
credit of my project. I take this opportunity to express
my gratitude to the staff of NSM city college,
rajabagicha,cuttack for their support during study.
certificate
It is pleasure to certify that [Link] sweta bearing roll no.
BS-19-014 of +3 3rd year science , NSM city college ,
rajabagichha, cuttack as completed the project titile
During the academic year 2021-22 towards zoology
honours practical evaluation and submitted
satisfactory report under my supervision.
declaration
I [Link] sweta student of +3 3rd year science bearing roll
no BS-19-014 of N.S. M City college do hereby
solemnly declare that this project entitiled Study of
nesting habbit in birds is submitted for the zoology
practical. This project consists of original work done by
me under the guidance and supervision of my zoology
teacher.
INTRODUCTON
Nest building is one of the most important activities of
birds as the nest not only provides shelter and
protection from predators to the birds but also plays an
important role in brooding i.e. egg laying and raising
their young ones.
Building a nest takes a significant amount of time,
which can be well understood by observing birds
around us. For example a bird called the Great Tit
starts building its nest early during its nesting season
devote up to three hours each day to its nest-building
efforts. Some species of birds, however, do not build
any nest, and instead lay their eggs directly on rock
ledges.
Some birds are Brood Parasites i.e. they lay their
eggs in the nests of other birds, like the cuckoo.
The Nesting habit of birds:
The nesting habits of each species have evolved over
time in accordance with the climate, size, habitat,
threat by predators, clutch size, longevity, physiology,
and chick development patterns.
The nests can be built in the trees, marshy areas, cliffs,
bare rocks, on ground etc.
Construction of the nest:
Birds use a variety of materials to construct their nests
and they can literally use a wide range of materials
like twigs, leaves, cotton fibres, hairs and even mud to
build their nest.
The use of twigs and grasses are a common practice.
Some birds like swallows and some species of larks
even use the mud as a cementing agent to reinforce
their nests.
Birds try to provide comfort to the developing eggs
and hatched young ones so they make the inner lining
of the nest soft as compared to the outer nest layer.
Most birds carry the nest material to the nest site
exactly as they carry their food. It has been
observed that Birds of Prey like eagles, hawks
etc. carry the nest material in their claws, and
other species carry it in their beaks.
Where do birds build nest
Nests are built
In hedges
Directly on the grounds
In reeds by river and lakes
In tunnels in river banks and cliffs
On cliff edges
Types of nests
Not every bird species builds or uses a nest.
Some auks, for instance—including common
murre, thick-billed murre and razorbill—lay their
eggs directly onto the narrow rocky ledges they
use as breeding sites. The eggs of these species are
dramatically pointed at one end, so that they roll in
a circle when disturbed. This is critical for the
survival of the developing eggs, as there are no
nests to keep them from rolling off the side of the
cliff. Presumably because of the vulnerability of
their unprotected eggs, parent birds of these auk
species rarely leave them unattended.] Nest
location and architecture is strongly influenced by
local topography and other abiotic factors.
King penguins and emperor penguins also do not build
nests; instead, they tuck their eggs and chicks between
their feet and folds of skin on their lower bellies. They
are thus able to move about while incubating, though in
practice only the emperor penguin regularly does so.
Emperor penguins breed during the harshest months of
the Antarctic winter, and their mobility allows them to
form huge huddled masses which help them to
withstand the extremely high winds and low
temperatures of the season. Without the ability to share
body heat (temperatures in the centre of tight groups
can be as much as 10C above the ambient air
temperature), the penguins would expend far more
energy trying to stay warm, and breeding attempts
would probably fail.
Scrape
Some nest linings, such as the shell fragments in
this Charadrius plover scrape, may help to prevent The
simplest nest construction is the scrape, which is
merely a shallow depression in soil or vegetation. This
nest type, which typically has a rim deep enough to
keep the eggs from rolling away, is sometimes lined
with bits of vegetation, small stones, shell fragments
or feathers. These materials may help to camouflage the
eggs or may provide some level of insulation; they may
also help to keep the eggs in place, and prevent them
fromthe eggs from sinking into muddy or sandy soil if
the nest is flooded.
Ostriches,most tinamous, many ducks, most shorebirds,
most terns,
some falcons, pheasants, quail, partridges, bustards and
sandgrouse are among the species that build scrape
nests.
Eggs and young in scrape nests, and the adults that
brood them, are more exposed to predators and
the elements than those in more sheltered nests; they are
on the ground and typically in the open, with little to
hide them. The eggs of most ground-nesting birds
(including those that use scrape nests) are cryptically
coloured to help camouflage them when the adult is not
covering them; the actual colour generally corresponds
to the substrate on which they are laid. Brooding adults
also tend to be well camouflaged, and may be difficult
to flush from the nest. Most ground-nesting species
have well-developed distraction displays, which are
used to draw (or drive) potential predators from the area
around the nest. Most species with this type of nest
have precocial young, which quickly leave the nest
upon hatching.
Charadrius plover scrape
Scrape nest of ostrich
Burrow
Most burrow-nesting birds excavate their own burrows,
but some use those excavated by other species and are
known as secondary nesters; burrowing owls, for
example, sometimes use the burrows of prairie
dogs, ground squirrels, badgers or tortoises,China's
endemic white-browed tits use the holes of ground-
nesting rodents and common kingfishers occasionally
nest in rabbit burrows. Burrow nests are particularly
common among seabirds at high latitudes, as they
provide protection against both cold temperatures and
predators. Puffins, shearwaters, some
megapodes, motmots, todies, most kingfishers, the crab
plover, miners and leaftossers are among the species
which use burrow nests.
Most burrow
nesting species
dig a horizontal
tunnel into a
vertical (or
nearly vertical)
dirt cliff, with a
chamber at the
tunnel's end to
house the eggs.[ The length of the tunnel varies
depending on the substrate and the species; sand
martins make relatively short tunnels ranging from 50–
90 cm (20–35 in) for example, while those of
the burrowing parakeet can extend for more than three
meters (nearly 10 ft). Some species, including the
ground-nesting puffbirds, prefer flat or gently sloping
land, digging their entrance tunnels into the ground at
an angle. In a more extreme example, the D'Arnaud's
barbet digs a vertical tunnel shaft more than a meter
(39 in) deep, with its nest chamber excavated off to the
side at some height above the shaft's bottom; this
arrangement helps to keep the nest from being flooded
during heavy rain.
Cavity nest
The cavity nest is a chamber, typically in living or
dead wood, but sometimes in the trunks of tree
ferns[ or large cacti, including saguaro. In tropical
areas, cavities are sometimes excavated in arboreal
insect nests.A relatively small number of species,
including woodpeckers, trogons,
some nuthatches and many barbets, can excavate
their own cavities. Far more species—including
parrots, tits, bluebirds, most hornbills, some
kingfishers, some owls, some ducks and some
flycatchers—use natural cavities, or those
abandoned by species able to excavate them; they
also sometimes usurp cavity nests from their
excavating owners. Those species that excavate
their own cavities are known as "primary cavity
nesters", while those that use natural cavities or
those excavated by other species are called
"secondary cavity nesters". Both primary and
secondary cavity nesters can be enticed to use nest
boxes (also known as bird houses); these mimic
natural cavities, and can be critical to the survival
of species in areas where natural cavities are
lacking.
Most woodpeckers use a cavity for only a single year.
The endangered red-cockaded woodpecker is an
exception; it takes far longer—up to two years—to
excavate its nest cavity, and may reuse it for more than
two decades. The typical woodpecker nest has a short
horizontal tunnel which leads to a vertical chamber
within the trunk. The size and shape of the chamber
depends on species, and the entrance hole is typically
only as large as is needed to allow access for the adult
birds. While wood chips are removed during the
excavation process, most species line the floor of the
cavity with a fresh bed of them before laying their
[Link] a relatively small number of species,
including the woodpeckers, are capable of excavating
their own cavity.
Cup nest
the cup nest is smoothly hemispherical inside, with a
deep depression to house the eggs. Most are made of
pliable materials—including grasses—though a small
number are made
of mud or saliva. Many passerines and a few non-
passerines, including some hummingbirds and some
swifts, build this type of nest. small bird species in more
than 20 passerine families, and a few non-passerines—
including most hummingbirds, kinglets and crests in the
genus Regulus, some tyrant flycatchers and several New
World warblers—use considerable amounts of spider
silk in the construction of their nests.
Saucer or plate
The saucer or plate nest, though superficially
similar to a cup nest, has at most only a
shallow depression to house the eggs.
Platform nest
Many raptors, like the osprey, use the same
huge platform nest for years, adding new
material each season.
Some waterbirds, including the grebes, build
floating platform nests.
The platform nest is a large structure, often
many times the size of the (typically large)
bird which has built it. Depending on the
species, these nests can be on the ground or
elevated. In the case of raptor nests,
or eyries (also spelt aerie), these are often
used for many years, with new material added
each breeding season. In some cases, the
nests grow large enough to cause structural
damage to the tree itself, particularly during
bad storms where the weight of the nest can
cause additional stress on wind-tossed
branches.
Pendent
Taveta golden weaver building pendant nest.
The pendent nest is an elongated sac woven
of pliable materials such as grasses and plant
fibers and suspended from a
branch. Oropendolas, caciques, orioles, weav
ers and sunbirds are among the species that
weave pendent nests.
Sphere
The sphere nest is a roundish structure; it is
completely enclosed, except for a small
opening which allows access.
NEST PROTECTION
ANDSANITIZATION
Many species of bird conceal their nests to
protect them from predators. Some species
may choose nest sites that are inaccessible or
build the nest so as to deter predators. Bird
nests can also act as habitats for
other inquiline species which may not affect
the bird directly. Birds have also evolved nest
sanitation measures to reduce the effects of
parasites and pathogens on nestlings.
Some aquatic species such as grebes are
very careful when approaching and leaving
the nest so as not to reveal the location.
Some species will use leaves to cover up the
nest prior to leaving.
Ground birds such as plovers may use broken
wing or rodent run displays to distract
predators from nests.
Many species attack predators or apparent
predators near their nests. Kingbirds attack
other birds that come too close. In North
America, northern mockingbirds, blue jays,
and Arctic terns can peck hard enough to
draw blood.[88] In Australia, a bird attacking a
person near its nest is said to swoop the
person. The Australian magpie is particularly
well known for this behavior.
Nests can become home to many other
organisms including parasites and
pathogens. The excreta of the fledglings also
pose a problem. In most passerines, the
adults actively dispose the fecal sacs of young
at a distance or consume them. This is
believed to help prevent ground predators
from detecting nests. Young birds of prey
however usually void their excreta beyond the
rims of their nests. Blowflies of the
genus Protocalliphora have specialized to
become obligate nest parasites with the
maggots feeding.
COLONIAL NESTING
Though most birds nest individually, some
species—including seabirds, penguins,
flamingos, many herons, gulls, terns, weaver,
some corvids and some sparrows—gather
together in sizeable colonies. Birds that nest
colonially may benefit from increased
protection against predation. They may also
be able to better use food supplies, by
following more successful foragers to their
foraging sites.