CHAPTER 14

INSTRUMENTS FOR CELESTIAL NAVIGATION

THE MARINE SEXTANT

1400. Description and Use

The marine sextant measures the angle between two

points by bringing the direct image from one point and a
double-reflected image from the other into coincidence. Its
principal use is to measure the altitudes of celestial bodies
above the visible sea horizon. It may also be used to measure
vertical angles to find the range from an object of known
height. The marine sextant can also be used to render a
visual Line of Position (LOP) by turning it on its side to
horizontally measure the angular distance between two
terrestrial objects. See Chapter 11- Use of Sextant in
Piloting.
A marine sextant can measure angles up to approxi-
mately 120°. Originally, the term “sextant” was applied to
the navigator’s double-reflecting, altitude-measuring
instrument only if its arc was 60° in length, or 1/6 of a
circle, permitting measurement of angles from 0° to 120°.
In modern usage the term is applied to all modern naviga-
tional altitude-measuring instruments regardless of angular
range or principles of operation.

1401. Optical Principles of a Sextant

When a plane surface reflects a light ray, the angle of re-

flection equals the angle of incidence. The angle between the
first and final directions of a ray of light that has undergone
double reflection in the same plane is twice the angle the two
reflecting surfaces make with each other.
In Figure 1401 - Optical principle of the marine sextant, Figure 1401. Optical principle of the marine sextant.
S to M is a ray of light from a celestial body.
The index mirror of the sextant is at M, the horizon ous designs; most are similar to this. Teeth mark the outer
glass at F, and the eye of the observer at A. The ray of light edge of the limb, B; each tooth marks one degree of alti-
from S is reflected at mirror M, proceeds to mirror F, where tude. The altitude graduations, C, along the limb, mark the
it is again reflected, and then continues on to the eye of the arc. Some sextants have an arc marked in a strip of brass,
observer. Geometrically, it can be shown that the altitude of silver, or platinum inlaid in the limb.
the object S (angle α ) is two times that of the angle between The index arm, D, is a movable bar of the same material
the mirrors (angle β ). The graduations on the arc give the as the frame. It pivots about the center of curvature of the
altitude. limb. The tangent screw, E, is mounted perpendicularly on
the end of the index arm, where it engages the teeth of the
1402. Micrometer Drum Sextant limb. Because the observer can move the index arm through
the length of the arc by rotating the tangent screw, this is
Figure 1402 shows a modern marine sextant, called a sometimes called an “endless tangent screw.” The release, F,
micrometer drum sextant. In most marine sextants, brass is a spring-actuated clamp that keeps the tangent screw
or aluminum comprise the frame, A. Frames come in vari- engaged with the limb’s teeth. The observer can disengage

259
260 INSTRUMENTS FOR CELESTIAL NAVIGATION

the tangent screw and move the index arm along the limb for reduce the intensity of light reaching the eye.
rough adjustment. The end of the tangent screw mounts a The telescope, L, screws into an adjustable collar in
micrometer drum, G, graduated in minutes of altitude. One line with the horizon glass and parallel to the plane of the
complete turn of the drum moves the index arm one degree instrument. Most modern sextants are provided with only
along the arc. Next to the micrometer drum and fixed on the one telescope. When only one telescope is provided, it is of
index arm is a vernier, H, that reads in fractions of a minute. the “erect image type,” either as shown or with a wider
The vernier shown is graduated into ten parts, permitting “object glass” (far end of telescope), which generally is
readings to 1/10 of a minute of arc (0.1'). Some sextants have shorter in length and gives a greater field of view. The
verniers graduated into only five parts, permitting readings to second telescope, if provided, may be the “inverting type.”
0.2'. The inverting telescope, having one lens less than the erect
The index mirror, I, is a piece of silvered plate glass type, absorbs less light, but at the expense of producing an
mounted on the index arm, perpendicular to the plane of the inverted image. A small colored glass cap is sometimes
instrument, with the center of the reflecting surface directly provided, to be placed over the “eyepiece” (near end of
over the pivot of the index arm. The horizon glass, J, is a telescope) to reduce glare. With this in place, shade glasses
piece of optical glass silvered on its half nearer the frame. are generally not needed. A “peep sight,” or clear tube
It is mounted on the frame, perpendicular to the plane of the which serves to direct the line of sight of the observer when
sextant. The index mirror and horizon glass are mounted so no telescope is used, may be fitted.
that their surfaces are parallel when the micrometer drum is Sextants are designed to be held in the right hand.
set at 0°, if the instrument is in perfect adjustment. Shade Some have a small light on the index arm to assist in
glasses, K, of varying darkness are mounted on the reading altitudes. The batteries for this light are fitted inside
sextant’s frame in front of the index mirror and horizon a recess in the handle, M. Not clearly shown in Figure 1402
glass. They can be moved into the line of sight as needed to is the tangent screw, E, and the three legs.

Figure 1402. U.S. Navy Mark 2 micrometer drum sextant.

There are two basic designs commonly used for mounting screws are required. One screw must be loosened before the
and adjusting mirrors on marine sextants. On the U.S. Navy other screw bearing on the same surface is tightened.
Mark 3 and certain other sextants, the mirror is mounted so that
it can be moved against retaining or mounting springs within 1403. Vernier Sextant
its frame. Only one perpendicular adjustment screw is
required. On the U.S. Navy Mark 2 and other sextants the Most recent marine sextants are of the micrometer
mirror is fixed within its frame. Two perpendicular adjustment drum type, but at least two older-type sextants are still in
 INSTRUMENTS FOR CELESTIAL NAVIGATION 261

use. These differ from the micrometer drum sextant 1405. Sextant Moon Sights
principally in the manner in which the final reading is
made. They are called vernier sextants. When observing the Moon, follow the same procedure
The clamp screw vernier sextant is the older of the as for the Sun. Because of the phases of the Moon, the upper
two. In place of the modern release clamp, a clamp screw is limb of the Moon is observed more often than that of the
fitted on the underside of the index arm. To move the index Sun. When the terminator (the line between light and dark
arm, the clamp screw is loosened, releasing the arm. When areas) is nearly vertical, be careful in selecting the limb to
the arm is placed at the approximate altitude of the body shoot. Sights of the Moon are best made during either
being observed, the clamp screw is tightened. Fixed to the daylight hours or that part of twilight in which the Moon is
clamp screw and engaged with the index arm is a long least luminous. At night, false horizons may appear below
the Moon because the Moon illuminates the water below it.
tangent screw. When this screw is turned, the index arm
moves slowly, permitting accurate setting. Movement of the
1406. Sextant Star and Planet Sights
index arm by the tangent screw is limited to the length of the
screw (several degrees of arc). Before an altitude is
While the relatively large Sun and Moon are easy to
measured, this screw should be set to the approximate mid-
find with a sextant, stars and planets can be more difficult
point of its range. The final reading is made on a vernier set
to locate because the field of view is so narrow. One of three
in the index arm below the arc. A small microscope or
methods may help locate a star or planet:
magnifying glass fitted to the index arm is used in making
the final reading.
Method 1. Set the index arm and micrometer drum on
The endless tangent screw vernier sextant is identical to 0° and direct the line of sight at the body to be observed.
the micrometer drum sextant, except that it has no drum, and Then, while keeping the reflected image of the body in the
the fine reading is made by a vernier along the arc, as with the mirrored half of the horizon glass, swing the index arm out
clamp screw vernier sextant. The release is the same as on the and rotate the frame of the sextant down. Keep the reflected
micrometer drum sextant, and teeth are cut into the underside image of the body in the mirror until the horizon appears in
of the limb which engage with the endless tangent screw. the clear part of the horizon glass; then, make the
observation. When there is little contrast between
1404. Sextant Sun Sights brightness of the sky and the body this procedure can be
difficult. If the body is “lost” while it is being brought
For a Sun sight, hold the sextant vertically and direct the down, it may not be recovered without starting over again.
sight line at the horizon directly below the Sun. After moving Method 2. Direct the line of sight at the body while
suitable shade glasses into the line of sight, move the index holding the sextant upside down. Slowly move the index
arm outward along the arc until the reflected image appears in arm out until the horizon appears in the horizon glass. Then
the horizon glass near the direct view of the horizon. Rock the invert the sextant and take the sight in the usual manner.
sextant (also known as “swinging the arc” or “to swing the arc) Method 3. Determine in advance the approximate
slightly to the right and left to ensure it is perpendicular. As altitude and azimuth of the body by a star finder such as No.
you rock the sextant, the image of the Sun appears to move in 2102D. Set the sextant at the indicated altitude and face in
an arc, and you may have to turn slightly to prevent the image the direction of the azimuth. The image of the body should
from moving off the horizon glass. appear in the horizon glass with a little searching.
The sextant is vertical when the Sun appears at the
When measuring the altitude of a star or planet, bring
bottom of the arc. This is the correct position for making the
its center down to the horizon. Stars and planets have no
observation. The Sun’s reflected image appears at the
discernible upper or lower limb; you must observe the
center of the horizon glass; one half appears on the silvered
center of the point of light. Because stars and planets have
part, and the other half appears on the clear part. Move the no discernible limb and because their visibility may be
index arm with the drum or vernier slowly until the Sun limited, the method of letting a star or planet intersect the
appears to be resting exactly on the horizon, tangent to the horizon by its own motion is not recommended. As with the
lower limb. The novice observer needs practice to Sun and Moon, however, “swing the arc” to establish
determine the exact point of tangency. Beginners often err perpendicularity.
by bringing the image down too far.
Some navigators get their most accurate observations 1407. Taking a Sight
by letting the body contact the horizon by its own motion,
bringing it slightly below the horizon if rising, and above if Unless you have a navigation calculator, computer
setting. At the instant the horizon is tangent to the disk, the program, or app that will identify bodies automatically,
navigator notes the time. The sextant altitude is the predict expected altitudes and azimuths for up to eight
uncorrected reading of the sextant. bodies when preparing to take celestial sights. Choose the
262 INSTRUMENTS FOR CELESTIAL NAVIGATION

stars and planets that will provide the best bearing spread. on the micrometer drum. This is similar to reading the time
Try to select bodies with a predicted altitude between 30° with the hour, minute, and second hands of a watch. In both,
and 70°. Take sights of the brightest stars first in the the relationship of one part of the reading to the others
evening; take sights of the brightest stars last in the should be kept in mind. Thus, if the hour hand of a watch
morning. See Chapter 18 - Sight Planning, Section 1810, were about on “4,” one would know that the time was about
for a more in depth discussion. four o’clock. But if the minute hand were on “58,” one
Occasionally, fog, haze, or other ships in a formation would know that the time was 0358 (or 1558), not 0458 (or
may obscure the horizon directly below a body which the 1658). Similarly, if the arc indicated a reading of about 40°,
navigator wishes to observe. If the arc of the sextant is and 58' on the micrometer drum were opposite zero on the
sufficiently long, a back sight might be obtained, using the vernier, one would know that the reading was 39° 58', not
opposite point of the horizon as the reference. For this the 40°58'. Similarly, any doubt as to the correct minute can be
observer faces away from the body and observes the removed by noting the fraction of a minute from the posi-
supplement of the altitude. If the Sun or Moon is observed tion of the vernier. In Figure 1408a the reading is 29° 42.5'.
in this manner, what appears in the horizon glass to be the The arrow on the index mark is between 29° and 30°, the
lower limb is in fact the upper limb, and vice versa. In the zero on the vernier is between 42' and 43', and the 0.5' grad-
case of the Sun, it is usually preferable to observe what uation on the vernier coincides with one of the graduations
appears to be the upper limb. The arc that appears when on the micrometer drum.
rocking the sextant for a back sight is inverted; that is, the The principle of reading a vernier sextant is the same, but
highest point indicates the position of perpendicularity. the reading is made in two steps. Figure 1408b shows a typical
If more than one telescope is furnished with the altitude setting. Each degree on the arc of this sextant is grad-
sextant, the erecting telescope is used to observe the Sun. A uated into three parts, permitting an initial reading by the
wider field of view is present if the telescope is not used. reference mark on the index arm to the nearest 20' of arc. In this
The collar into which the sextant telescope fits may be illustration the reference mark lies between 76° 20' and 76° 40',
adjusted in or out, in relation to the frame. When moved in, indicating a reading between these values. The reading for the
more of the mirrored half of the horizon glass is visible to fraction between 20' and 40' is made using the vernier, which
the navigator, and a star or planet is more easily observed is engraved on the index arm and has the small reference mark
when the sky is relatively bright. Near the darker limit of as its zero graduation. On this vernier, 20 graduations coincide
twilight, the telescope can be moved out, giving a broader with 19 graduations on the arc. Each graduation on the vernier
view of the clear half of the glass, and making the less is equivalent to 1/20 of one graduation of 20' on the arc, or 0.5',
distinct horizon more easily discernible. If both eyes are or 30". In the illustration, the vernier graduation representing
kept open until the last moments of an observation, eye 6' most nearly coincides with one of the graduations on the arc.
strain will be lessened. Practice will permit observations to Therefore, the reading is 76° 20' + 6' 00" or 76° 26' 00". When
be made quickly, reducing inaccuracy due to eye fatigue. a vernier of this type is used, any doubt as to which mark on
When measuring an altitude, have an assistant note and the vernier coincides with a graduation on the arc can usually
record the time if possible, with a “stand-by” warning when be resolved by noting the position of the vernier mark on each
the measurement is almost ready, and a “mark” at the side of the one that seems to be in coincidence.
moment a sight is made. If a flashlight is needed to see the Negative readings, such as a negative index correction,
comparing watch, the assistant should be careful not to are made in the same manner as positive readings; the
interfere with the navigator’s night vision. various figures are added algebraically. Thus, if the three
If an assistant is not available to time the observations, the parts of a micrometer drum reading are ( - )1°, 56' and 0.3',
observer holds the watch in the palm of his or her left hand, the total reading is ( - )1° + 56' + 0.3' = ( - )3.7'.
leaving his or her fingers free to manipulate the tangent screw of
the sextant. After making the observation, s/he notes the time as 1409. Developing Observational Skill
quickly as possible. The delay between completing the altitude
observation and noting the time should not be more than one or A well-constructed marine sextant is capable of
two seconds. measuring angles with an instrument error not exceeding 0.1'.
Lines of position from altitudes of this accuracy would not be
1408. Reading the Sextant in error by more than about 200 yards. However, there are
various sources of error, other than instrumental, in altitudes
Reading a micrometer drum sextant is done in three measured by sextant. One of the principal sources is the
steps. The degrees are read by noting the position of the ar- observer.
row on the index arm in relation to the arc. The minutes are The first fix a student celestial navigator plots is likely
read by noting the position of the zero on the vernier with to be disappointing. Most navigators require a great amount
relation to the graduations on the micrometer drum. The of practice to develop the skill necessary for consistently
fraction of a minute is read by noting which mark on the good observations. But practice alone is not sufficient.
vernier most nearly coincides with one of the graduations Good technique should be developed early and refined
 INSTRUMENTS FOR CELESTIAL NAVIGATION 263

Figure 1408a. Micrometer drum sextant set at 29° 42.5'.

Figure 1408b. Vernier sextant set at 76° 26' 00". Image courtesy of Omar F. Reis.

throughout the navigator’s career. Many good pointers can figure formed with the intersection of the plotted lines of
Many good pointers can be obtained from experienced position. Although a small area of intersection (or a “tight
navigators, but each student navigator must develop his or fix”) may be present, it may not necessarily be an accurate
her own technique because one method proves successful reflection of the ship’s position if individual observation
for one observer may not be helpful to another. Also, errors are allowed to be introduced. There are many errors,
experienced navigators have a natural tendency to judge the some of which are beyond the navigator’s control.
accuracy of their observations solely by the size of the Therefore, lines of position from celestial observations
264 INSTRUMENTS FOR CELESTIAL NAVIGATION

should be compared often with accurate position obtained it only by its frame or handle. Do not lift it by its arc or
by electronics or piloting. index bar.
Next to careless handling, moisture is the sextant’s
Common sources of error are:
greatest enemy. Wipe the mirrors and the arc after each use.
1. Time errors. If the mirrors get dirty, clean them with lens paper and a
2. Sextant adjustment. small amount of alcohol. Clean the arc with ammonia;
3. Improper rocking of the sextant. never use a polishing compound. When cleaning, do not
4. The height of eye input may be wrong. apply excessive pressure to any part of the instrument.
5. Index correction computation errors. Silica gel kept in the sextant case will help keep the
6. Subnormal refraction (dip) might be present. instrument free from moisture and preserve the mirrors.
7. Inaccurate judgment of tangency. Occasionally heat the silica gel to remove the absorbed
8. Using a false horizon. moisture.
9. Other computation errors. Rinse the sextant with fresh water if sea water gets on
Generally, it is possible to correct observation it. Wipe the sextant gently with a soft cotton cloth and dry
technique errors, but occasionally a personal error will the optics with lens paper.
persist. This error might vary as a function of the body Glass optics do not transmit all the light received
observed, degree of fatigue of the observer, and other because glass surfaces reflect a small portion of light
factors. For this reason, a personal error should be applied incident on their face. This loss of light reduces the
with caution. brightness of the object viewed. Viewing an object through
To obtain greater accuracy, take a number of closely- several glass optics affects the perceived brightness and
spaced observations. Plot the resulting altitudes versus time makes the image indistinct. The reflection also causes glare
and draw a curve through the points. Unless the body is near which obscures the object being viewed. To reduce this
the celestial meridian, this curve should be a straight line. effect to a minimum, the glass optics are treated with a thin,
Use this graph to determine the altitude of the body at any fragile, anti-reflection coating. Therefore, apply only light
time covered by the graph. It is best to use a point near the pressure when polishing the coated optics. Blow loose dust
middle of the line. Using a navigational calculator, off the lens before wiping them so grit does not scratch the
computer program, or app to reduce sights will yield greater lens.
accuracy because of the rounding errors inherent in the use Occasionally, oil and clean the tangent screw and the
of sight reduction tables, and because many more sights can teeth on the side of the limb. Use the oil provided with the
be reduced in a given time, thus averaging out errors. sextant or an all-purpose light machine oil. Occasionally set
A simpler method involves making observations at the index arm of an endless tangent screw at one extremity
equal intervals. This procedure is based upon the of the limb, oil it lightly, and then rotate the tangent screw
assumption that, unless the body is on the celestial over the length of the arc. This will clean the teeth and
meridian, the change in altitude should be equal for equal spread oil over them. When stowing a sextant for a long
intervals of time. Observations can be made at equal period, clean it thoroughly, polish and oil it, and protect its
intervals of altitude or time. If time intervals are constant, arc with a thin coat of petroleum jelly. If the mirrors need
the mid time and the average altitude are used as the re-silvering, take the sextant to an instrument shop.
observation. If altitude increments are constant, the average
time and mid altitude are used. 1411. Non Adjustable Sextant Errors
If only a small number of observations is available,
reduce and plot the resulting lines of position; then adjust The non-adjustable sextant errors are prismatic error,
them to a common time. The average position of the line graduation error, and centering error. The higher the quality
might be used, but it is generally better practice to use the of the instrument, the less these error will be.
middle line. Reject any observation considered unreliable Prismatic error occurs when the faces of the shade
when determining the average. glasses and mirrors are not parallel. Error due to lack of
parallelism in the shade glasses may be called shade error.
1410. Care of the Sextant The navigator can determine shade error in the shade
glasses near the index mirror by comparing an angle
A sextant is a rugged instrument. However, careless measured when a shade glass is in the line of sight with the
handling or neglect can cause it irreparable harm. If you same angle measured when the glass is not in the line of
drop it, take it to an instrument repair shop for testing and sight. In this manner, determine and record the error for
inspection. When not using the sextant, stow it in a sturdy each shade glass. Before using a combination of shade
and sufficiently padded case. Keep the sextant away from glasses, determine their combined error. If certain
excessive heat and dampness. Do not expose it to excessive observations require additional shading, use the colored
vibration. Do not leave it unattended when it is out of its telescope eyepiece cover. This does not introduce an error
case. Do not hold it by its limb, index arm, or telescope. Lift because direct and reflected rays are traveling together
 INSTRUMENTS FOR CELESTIAL NAVIGATION 265

when they reach the cover and are, therefore, affected 1412. Adjustable Sextant Error
equally by any lack of parallelism of its two sides.
Graduation errors occur in the arc, micrometer drum, The navigator should measure and remove the
and vernier of a sextant which is improperly cut or following adjustable sextant errors in the order listed:
incorrectly calibrated. Normally, the navigator cannot 1. Perpendicularity Error: Adjust first for perpen-
determine whether the arc of a sextant is improperly cut, but dicularity of the index mirror to the frame of the sextant. To
the principle of the vernier makes it possible to determine test for perpendicularity, place the index arm at about 35°
the existence of graduation errors in the micrometer drum on the arc and hold the sextant on its side with the index
or vernier. This is a useful guide in detecting a poorly made mirror up and toward the eye. Observe the direct and re-
flected views of the sextant arc, as illustrated in Figure
instrument. The first and last markings on any vernier
1412a. If the two views are not joined in a straight line, the
should align perfectly with one less graduation on the
index mirror is not perpendicular. If the reflected image is
adjacent micrometer drum. above the direct view, the mirror is inclined forward. If the
Centering error results if the index arm does not pivot reflected image is below the direct view, the mirror is in-
at the exact center of the arc’s curvature. Calculate clined backward. Make the adjustment using two screws
centering error by measuring known angles after removing behind the index mirror.
all adjustable errors. Use horizontal angles accurately
2. Side Error: An error resulting from the horizon glass
measured with a theodolite as references for this procedure. not being perpendicular to the frame is called side error. To test
Several readings by both theodolite and sextant should for side error, set the index arm at zero and direct the line of sight
minimize errors. If a theodolite is not available, use at a star. Then rotate the tangent screw back and forth so that the
calculated angles between the lines of sight to stars as the reflected image passes alternately above and below the direct
reference, comparing these calculated values with the view. If, in changing from one position to the other, the reflected
values determined by the sextant. To minimize refraction image passes directly over the unreflected image, no side error
errors, select stars at about the same altitude and avoid stars exists. If it passes to one side, side error exists. Figure 1412b il-
near the horizon. The same shade glasses, if any, used for lustrates observations without side error (left) and with side error
(right). Whether the sextant reads zero when the true and reflect-
determining index error should be used for measuring
ed images are in coincidence is immaterial for this test. An
centering error.
alternative method is to observe a vertical line, such as one edge
The manufacturer normally determines the magnitude of the mast of another vessel (or the sextant can be held on its
of all three non-adjustable errors and reports them to the side and the horizon used). If the direct and reflected portions do
user as instrument error. The navigator should apply the not form a continuous line, the horizon glass is not
correction for this error to each sextant reading. perpendicular to the frame of the sextant. A third method in-

Figure 1412a. Testing the perpendicularity of the index mirror. Here the mirror is not perpendicular.
266 INSTRUMENTS FOR CELESTIAL NAVIGATION

reading.

1413. Selecting a Sextant

Carefully match the selected sextant to its required uses.

For occasional small craft or student use, a plastic sextant may
be adequate. A plastic sextant may also be appropriate for an
emergency navigation kit. Accurate offshore navigation
requires a quality metal instrument. For ordinary use in
measuring altitudes of celestial bodies, an arc of 90° or slightly
more is sufficient. If back sights or determining horizontal
Figure 1412b. Testing the perpendicularity of the horizon angles are often required, purchase one with a longer arc. An
glass. On the left, side error does not exist. At the right, side experienced mariner or nautical instrument technician can
error does exist. provide valuable advice on the purchase of a sextant.

volves holding the sextant vertically, as in observing the altitude 1414. The Artificial Horizon
of a celestial body. Bring the reflected image of the horizon into
coincidence with the direct view until it appears as a continuous Measurement of altitude requires an exact horizontal
line across the horizon glass. Then tilt the sextant right or left. If reference, normally provided at sea by the visible horizon. If
the horizon still appears continuous, the horizon glass is perpen- the horizon is not clearly visible, however, a different
dicular to the frame, but if the reflected portion appears above or horizontal reference is required. Such a reference is commonly
below the part seen directly, the glass is not perpendicular. Make termed an artificial horizon. If it is attached to, or part of, the
the appropriate adjustment using two screws behind the horizon sextant, altitudes can be measured at sea, on land, or in the air,
glass. whenever celestial bodies are available for observations.
An external artificial horizon can be improvised by a
3. Collimation Error: If the line of sight through the
carefully leveled mirror or a pan of dark liquid. To use an
telescope is not parallel to the plane of the instrument, a col-
external artificial horizon, stand or sit so that the celestial body
limation error will result. Altitudes measured will be
is reflected in the mirror or liquid, and is also visible in direct
greater than their actual values. To check for parallelism of
view. With the sextant, bring the double-reflected image into
the telescope, insert it in its collar and observe two stars 90°
coincidence with the image appearing in the liquid. For a lower
or more apart. Bring the reflected image of one into coinci-
limb observation of the Sun or the Moon, bring the bottom of
dence with the direct view of the other near either the right
the double-reflected image into coincidence with the top of the
or left edge of the field of view (the upper or lower edge if
image in the liquid. For an upper-limb observation, bring the
the sextant is horizontal). Then tilt the sextant so that the
opposite sides into coincidence. If one image covers the other,
stars appear near the opposite edge. If they remain in coin-
the observation is of the center of the body.
cidence, the telescope is parallel to the frame; if they
After the observation, apply the index correction and any
separate, it is not. An alternative method involves placing
other instrumental correction. Then take half the remaining
the telescope in its collar and then laying the sextant on a
angle and apply all other corrections except dip (height of eye)
flat table. Sight along the frame of the sextant and have an
correction, since this is not applicable. If the center of the Sun
assistant place a mark on the opposite bulkhead, in line with
or Moon is observed, omit the correction for semidiameter.
the frame. Place another mark above the first, at a distance
equal to the distance from the center of the telescope to the
frame. This second line should be in the center of the field 1415. Artificial Horizon Sextants
of view of the telescope if the telescope is parallel to the
frame. Adjust the collar to correct for non-parallelism. Various types of artificial horizons have been used,
including a bubble, gyroscope, and pendulum. Of these, the
4. Index Error: Index error is the error remaining after bubble has been most widely used. This type of instrument is
the navigator has removed perpendicularity error, side error, fitted as a backup system to inertial and other positioning
and collimation error. The index mirror and horizon glass not systems in a few aircraft, fulfilling the requirement for a self-
being parallel when the index arm is set exactly at zero is the contained, non-emitting system. On land, a skilled observer
major cause of index error. To test for parallelism of the using a 2-minute averaging bubble or pendulum sextant can
mirrors, set the instrument at zero and direct the line of sight at measure altitudes to an accuracy of perhaps 2', (2 miles).
the horizon. Adjust the sextant reading as necessary to cause This, of course, refers to the accuracy of measurement only,
both images of the horizon to come into line. The sextant’s and does not include additional errors such as abnormal
reading when the horizon comes into line is the index error. If refraction, deflection of the vertical, computing and plotting
the index error is positive, subtract it from each sextant errors, etc. In steady flight through smooth air the error of a
reading. If the index error is negative, add it to each sextant 2-minute observation is increased to perhaps 5 to 10 miles.
 INSTRUMENTS FOR CELESTIAL NAVIGATION 267

At sea, with virtually no roll or pitch, results should observations with the natural horizon as a reference, but
approach those on land. However, even a gentle roll causes results are not generally as satisfactory as by marine sextant.
large errors. Under these conditions observational errors of Because of their more complicated optical systems, and the
10-16 miles are not unreasonable. With a moderate sea, need for providing a horizontal reference, artificial-horizon
errors of 30 miles or more are common. In a heavy sea, any sextants are generally much more costly to manufacture than
useful observations are virtually impossible to obtain.
marine sextants.
Single altitude observations in a moderate sea can be in
error by a matter of degrees. Altitudes observed by artificial-horizon sextants are
When the horizon is obscured by ice or haze, polar subject to the same errors as those observed by marine
navigators can sometimes obtain better results with an sextant, except that the dip (height of eye) correction does
artificial-horizon sextant than with a marine sextant. Some not apply. Also, when the center of the Sun or Moon is
artificial-horizon sextants have provision for making observed, no correction for semidiameter is required.

CHRONOMETERS

1416. The Marine Chronometer (CE) and watch error (WE) corrections. Should the second
hand be in error by a readable amount, it can be reset
Historically, the spring-driven marine chronometer electrically.
was a precision timepiece used aboard ship to provide The basic element for time generation is a quartz
accurate time for celestial observations. A chronometer crystal oscillator. The quartz crystal is temperature
differs from a spring-driven watch principally in that it compensated and is hermetically sealed in an evacuated
contains a variable lever device to maintain even pressure envelope. A calibrated adjustment capability is provided to
on the mainspring, and a special balance designed to adjust for the aging of the crystal.
compensate for temperature variations. Today, many The chronometer is designed to operate for a minimum
seagoing ships no longer have chronometers on board due of 1 year on a single set of batteries. A good marine
to highly accurate time signals provided by GPS. chronometer has a built-in push button battery test meter.
A spring-driven chronometer is set approximately to The meter face is marked to indicate when the battery
Coordinated Universal Time (UTC), also referred to as should be replaced. The chronometer continues to operate
Greenwich Mean Time (GMT), or Universal Time (UT), and keep the correct time for at least 5 minutes while the
which is the international time standard used in batteries are changed. The chronometer is designed to
astronomical and aviation publications, weather products, accommodate the gradual voltage drop during the life of the
navigation, and other applications. UTC is expressed in 24- batteries while maintaining accuracy requirements.
hour (military) time notation, and as with GMT it is based
on the local standard time of the 0° longitude meridian 1418. Watches
which runs through Greenwich, England. A spring-driven
chronometer, once set, is not reset until the instrument is A chronometer should not be removed from its case to
overhauled and cleaned, usually at three year intervals. time sights. Observations may be timed and ship’s clocks
The difference between UTC and chronometer time set with a comparing watch, which is set to chronometer
(C) is carefully determined and applied as a correction to all time (UTC, GMT, also known as UT) and taken to the
chronometer readings. This difference, called chronometer bridge wing for recording sight times. In practice, a wrist
error (CE), is fast (F) if chronometer time is later than UTC, watch coordinated to the nearest second with the
and slow (S) if earlier. The amount by which chronometer chronometer will be adequate.
error changes in 1 day is called chronometer rate. An er- A stop watch, either spring wound or digital, may also
ratic rate indicates a defective instrument requiring repair. be used for celestial observations. In this case, the watch is
The principal maintenance requirement is regular started at a known UTC by chronometer, and the elapsed
winding at about the same time each day. At maximum time of each sight added to this to obtain UT of the sight.
intervals of about three years, a spring-driven chronometer All chronometers and watches should be checked
should be sent to a chronometer repair shop for cleaning regularly with a radio time signal. Times and frequencies of
and overhaul. radio time signals are listed in NGA Pub. 117, Radio
Navigational Aids.
1417. Quartz Crystal Marine Chronometers
1419. Navigational Calculators
Quartz crystal marine chronometers have replaced
spring-driven chronometers aboard many ships because of While not considered “instruments” in the strict sense
their greater accuracy. They are maintained on UTC directly of the word, certainly one of the professional navigator’s
from radio time signals. This eliminates chronometer error most useful tools is the navigational calculator or computer
268 INSTRUMENTS FOR CELESTIAL NAVIGATION

program. Calculators eliminate several potential sources of and Longitude Astronomically; do not confuse with a sim-
error in celestial navigation, and permit the solution of ilarly named commercial astronomy program). The
many more sights in much less time, making it possible to Astronomical Applications Department of the U.S. Naval
refine a celestial position much more accurately than is Observatory developed STELLA in response to a Navy re-
practical using mathematical or tabular methods. quirement. STELLA can perform almanac functions,
Calculators also save space and weight, a valuable con- position updating/DR estimations, celestial body
sideration on many craft. One small calculator can replace rise/set/transit calculations, compass error calculations, sight
several heavy and expensive volumes of tables, and is inex- planning, and sight reduction; on-line help and a user's guide
pensive enough that there is little reason not to carry a spare are included. STELLA is now automatically distributed to
for backup use should the primary one fail. The pre-pro- each Naval ship; other Navy users may obtain a copy by
grammed calculators are at least as robust in construction, contacting:
probably more so, than the sextant itself, and when properly
Superintendent
cared for will last a lifetime with no maintenance except, to
U.S. Naval Observatory
change batteries from time to time.
Code: AA/STELLA
If the vessel carries a computer for other ship’s chores
3450 Massachusetts Ave. NW
such as inventory control or personnel administration, there
Washington, DC, 20392-5420
is little reason not to use it for celestial navigation. Free-
ware or inexpensive programs are available which take up By using a calculator or sight reduction program, it is
little hard disk space and allow rapid solution of all types of possible to take and solve half a dozen or more sights in a
celestial navigation problems. Typically they will also take fraction of the time it would normally take to shoot two or
care of route planning, sailings, tides, weather routing, elec- three and solve them by hand. This will increase the accuracy
tronic charts, and numerous other tasks. of the fix by averaging out errors in taking the sights. The
U.S. Navy and Coast Guard navigators have access to a computerized solution is always more accurate than tabular
program called STELLA (System To Estimate Latitude methods because it is free of rounding and arithmetic errors.