Q.1.

You are appointed as an executive of International patient

department handling Medical tourists, What all are the challenges
you are facing and what are the limitation of this field in India.
Explain [10 marks]

ANS: Medical Tourism

Medical tourism is the practice of travelling to other countries to receive medical

services, which are sometimes packaged with travel and sightseeing.

Challenges and limitations

Several issues pose challenge to the growth of medical tourism and which need
to be addressed. Currently India faces strong competition from countries such as
Thailand, Singapore and Malaysia.

Cultural and language barriers

Language and cultural barriers can make communication with doctors and other
people very frustrating for a person from another country. India has a large number of
languages and a high diversity in beliefs, value and culture. The comfort of having a
major surgery near home with the family at the bedside is a far cry from the experience
in the developing world, where the cultural shock alone can be stressful. Generally there
is a fearful state of mind about travelling so far away from home to an unknown place.
Communicating with the patients and their families and establishing effective customer
relationship is a key challenge.

Issues of International Accreditation

International accreditation would be an important step in making the hospitals

eligible for the coverage with foreign insurers. For example, the JCI seal would enable
Indian hospitals to be accredited with US insurers. This in turn would attract customers
from other parts of the world. JCI is the international arm of the Joint Commission
Accreditation for Hospital Organizations. Similarly UK has its own system of
accreditation, the Health Quality Service.

Concerns regarding the Quality of Service and Competency of Service Deliverers

Medical tourists are anxious and concerned about the about quality of health
care services and the qualification and ability of the health care providers. And even the
main problem is the huge scarcity of well-trained professional “Care Providers”. This
issue is further aggravated by the fact that most patients and their families are not
qualified to judge technical quality and complexity of the variables involved. Hospitals
need to focus on indicators to communicate aspects of treatment and care. Negative
perceptions related to hygiene/sanitation, pollution and bureaucracy need to be
addressed.

Growing Customer Expectations

Patient expectations are growing as he or she has more options for high quality
criteria. There is growing pressure for more personalised services. There is a demand
for high responsiveness. It is the business of managing the total customer experience-
an experience where price is transparent but value is opaque.

Ensuring High Quality Treatment

It must be ensured that the basic product that is the quality of treatment of an
ailment or injury is of high quality. The technical outcome of the service should be
excellent. For this it is necessary to have the facilities, equipment and trained and
competent staff. Similarly in the case of preventive healthcare, suitable programmes
should be developed which are based on the study of physiological condition, lifestyle,
work pressures and related environment.

Focusing on the Functional Outcome;-

The functional outcome of the service experience needs to be given equal

attention. This may begin with something like “door-to-door travel” and “stay
arrangement” so that patients can arrange travel documents. Putting the patient in
touch with doctor before travelling would also help to alleviate some of the anxiety
related to medical treatment. A clean and pleasant servicescape, minimum waiting time
or delays for tests and treatment, appropriate food and other services would all
contribute to the service experience for the patient and his/her attendants.

Genuine Patient Centric Approach

It is necessary to develop a service-oriented team. Personal caring and warmth

is an important factor in enhancing the service experience. Going to the extent of caring
for attendant is a must for reassurance. This would require a careful selection
procedure- one which ensures hiring people not only with the right skills and
qualifications but also with the right service attitude and then training them suitably.
Doctors and the patients should not be viewed in superior-subordinate roles. There
needs to be positive, customer –focused attitude in the hospitals as this is what is going
to help to deliver service quality.

Focus on Two-Way Communication

At the very least, it is necessary to have interpreters and some multi-lingual staff.
The service employees must be sensitized to the culture and practices of the patients-
at least to some extent. Doctor should explain the treatment protocols to patients and
relatives. Comprehensive patient feedback system to guide patients for after care &
solve problems, if any, should be set up. A dedicated international patients’ service desk
would also help. A comprehensive patient feedback system to guide patients for after
care & solve problems, if any, should be instituted.

Transparency can be built by direct contact between hospital/doctors and

patients. Eliminating middlemen/travel agents can be an effective strategy for reducing
miscommunication. Proactive follow up after discharge even when the patient forgets
must be implemented. It is also necessary to have effective complaint or grievance
handling system so that negative feedback can be used to improve the service and
thereby convert a weakness in to strength.

Promoting the Service

The customer needs to be educated about the value of the offerings in a credible
manner.
Reference of service experience from previous patients is a major factor in building
trust. It is the satisfied customer who will spread a positive message about India
healthcare. Conducting workshops in target countries, tie-ups with health services in
other countries, having a presence on the web could all be used to promote awareness
about India’s strength in medical treatment and preventive healthcare.
Information could be made available at Indian Embassies abroad. Locating early
adopters, opinion leaders and promoting the services with them would help to achieve
faster growth. The industry body Confederation of Indian Industries is already working in
partnership with 29 Hospitals with national accreditation across 16 states to work out
price band for speciality services.
Also, various sectors of the health care industry are working closely the with
tourism ministry to incorporate health care packages under the ‘Incredible India’
campaign. Tie up of with hotels, travel agencies, and other related institutions would
lead to a better integration of services. The international conferences-business channel
route can also be used to promote health care services. Employer-sponsored
programmes for medical care with organizations abroad can be implemented to
promote the services.

Development of Alternative Therapies

 The Indian medical tourism and healthcare industry can develop a significant
competitive advantage through promotion and packaging alternate therapies such as
ayurveda, naturopathy, homeopathy and yoga. For example Kerala has actively
implemented initiatives which promote its ancient indigenous therapies on Ayurveda.

India in Medical Tourism – SWOT Analysis

Given below is a SWOT Analysis of the Indian Medical Tourism Industry in its present
state:

STRENGTHS WEAKNESS

_ Quality Service at Affordable Cost _ No strong government support

_ Vast supply of qualified doctors /initiative to promote medical tourism
_ Strong presence in advanced _ Low Coordination between the
healthcare e.g. cardiovascular, organ various players in the industry–
transplants – high success rate in airline operators, hotels and hospitals
operations _ Customer Perception as an
_ International Reputation of hospitals unhygienic country
and Doctors _ No proper accreditation and
_ High confidence level in Indian regulation system for hospitals
doctors _ Lack of uniform pricing policies
_ Diversity of tourism destinations and across hospitals
experiences

OPPORTUNITY THREATS

_ Increased demand for healthcare _ Strong competition from countries

services from countries with aging like Thailand, Malaysia, Singapore
population (U.S, U.K) _ Lack of international accreditation – a
_ Fast-paced lifestyle increases major inhibitor
demand for wellness tourism and _ Under-investment in health
alternative cures infrastructure
_ Shortage of supply in National Health _ Lack of proper insurance policies for
_ Systems in countries like U.K, this sector
Canada
_ Reduced/competitive cost of
international travel
_ Demand from countries with
underdeveloped healthcare facilities
_ Demand for retirement homes for
elderly people especially Japanese
[Link] the methods of promoting good public relations [10
Marks]

ANS: PUBLIC RELATIONS

The methods and activities employed to establish and promote a favorable

relationship with the public.

Public relations describes the various methods a company uses to disseminate

messages about its products, services, or overall image to its customers, employees,
stockholders, suppliers, or other interested members of the community. The point of
public relations is to make the public think favorably about the company and its
offerings. Commonly used tools of public relations include news releases, press
conferences, speaking engagements, and community service programs.
Although advertising is closely related to public relations—as it too is concerned
with promoting and gaining public acceptance for the company's products—the goal of
advertising is generating sales, while the goal of public relations is generating good will.
The effect of good public relations is to lessen the gap between how an organization
sees itself and how others outside the organization perceive it.
Public relations involves two-way communication between an organization and
its public. It requires listening to the constituencies on which an organization depends
as well as analyzing and understanding the attitudes and behaviors of those audiences.
Only then can an organization undertake an effective public relations campaign.
Methods, tools and tactics
Public relations and publicity are not synonymous, but many public relations campaigns
include provisions for publicity. Publicity is the spreading of information to gain public
awareness for a product, person, service, cause or organization, and can be seen as a
result of effective public relations planning. More recently in public relations,
professionals are using technology as their main tool to get their messages to target
audiences. With the creation of social networks, blogs, and even Internet radio public
relations professionals are able to send direct messages through these mediums that
attract the target audiences. Methods used to find out what is appealing to target
audiences include the use of surveys, conducting research or even focus groups.
Tactics are the ways to attract target audiences by using the information gathered about
that audience and directing a message to them using tools such as social mediums or
other technology. Another emerging theme is the application of psychological theories
of impression management.[10]
Tools

There are various tools that can be used in the practice of public relations. Traditional
tools include press releases and media kits which are sent out to generate positive
press on behalf of the organization. Other widely used tools include brochures,
newsletters and annual reports. Increasingly, companies are utilizing interactive social
media outlets, such as

 Blogs
 Social media (Twitter, Facebook, LinkedIn, foursquare (social network), etc.)

as tools in their public relations campaigns. Unlike the traditional tools which allowed for
only one-way communication, social media outlets allow the organization to engage in
two-way communication, and receive immediate feedback from their various
stakeholders and public. Furthermore companies can join discussions with multiple user
identities to create a positive image of the company (e.g. quantity of positive statements
from different users). PR tools have changed so much that some are even suggesting
the traditional press release may be dead.[11] The company PR tools have to operate in
networks, where their clients are.
One of the most popular and traditional tools used by public relations professionals is a
press kit, also known as a media kit. A press kit is usually a folder that consists of
promotional materials that give information about an event, organization, business, or
even a person. What are included would be backgrounders or biographies, fact sheets,
press releases (or media releases), media alerts, brochures, newsletters, photographs
with captions, copies of any media clips, and social mediums. With the way that the
industry has changed, many organizations may have a website with a link, "Press
Room" which would have online versions of these documents.
The art of public relations is more than press kits and social media. Split across three
primary channels: traditional, digital and social media platforms; public relations is, in its
purest sense the art of communicating in ways more than just media relations.
Previously, 'PR' often was synonymous in many people's minds for "press release."
Today, tools contained within the 'PR' tool box include media relations, crisis and
issues, brand architecture, audience engagement and buzz generation; using all forms
of communication techniques in a creative way that delivers practical results.
Targeting public

A fundamental technique used in public relations is to identify the target audience, and
to tailor every message to appeal to that audience. It can be a general, nationwide or
worldwide audience, but it is more often a segment of a population. A good elevator
pitch can help tailor messaging to each target audience. Marketers often refer to socio-
economically driven "demographics", such as "black males 18-49". However, in public
relations an audience is more fluid, being whoever someone wants to reach. Or, in the
new paradigm of value based networked social groups, the values based social
segment could be a trending audience. For example, recent political audiences seduce
such buzzword monikers as "soccer moms" and "NASCAR dads."
An alternative and less flexible, more simplistic, approach uses stakeholders theory to
identify people who have a stake in a given institution or issue. All audiences are
stakeholders (or presumptive stakeholders), but not all stakeholders are audiences. For
example, if a charity commissions a public relations agency to create an advertising
campaign to raise money to find a cure for a disease, the charity and the people with
the disease are stakeholders, but the audience is anyone who is likely to donate money.
Sometimes the interests of differing audiences and stakeholders common to a public
relations effort necessitate the creation of several distinct but complementary
messages. This is not always easy to do, and sometimes, especially in politics, a
spokesperson or client says something to one audience that creates dissonance with
another audience or group of stakeholders.
Lobby groups

Lobby groups are established to influence government policy, corporate policy, or public
opinion. An example of this is the American Israel Public Affairs Committee (AIPAC),
which influences American foreign policy. Such groups claim to represent a particular
interest and in fact are dedicated to doing so. When a lobby group hides its true
purpose and support base, it is known as a front group. Moreover, governments may
also lobby public relations firms in order to sway public opinion

Seminars

Creating an informative seminar and inviting your target audience is an excellent way to
educate the market and promote your company and proposition. This method works
especially well in the business-to-business market, and where educating customers is
appropriate, for instance if marketing a new technology or service to architects and
specifiers. It is possible to have certain types of seminars accredited for CPD
(Continuous Professional Development) by professional institutes, which provides an
extra incentive for prospective customers to attend.
Telemarketing

Using telemarketing staff or a telemarketing agency is a proven method of marketing. If

well-managed, telemarketing can be an extremely good and cost-effective method for
generating sales enquiries, selling products and services and making appointments for
sales staff. It is important to identify a good telemarketing agency, and to that ensure
your aims, outline script, and communications process for enquiry generation follow-up,
are all clearly established and understood, by the agency and your own staff. A good
CRM computer system to manage lists, data, follow-up and outcomes, is normally
essential for telemarketing is to be successful on any reasonable scale, and good
telemarketing agencies will already be using such systems which hopefully will interface
with your own systems.
Considerable care needs to be taken when defining and agreeing the telemarketing
'brief' with the telemarketing staff, department or agency. Good experienced
telemarketing staff and managers understand what works and what doesn't for given
markets, types of propositions and products and services. Listen to their advice.
Generally telemarketing 'scripts' are not a good idea for high quality propositions, nor for
professional business-to-business campaigns. A good telemarketing agency will work
best by developing their own approach to meet the broad requirements of a project
'brief' and an outline of what you want to achieve, and how you want to achieve it.
Rigid scripts have the effect of limiting the natural style and capabilities of telemarketing
staff, moreover customers generally find scripts, which quickly become robotic and
characterless, very impersonal and insulting.
Refer to the legal implications (Data Protection Act and Preference Services) in the
direct mail section.
Consumers and businesses are protected by certain rights relating to direct marketing
techniques such as telemarketing, and you must ensure that your activities adhere to
these rules.
Direct Mail

Some of the principles and rules referenced here also apply to other types of direct
marketing, including 'door-to-door' distribution and telemarketing methods.
Direct mail is the process of sending your material (by itself or in a shared mailing with
other items) direct to the address of the potential customer by post. The elements which
make up the direct mail process are basically:

1. a mailing list of names and addresses (from your own data-base or names
sourced elsewhere)
2. the item(s) to be mailed, and envelopes or packaging, if applicable
 3. resource or facility to 'stuff' and address or label the envelopes/packaging
(assuming you are putting the item in an envelope or packaging, which of course
is not always the case)
4. and postal charges, which depend (in the UK) now on the size and shape as well
as the weight of the item being mailed.

The last two stages are often called 'fulfilment'.

Direct Mail is generally used to generate a direct response from the recipient and will
commonly incorporate a reply or response section within the mailed item.
Aside from the strength of your proposition, response rates vary according primarily to
the quality of the list, notably:

 the reliability of the list data (new clean lists obviously perform better than old
out-of-date lists)
 and how well 'targeted' the list is in terms of your offer (how relevant it is to the
recipient).

Direct mail is not a precise science. See the direct mail story for example. There are
many things that can go wrong, and even more things that are unknown and
unimagined by the campaign manager. Like the rest of advertising, whether a direct
mail campaign works well or poorly it's often very difficult to discover what elements
need to be changed and how: the proposition, the mailing list, the reliability of the
fulfilment, the day and time of delivery, the response mechanism, something else? For
large ongoing campaigns it is appropriate and cost-effective to conduct follow-up
surveys of respondents and non-responders, but for smaller initiatives it's rarely cost-
effective to attempt detailed analysis other than to look for obvious indications of
success or failure.
A direct mail campaign which produces more than a 2% response is normally
considered very successful. Lower than 1% response is more usual. You then need to
take into account the conversion rate (the conversion of responses into sales),
assuming the campaign is designed to produce responses or enquiries and not sales
directly. Aside from the quality of the responses, which is determined by the campaign,
conversion rates also vary according to factors outside of and after the direct mail
activities themselves, such as response handling, IT systems, sales follow-up, etc. It is
therefore important to judge a direct mail campaign first on percentage and quality of
response, and then separately to assess the overall results of the campaign including
conversion statistics and sales values.
Inexperienced marketeers (and many experienced ones too) tend to over-estimate
forecasted response rates for direct mail, so a planning tip is to be pessimistic (prudent,
as accountants say), especially when calculating advertising viability and return on
investment. When you first state your estimated response rate as part of the financial
justification for the direct mail campaign, next reduce it by a factor of 10 (i.e., re-assess
the campaign viability using on one-tenth of your initial response forecast). If the figures
still show a positive return on investment then your campaign might well be successful.
If not, then it's sensible to re-think the whole thing.
Your own database of existing and past customers will typically produce a significantly
higher response than that of a list sourced elsewhere. List prices vary enormously, from
a few pounds up to several hundreds of pounds per 1,000 names and addresses,
depending on volume, how specific the list is, and how selective your profiling criteria
are. You can also choose whether to have the list on labels, or on a disk in a common
spreadsheet or database format, the latter being most common now, and easy to
import, if appropriate, into a CRM (customer relationship management) system.
Mailing list prices also vary according to the terms of use, notably the number of times
the list can be used (list rental), or whether unlimited use is permitted, or whether the list
is being actually bought outright.
These days for small businesses it's very easy and cost-effective to do your own or
outsource a mailmerge direct mail, campaign, using a word-processing program in
conjunction with the list of names and addresses on a spreadsheet program. Large
scale direct mail campaigns are normally best managed via a CRM (customer
relationship management) system. Contact the Direct Marketing Association or country
equivalent for more information about providers of lists and mailing services, etc.
display advertising
The taking of advertising space in the editorial sections of magazines or newspapers, as
opposed to the classified sections, which are a less expensive, and generally lower
performing method. All significant publications will be pleased to provide you with their
'Media Pack', which gives full details of all the types of display advertising available, for
how much, together with lots of information about their readership profile and
circulation. If you are trying to generate a direct response from display advertising you
may need to feature a coupon of some kind. Otherwise display advertising is concerned
with image-building and creating awareness. As with other advertising methods, the use
of Free-phone telephone numbers and Free-post addresses all increase response
rates.
directories - local directories, Yellow Pages, Thomsons, etc

These sorts of directories remain very useful for local domestic, consumer and
household products and services suppliers. A business telephone line normally gives
free Yellow Pages and Thomson's entries under a single classification in your local
books
Brochures, Leaflets And Printed Material

Brochures and leaflets can be used for a variety of purposes, and can be distributed in
different ways. A good printer can provide examples and costings, and the easiest way
to learn what works and what doesn't is to look at other people's material. The aim of a
brochure is foremost to generate new business through providing information in a way
that appeals to the reader. The acronym AIDA (attention interest desire action) should
be the basis of its design. Some brochures and leaflets are pleasing pieces of art, but
they don't achieve anything for the business, so avoid falling into this trap. If you work
with a designer be sure to control any fanciful tendencies and keep the message and
style to the point. Too much spent on a brochure can give the impression that your
business is extravagant.
Guide Books, Hand-Books And Newsletters

Publishing your own information material is potentially very effective, and costs can be
reduced by incorporating relevant supporting advertising from other organisations
wishing to be associated with your services and to target your audience. Guidelines for
Newsletters follow later. (Remember now that electronic media is able to extend the use
and potential of newsletters far beyond traditional printed media.)
Alternatively you can advertise in a relevant guide book produced by another
organisation. However, be careful to ascertain accurate details of circulation and profile
if considering small or unproven publications.
Open Days And Exhibitions

The advantage of personal contact is that you actually get to talk to your potential
customers, which dramatically increases the chances of getting your message across.
But there is a limit to how many people you can target and access using these methods.
Costs of preparation and organisation can be big, and are rarely transparent at the
outset so beware.
Events of this nature do nevertheless offer good possibilities for follow-up PR activity,
which can contribute greatly to building a customer-friendly image.
Word Of Mouth

Personal referral is unsurpassed as an advertising tool. It costs nothing and is the most
believable type of 'advertising of them all. Encouraging word of mouth referral is
therefore a good reason for sustaining excellent customer service and relations. If your
customers are thrilled by the service you give they'll tell their friends.
You can encourage word of mouth referrals through the use of discount vouchers and
coupons, loyalty and 'friends and family' schemes, introduce a friend incentives, and
any other mechanism that encourages people to spread the word on your behalf.
Networking And Clubs

Using business networking methods to develop contacts and introductions is an

especially cost-effective marketing method for consumer services and products, and
more particularly for business-to-business services. A variety of networking
opportunities exist in all sectors and regions, including trades associations, chambers of
commerce and trade, networking websites, societies, clubs, breakfasts, lunches,
events, and anywhere that potential customers and influencers gather, and the systems
within which they communicate and socialise. Use your imagination. Always be
prepared to speak to others enthusiastically about your business - the world is full of
potential customers.
An increasing number of networking communities and services are now to be found on
the internet too. Explore these opportunities, keeping in mind the particular target
audiences most relevant to your aims.

Q.3. Explain different types of Public relations research [10 Marks]

ANS: Types of Public Relations Research

There are two types of public relations research: qualitative research and
quantitative research. The purpose of qualitative research is to provide a rich, in-depth
understanding of how certain people think or feel about a subject. However, the results
cannot be generalized to larger populations. Qualitative research allows public relations
practitioners to “discover rather than test” ideas. Quantitative research “is the controlled,
objective, and systematic gathering of data”, which can be generalized to larger
populations.
Both types of research are valuable, and can provide critical public relations insights,
especially when used together. For example, a public relations practitioner might
conduct a series of focus group interviews (qualitative research) to identify possible
issues that concern employees. The practitioner could use information from the focus
groups to develop questions for an employee survey (quantitative research).
Factors that determine which research methods to use include the nature of the
research problem, budget, timing, the degree of accuracy required, and the importance
of the findings to the success of the organization. All research requires making tradeoffs
among rigor, cost, and timing. Some issues may not warrant extensive research
because they will create little impact on the organization. Other issues may be expected
to create a tremendous impact, but tight deadlines do not allow for designing and
implementing an extensive research program. The reality is that public relations
practitioners must gather the best information possible to make the best decisions
possible within the constraints of the situation.
Qualitative Research Methods
Qualitative research involves only a few cases, but they are examined in great
detail. Some qualitative research techniques frequently used in public relations include
nominal group technique, in-depth interviews, focus groups, and field observations.
Nominal Group Technique: This research technique has been used for organizational
decision-making, problem-solving, and idea-generating purposes for market research
(de Ruyter, 1996). The researcher assembles a purposive sample of 10 to 12 people. A
purposive sample is a “nonprobability sample in which the researcher selects
respondents according to his or her judgment as to their perceived representativeness
or usefulness to the research process”. Group members typically are somewhat
knowledgeable about the topic. A nominal group technique (NGT) method usually
consists of five stages. First, a moderator presents the topic and makes sure
participants understand the issue. In stage two, each participant works individually to
generate ideas. In stage three, a facilitator records everyone’s ideas in a round-robin
fashion. Stage four consists of a group discussion of ideas. Similar ideas may be
combined into a single category, but only if the entire group agrees to combine traits. In
the fifth stage, participants vote for the ideas of greatest. In some cases, NGT voting
includes ranking, where participants give their first choice five points, second choice
three points and third choice one point. NGT lacks precision, but is an effective
brainstorming technique and often the first step to additional research.
In-depth Interviews: In-depth interviews are open-ended interviews, often conducted in
person. Although the researcher may have a line of questioning, the researcher may
move beyond it to probe deeper into the subject’s comments. In-depth interviews last
from 45 minutes to several hours. They are useful at the formative stages of research .
Two types of in-depth interviews are the structured and unstructured interviews. In the
structured interview, the researcher uses a detailed interview schedule with open and
closed questions, and knows in advance what questions to cover. The unstructured
interview is more informal, where the respondent is encouraged to talk freely; the
respondent rather than the interviewer guides the course of the interview. Face-to-face
in-depth interviews yield a high percentage of returns, but are expensive to administer.
Also, lower response rates are being reported in high-crime areas, which may bias the
findings. In-depth interviews also enable interviewers to clarify questions if necessary
and present visual materials.
Focus Groups : Focus groups are moderated group discussions involving six to 12
participants. The late Republican political consultant Lee Atwater said that focus groups
“give you a sense of what makes people tick and a sense of what’s going on with
people’s minds and lives that you simply can’t get with survey data”. They reveal the
range of opinion that exists surrounding a particular subject. The public relations
practitioner might use focus groups when looking: for a range of ideas and feelings; to
understand differences and perspectives; to uncover factors that influence opinions,
behaviors or motivations; for ideas to emerge from the group; or to pilot test ideas,
materials, plans or policies. Focus groups can also be used to develop questions for
surveys and other quantitative research, and to shed light on quantitative research data
already collected.
Field Observations: Field observations are defined as “a qualitative observation
technique that puts you among the public you are studying in a naturalistic setting”.
Public relations practitioners conduct field research whenever they observe or
participate in a social behavior and try to understand it. Field observations are used as a
data collection activity and theory generating activity. They offer the advantage of
probing social life in its natural habitat. There are several types of field observations,
ranging from complete participant (where the researcher’s true identity and purpose are
not known) to complete observer (where the researcher observes social processes
without becoming part of it). One public relations use of field research is observing
patterns to see how people work their way through trade shows.
Q Methodology: Between Qualitative and Quantitative
Q methodology is the scientific study of subjectivity. Subjectivity is “a person’s
communication of his or her point of view” . Q methodology provides a quantitative
means to study a participant’s point of view or beliefs. Q-study research usually involves
a small number of participants. Some Q studies are developed around a single
participant.
In a Q study, each respondent sorts a number of statements about a subject (the Q-
sample) along a continuum, according to a condition of instruction. The respondent may
be asked to sort the Q-sample from “most unlike me” (-5) to “most like me” (+5). In
some cases, the condition of instruction may be to sort the Q-sample according to how
they think someone else might sort it, or how it would be sorted in an “ideal” world.
Q-sample statements may be culled from media reports, interviews, talk shows, letters
to the editor, previous research, and a variety other sources. A researcher conducting a
Q study on people’s attitudes toward the First Amendment might include such
statements in the Q-sample as:

• The media should have the right to say and print whatever it wants, regardless of
truth.

• The media have the responsibility of verifying the truth of all information before
broadcasting or publishing.

• An unrestricted media is the hallmark of a free society.

• Pornography should be outlawed.

And so on. The average Q-sample has 40 items. Each participant’s Q-sort is factor
analyzed by computer with the other participants’ Q-sorts. The computer groups people
with similar sortings under a common factor. Each factor represents a particular point of
view. How strongly each individual “fits” a particular factor is indicated by how he or she
loads on the factor.
Quantitative Research Methods
Quantitative research methods allow researchers to draw statistical inferences about a
population. Researchers may conclude, within a certain confidence level (how certain
they are that the results are correct), that the findings hold true not only for those
surveyed, but also for the entire population within that sample frame.
Content analysis provides a means to measure qualitative data quantitatively. It
systematically analyzes the content of communication to determine whether key
messages are being communicated to key audiences. It can be used to analyze
documents, news articles and television pieces, speeches, interviews, and focus group
results. Possible measurements for content analysis include number of clips, total
circulation of the publications, number of inches or minutes, positive versus negative
stories, audience type (key audience or general audience), product mentions, whether
key messages appear, key media or general media, quality of the publication or
program, and prominence of the company in the story.
Public relations practitioners may be tempted to put a dollar value to media coverage
using “advertising value equivalency.” This is a crude calculation in which the
practitioner measures coverage by column inches in a publication or seconds on the air,
and multiplies that by the media’s advertising rates. Most public relations researchers
do not advocate this method of content analysis for several reasons. No research exists
to suggest that news stories have an impact equal to advertising; there is no known
relationship between the two. Some practitioners claim that a story from an unbiased
journalist is more credible than a paid advertisement. However, the credibility of news
media stories varies depending on the subject. Additionally, there is no advertising
equivalent for a negative or neutral story. The Institute for Public Relations recommends
that public relations practitioners avoid trying to measure what their efforts would equate
to in advertising dollars, and instead focus on how coverage helps achieve the
organization’s goals.
Software such as [Link] can help practitioners develop detailed analyses of
qualitative data, such as for content analysis. Also, many public relations research firms
offer content analysis services. For quantitative data analysis, SPSS (Statistical
Package for the Social Sciences) is frequently used in public relations research.

Surveys: One common quantitative public relations research method is the survey or
questionnaire. The survey sample frame defines the particular population under study
(for example, all non-management employees at XYZ Company who have worked there
for less than five years). In order for a survey to have external validity (defined by
Broom & Dozier, 1990, as “the degree to which a measure is valid for other settings and
populations,”), researchers must draw a probability sample. Probability samples are
drawn in such a way that the researcher knows the probability of selecting any particular
sampling element. In random sampling, this means that every person who falls within
the population defined by the sample frame has an equal possibility of being surveyed.
The size of the sample depends on budget, and the margin of error and degree of
uncertainty with which the researcher can tolerate. A larger sample increases both
accuracy and costs. There are several free online sites to help calculate sample size
based on desired confidence level and confidence interval (margin of error), including
Survey Research System’s Sample Calculator at Survey questions must be carefully
constructed. Unlike qualitative studies, quantitative research puts limits on respondents’
choices. In a qualitative study, a researcher might ask a broad questions.