14 Solutions

2
Chapter Goals
The Dissolution Process
1. Spontaneity of the Dissolution Process
2. Dissolution of Solids in Liquids
3. Dissolution of Liquids in Liquids
(Miscibility)
4. Dissolution of Gases in Liquids
5. Rates of Dissolution and Saturation
6. Effect of Temperature on Solubility
7. Effect of Pressure on Solubility
3
8. Molality and Mole Fraction
Chapter Goals
Colligative Properties of Solutions
9. Lowering of Vapor Pressure and Raoult’s Law
[Link] Distillation
[Link] Point Elevation
[Link] Point Depression
[Link] of Molecular Weight by Freezing
Point Depression or Boiling Point Elevation
[Link] Properties and Dissociation of
Electrolytes
[Link] Pressure 4
Chapter Goals
Colloids
[Link] Tyndall Effect
[Link] Adsorption Phenomena
[Link] and Hydrophobic Colloids

5
The Dissolution Process
• Solutions are homogeneous mixtures of
two or more substances.
– Dissolving medium is called the solvent.
– Dissolved species are called the solute.
• There are three states of matter (solid,
liquid, and gas) which when mixed two at
a time gives nine different kinds of
mixtures.
– Seven of the possibilities can be homogeneous.
– Two of the possibilities must be heterogeneous. 6
The Dissolution Process
Seven Homogeneous Possibilities
Solute Solvent Example
• Solid Liquid salt water
• Liquid Liquid mixed drinks
• Gas Liquid carbonated beverages
• Liquid Solid dental amalgams
• Solid Solid alloys
• Gas Solid metal pipes
• Gas Gas air

Two Heterogeneous Possibilities

• Solid Gas dust in air
7
• Liquid Gas clouds, fog
 Spontaneity of the Dissolution
Process
• As an example of dissolution, let’s assume
that the solvent is a liquid.
• Two major factors affect dissolution of
solutes
1. Change of energy content or enthalpy of
solution, Hsolution
– If Hsolution is exothermic (< 0) dissolution is
favored.
– If Hsolution is endothermic (> 0) dissolution is not
8
favored.
 Spontaneity of the Dissolution
Process
2. Change in disorder, or randomness, of the
solution Smixing
• If Smixing increases (> 0) dissolution is favored.
• If Smixing decreases (< 0) dissolution is not favored.
• Thus the best conditions for dissolution are:
– For the solution process to be exothermic.
• Hsolution < 0
– For the solution to become more disordered.
• Smixing > 0

9
Spontaneity of the Dissolution
Process
• Disorder in mixing a solution is very
common.
– Smixing is almost always > 0.
• What factors affect Hsolution?
– There is a competition between several different
attractions.
• Solute-solute attractions such as ion-ion
attraction, dipole-dipole, etc.
– Breaking the solute-solute attraction requires an
absorption of energy. 10
Spontaneity of the Dissolution
Process
• Solvent-solvent attractions such as
hydrogen bonding in water.
– This also requires an absorption of E.
• Solvent-solute attractions, solvation,
releases energy.
– If solvation energy is greater than the sum of the solute-
solute and solvent-solvent attractions, the dissolution is
exothermic, Hsolution < 0.
– If solvation energy is less than the sum of the solute-
solute and solvent-solvent attractions, the dissolution is
endothermic, Hsolution > 0.
11
Spontaneity of the Dissolution
Process

12
 Dissolution of Solids in Liquids
• Dissolution is a
competition between:
1. Solute -solute attractions
• crystal lattice energy for ionic
solids
2. Solvent-solvent attractions
• H-bonding for water
– Solute-solvent attractions
• Solvation or hydration energy

13
Dissolution of Solids in Liquids
• Solvation is directed by the water to ion
attractions as shown in these electrostatic
potentials.

14
Dissolution of Solids in Liquids
• In an exothermic dissolution, energy is
released when solute particles are
dissolved.
– This energy is called the energy of solvation
or the hydration energy (if solvent is water).
• Let’s look at the dissolution of CaCl2.

15
 Dissolution of Liquids in
Liquids (Miscibility)
• Most polar liquids are miscible in other polar
liquids.
• In general, liquids obey the “like dissolves
like” rule.
– Polar molecules are soluble in polar solvents.
– Nonpolar molecules are soluble in nonpolar
solvents.
• For example, methanol, CH3OH, is very
soluble in water
16
Dissolution of Liquids in Liquids
(Miscibility)
• Nonpolar molecules essentially “slide” in
between each other.
– For example, carbon tetrachloride and
benzene are very miscible.
H
Cl H C H
C C
Cl C Cl
C C
Cl H C H

H
17
Dissolution of Gases in Liquids
• Polar gases are more soluble in water
than nonpolar gases.
– This is the “like dissolves like” rule in action.
• Polar gases can hydrogen bond with water
• Some polar gases enhance their solubility
by reacting with water.

18
Dissolution of Gases in Liquids

+ -
HBr + H 2 O H 3O aq Br aq

strong acid
SO 2 + H 2 O H 2SO 3 aq
H 2O -
H 2SO 3( aq ) H 3 O + aq HSO 3 aq

weak acid

19
Dissolution of Gases in Liquids
• A few nonpolar gases are soluble in water
because they react with water.
H 2O
CO2 g H 2O H 2CO3 H 3O aq HCO3 aq

very wea k acid

• Because gases have very weak solute-solute
interactions, gases dissolve in liquids in
exothermic processes.

20
Rates of Dissolution and
Saturation
• Finely divided solids dissolve more rapidly than large
crystals.
– Compare the dissolution of granulated sugar and
sugar cubes in cold water.
• The reason is simple, look at a single cube of NaCl.
Breaks
many smaller crystals
up
NaCl

• The enormous increase in surface area helps

the solid to dissolve faster. 21
Rates of Dissolution and
Saturation
• Saturated solutions have established an
equilibrium between dissolved and
undissolved solutes
– Examples of saturated solutions include:
• Air that has 100% humidity.
• Some solids dissolved in liquids.

22
Rates of Dissolution and
Saturation

23
Rates of Dissolution and
Saturation
• Symbolically this equilibrium is written as:

-
MX s M aq X aq
• In an equilibrium reaction, the forward rate of
reaction is equal to the reverse rate of
reaction.

24
Rates of Dissolution and
Saturation
• Supersaturated solutions have higher-
than-saturated concentrations of dissolved
solutes.

25
Effect of Temperature on
Solubility
• For ionic solids that dissolve
endothermically dissolution is enhanced by
heating.
• For ionic solids that dissolve exothermically
dissolution is enhanced by cooling.
• Be sure you understand these trends.

26
Effect of Temperature on
Solubility

27
Effect of Pressure on Solubility
• Pressure changes have little or no effect
on solubility of liquids and solids in liquids.
– Liquids and solids are not compressible.
• Pressure changes have large effects on
the solubility of gases in liquids.
– Sudden pressure change is why carbonated
drinks fizz when opened.
– It is also the cause of several scuba diving
related problems including the “bends”.
28
Effect of Pressure on Solubility
• The effect of pressure on the solubility of gases in
liquids is described by Henry’s Law.
Pgas
gas
kkMM
gasgas

where M
where M gas
gas
molar
molarconcentrat ion of
concentrat iongasof gas
k = Henry' s Law constant, unique number for each
gas - liquid combinatio n
Pgas = partial pressure of gas

29
Effect of Pressure on Solubility

30
Molality and Mole Fraction
• In Chapter 3 we introduced two important
concentration units.
1. % by mass of solute
mass of solute
% w/w = 100%
mass of solution

31
Molality and Mole Fraction
2. Molarity
moles of solute
M =
Liters of solution
• We must introduce two new
concentration units in this chapter.

32
Molality and Mole Fraction
• Molality is a concentration unit based on
the number of moles of solute per
kilogram of solvent.
moles of solute
m
kg of solvent
in dilute aqueous solutions molarity and
molality are nearly equal
33
Molality and Mole Fraction

Example 14-1a: Calculate the molarity of an

aqueous solution that is 10.0% glucose, C6H12O6.
The density of the solution is 1.04 g/mL. 10.0%
glucose solution has several medical uses. 1 mol
C6H12O6 = 180 g

34
Molality and Mole Fraction
Example 14-2: Calculate the molality of a solution
that contains 7.25 g of benzoic acid C6H5COOH, in
2.00 x 102 mL of benzene, C6H6. The density of
benzene is 0.879 g/mL. 1 mol C6H5COOH = 122 g
You do it!

35
Molality and Mole Fraction
• Mole fraction is the number of moles of one
component divided by the moles of all the
components of the solution
– Mole fraction is literally a fraction using moles of
one component as the numerator and moles of all
the components as the denominator.
• In a two component solution, the mole fraction of
one component, A, has the symbol XA.
number of moles of A
XA
number of moles of A + number of moles of B
36
Molality and Mole Fraction
• The mole fraction of component B = XB
number of moles of B
XB
number of moles of A + number of moles of B
Note that X A X B 1
The sum of all the mole fractions must equal 1.00.

37
Molality and Mole Fraction
Example 14-3: What are the mole fractions of
glucose and water in a 10.0% glucose solution
(Example 14-1)?
You do it!

38
Molality and Mole Fraction
• Let’s combine all of these solution calculations
into one problem.
• The sulfuric acid in a car battery has a density of
1.225 g/cm3 and is 3.75 M. What is the molality,
mole fraction and percentage of sulfuric acid by
mass in this solution?
– Molarity has the solute, solvent, and solution
intertwined. To do this problem you must get each one
separated. As a reminder, in this sulfuric acid solution:
• The solute is _____?
• The solvent is ____?
• The solution is _____? 39
Molality and Mole Fraction
• Problem solution pathway:
[Link] definition of molarity and density to separate the
components of the solution.
[Link] the appropriate components and recombine
them to get the other concentration units.
[Link] are allowed to assume at the start of the
calculation that you have any amount of the solution
necessary to help make your calculation easier.
• You may want to use 1.0 L for molarity, 1.0 kg for molality, 1.0
mole for mole fraction, or 100. g for % w/w.

40
Molality and Mole Fraction
Assume that you have 1.00 L of this solution.
3.75 M tells us that we have 3.75 moles of H SO .
2 4

98.0 g H SO
3.75 moles H SO
2 4
2 4
367.5 g of H SO
2 4
mass of solute
1 mol H SO
2 4

41
 Molality and Mole Fraction
Assume that you have 1.00 L of this solution.
3.75 M tells us that we have 3.75 moles of H SO . 2 4

98.0 g H SO
3.75 moles H SO
2 4
2 4
367.5 g of H SO2 4
mass of solute
1 mol H SO
2 4

3
1000 cm 1.225 g
mass of solution 1.00 L 3
1225 g of solution
1L cm

42
Molality and Mole Fraction
Assume that you have 1.00 L of this solution.
3.75 M tells us that we have 3.75 moles of H 2SO 4 .
98.0 g H 2SO 4
3.75 moles H 2SO 4 367.5 g of H 2SO 4 mass of solute
1 mol H 2SO 4
1000 cm 3 1.225 g
mass of solution 1.00 L 1225 g of solution
1L cm 3
mass of solvent 1225 g of solution - 367.5 g of solute 857.5 g of water
NOTICE, WE NOW HAVE THIS SOLUTION DIVIDED INTO THE
MASSES OF ALL OF ITS COMPONENTS. NECESSARY FOR THE
REST OF THE PROBLEM!

43
Molality and Mole Fraction
moles of solute
Remember, molality is .
kg of solvent
From the 3.75 M , we know that we have 3.75 moles of H 2SO 4 , the solute.
From the previous calculatio ns we know that ther e are 857.5 g of water, the solvent.
Convert th e 857.5 g to kg.
1 kg
857.5 g H 2 O 0.8575 kg
1000 g

44
Molality and Mole Fraction
moles of solute
Remember, molality is .
kg of solvent
From the 3.75 M , we know that we have 3.75 moles of H 2SO 4 , the solute.
From the previous calculatio ns we know that ther e are 857.5 g of water, the solvent.
Convert th e 857.5 g to kg.
1 kg
857.5 g H 2 O 0.8575 kg
1000 g
Now calculate the molality.
moles of solute 3.75 mol
m 4.37m
kg of solvent 0.8575 kg

45
Molality and Mole Fraction
moles of solute
Remember, mole fraction is .
moles of solute moles of solvent
From the 3.75 M , we know that we have 3.75 moles of H 2SO 4 , the solute.
From the previous calculatio ns we know that ther e are 857.5 g of water, the solvent.
Convert th e 857.5 g of water to moles of water.

46
Molality and Mole Fraction
moles of solute
Remember, mole fraction is .
moles of solute moles of solvent
From the 3.75 M , we know that we have 3.75 moles of H 2SO 4 , the solute.
From the previous calculations we know that there are 857.5 g of water, the solvent.
Convert the 857.5 g of water to moles of water.
1 mole
857.5 g H 2 O 47.6 mol of H 2 O
18.0 g
Now calculate the mole fraction.
moles of solute 3.75
X H2SO4 0.0730
moles of solute moles of solvent 3.75 47.6

47
 Molality and Mole Fraction

mass of solute
Remember, % by mass is x 100%.
mass of solution
From the previous calculatio ns we know that the 3.75 moles of H 2SO 4 have a mass of 367.5 g.
From the previous calculatio ns we know that ther e are 1225 g of solution.
Now calculate the % w/w.
367.5 g of H 2SO 4
% w/w 100% 30.0% w/w
1225 g of solution

48
Colligative Properties of
Solutions
• Colligative properties are properties of
solutions that depend solely on the
number of particles dissolved in the
solution.
– Colligative properties do not depend on the
kinds of particles dissolved.
• Colligative properties are a physical
property of solutions.

49
Colligative Properties of
Solutions
• There are four common types of
colligative properties:
1. Vapor pressure lowering
2. Freezing point depression
3. Boiling point elevation
4. Osmotic pressure
 Vapor pressure lowering is the key to all
four of the colligative properties.

50
Lowering of Vapor Pressure and
Raoult’s Law
• Addition of a nonvolatile solute to a
solution lowers the vapor pressure of the
solution.
– The effect is simply due to fewer solvent
molecules at the solution’s surface.
– The solute molecules occupy some of the
spaces that would normally be occupied by
solvent.
• Raoult’s Law models this effect in ideal
solutions. 51
Lowering of Vapor Pressure and
Raoult’s Law
• Derivation of Raoult’s Law.
0
Psolvent X solvent Psolvent
where Psolvent vapor pressure of solvent in solution
0
Psolvent vapor pressure of pure solvent
X solvent mole fraction of solvent in solution

52
Lowering of Vapor Pressure and
Raoult’s Law
• Lowering of vapor pressure, Psolvent, is defined
as: 0
Psolvent Psolvent Psolvent
0 0
Psolvent - ( X solvent)( Psolvent )
0
(1 X solvent)P solvent

53
Lowering of Vapor Pressure and
Raoult’s Law
• Remember that the sum of the mole
fractions must equal 1.
• Thus Xsolvent + Xsolute = 1, which we can
substitute into our expression.
X solute 1 - X solvent
0
Psolvent X solute P
solvent

which is Raoult' s Law

54
Lowering of Vapor Pressure and
Raoult’s Law
• This graph shows how the solution’s vapor
pressure is changed by the mole fraction of the
solute, which is Raoult’s law.

55
Boiling Point Elevation
• Addition of a nonvolatile solute to a
solution raises the boiling point of the
solution above that of the pure solvent.
– This effect is because the solution’s vapor
pressure is lowered as described by Raoult’s
law.
– The solution’s temperature must be raised to
make the solution’s vapor pressure equal to
the atmospheric pressure.
• The amount that the temperature is
elevated is determined by the number of
56
moles of solute dissolved in the solution.
Boiling Point Elevation
• Boiling point elevation relationship is:
Tb K b m
where : Tb boiling point elevation
m molal concentrat ion of solute
K b molal boiling point elevation constant
for the solvent

57
Boiling Point Elevation
Example 14-4: What is the normal boiling point of a
2.50 m glucose, C6H12O6, solution?

58
Freezing Point Depression
• Addition of a nonvolatile solute to a
solution lowers the freezing point of the
solution relative to the pure solvent.
• See table 14-2 for a compilation of boiling
point and freezing point elevation
constants.

59
Freezing Point Depression
• Relationship for freezing point depression
is:
Tf
Km
f

where : T f
freezing point depression of solvent
m molal concentration of solute
K freezing point depression constant for solvent
f

60
Freezing Point Depression
• Notice the similarity of the two
relationships for freezing point depression
and boiling point elevation.
Tf K f m vs. Tb Kbm
• Fundamentally, freezing point depression and
boiling point elevation are the same phenomenon.
– The only differences are the size of the effect which is
reflected in the sizes of the constants, Kf & Kb.
• This is easily seen on a phase diagram for a
solution. 61
Freezing Point Depression

62
 Freezing Point Depression
Example 14-5: Calculate the freezing point of a 2.50
m aqueous glucose solution.

63
Freezing Point Depression
Example 14-6: Calculate the freezing point of a
solution that contains 8.50 g of benzoic acid
(C6H5COOH, MW = 122) in 75.0 g of benzene, C6H6.
You do it!

64
 Determination of Molecular Weight by
Freezing Point Depression
• The size of the freezing point depression
depends on two things:
1. The size of the Kf for a given solvent, which are
well known.
2. And the molal concentration of the solution
which depends on the number of moles of
solute and the kg of solvent.
• If Kf and kg of solvent are known, as is
often the case in an experiment, then we
can determine # of moles of solute and use
65
it to determine the molecular weight.
Determination of Molecular Weight by
Freezing Point Depression
Example 14-7: A 37.0 g sample of a new covalent
compound, a nonelectrolyte, was dissolved in 2.00 x
102 g of water. The resulting solution froze at -
5.58oC. What is the molecular weight of the
compound?

66
Colligative Properties and
Dissociation of Electrolytes
• Electrolytes have larger effects on boiling
point elevation and freezing point depression
than nonelectrolytes.
– This is because the number of particles released
in solution is greater for electrolytes
• One mole of sugar dissolves in water to
produce one mole of aqueous sugar
molecules.
• One mole of NaCl dissolves in water to
produce two moles of aqueous ions:
– 1 mole of Na+ and 1 mole of Cl- ions 67
Colligative Properties and
Dissociation of Electrolytes
• Remember colligative properties depend on
the number of dissolved particles.
– Since NaCl has twice the number of particles we
can expect twice the effect for NaCl than for
sugar.
• The table of observed freezing point
depressions in the lecture outline shows this
effect.

68
Colligative Properties and
Dissociation of Electrolytes
• Ion pairing or association
of ions prevents the effect
from being exactly equal
to the number of
dissociated ions

69
Colligative Properties and
Dissociation of Electrolytes
• The van’t Hoff factor, symbol i, is used to
introduce this effect into the calculations.
• i is a measure of the extent of ionization or
dissociation of the electrolyte in the
solution.
Tf actual
i
Tf if nonelectrolyte

70
Colligative Properties and
Dissociation of Electrolytes
• i has an ideal value of 2 for 1:1 electrolytes like
NaCl, KI, LiBr, etc.

Na + Cl- H 2O
Na +aq Cl-aq 2 ions
formula unit
• i has an ideal value of 3 for 2:1 electrolytes like
K2SO4, CaCl2, SrI2, etc.

Ca 2+ Cl-2 H 2O
Ca 2aq+ 2 Cl-aq 3 ions
formula unit
71
Colligative Properties and
Dissociation of Electrolytes
Example 14-8: The freezing point of 0.0100 m
aqueous NaCl solution is -0.0360oC. Calculate the
van’t Hoff factor and apparent percent dissociation of
NaCl in this aqueous solution.

72
Colligative Properties and
Dissociation of Electrolytes
Example 14-9: A 0.0500 m aqueous acetic acid
solution freezes at -0.0948oC. Calculate the percent
ionization of CH3COOH in this solution.
You do it!

73
 Osmotic Pressure
• Osmosis is the net flow of a solvent
between two solutions separated by a
semipermeable membrane.
– The solvent passes from the lower
concentration solution into the higher
concentration solution.
• Examples of semipermeable membranes
include:
1. cellophane and saran wrap
2. skin
3. cell membranes 74
Osmotic Pressure

75
Osmotic Pressure

76
Osmotic Pressure
semipermeable membrane

H2O H2O

sugar dissolved H2O H2O net2solvent flow

H2O O
in water

H2O H2O

77
Osmotic Pressure

78
 Osmotic Pressure
• Osmosis is a rate controlled phenomenon.
– The solvent is passing from the dilute solution into the
concentrated solution at a faster rate than in opposite
direction, i.e. establishing an equilibrium.
• The osmotic pressure is the pressure
exerted by a column of the solvent in an
osmosis experiment.
MRT
where: = osmotic pressure in atm
M = molar concentration of solution
L atm
R = 0.0821
mol K 79
T = absolute temperature
Osmotic Pressure
 For very dilute aqueous solutions, molarity
and molality are nearly equal.
M m
mRT
for dilute aqueous solutions only

80
 Osmotic Pressure
• Osmotic pressures can be very large.
– For example, a 1 M sugar solution has an osmotic
pressure of 22.4 atm or 330 p.s.i.
• Since this is a large effect, the osmotic
pressure measurements can be used to
determine the molar masses of very large
molecules such as:
1. Polymers
2. Biomolecules like
• proteins
81
• ribonucleotides
Osmotic Pressure
Example 14-18: A 1.00 g sample of a biological
material was dissolved in enough water to give 1.00 x
102 mL of solution. The osmotic pressure of the
solution was 2.80 torr at 25oC. Calculate the molarity
and approximate molecular weight of the material.
You do it!

82
Osmotic Pressure
Water Purification by Reverse Osmosis
• If we apply enough external pressure to an
osmotic system to overcome the osmotic
pressure, the semipermeable membrane
becomes an efficient filter for salt and
other dissolved solutes.
– Ft. Myers, FL gets it drinking water from the
Gulf of Mexico using reverse osmosis.
– US Navy submarines do as well.
– Dialysis is another example of this
phenomenon. 83
 Colloids
• Colloids are an intermediate type of mixture
that has a particle size between those of true
solutions and suspensions.
– The particles do not settle out of the solution but they
make the solution cloudy or opaque.
• Examples of colloids include:
1. Fog
2. Smoke
3. Paint
4. Milk
5. Mayonnaise
6. Shaving cream 84
7. Clouds
The Tyndall Effect
• Colloids scatter light when it is shined
upon them.
– Why they appear cloudy or opaque.
– This is also why we use low beams on cars
when driving in fog.
• See Figure 14-18 in Textbook.

85
 The Adsorption Phenomenon
• Colloids have very large surface areas.
– They interact strongly with substances near
their surfaces.
• One of the reasons why rivers can carry
so much suspended silt in the water.
2 Fe 2+ 3 Cl - y 3 H 2O Fe 2 O 3 y H 2 O + 6 H + + Cl -
A colloidal particle contains many Fe 2 O 3 y H 2 O units with Fe3+ ions
bound to its surface. The + charged particles repel each other and
keep the colloid from precipitating.
86
Hydrophilic and Hydrophobic
Colloids
• Hydrophilic colloids like water and are water soluble.
– Examples include many biological proteins like blood
plasma.
• Hydrophobic colloids dislike water and are water
insoluble.
– Hydrophobic colloids require emulsifying agents to
stabilize in water.
• Homogenized milk is a hydrophobic colloid.
– Milk is an emulsion of butterfat and protein particles
dispersed in water
– The protein casein is the emulsifying agent.

87
Hydrophilic and Hydrophobic
Colloids
• Mayonnaise is also a hydrophobic colloid.
– Mayonnaise is vegetable oil and eggs in a
colloidal suspension with water.
– The protein lecithin from egg yolk is the
emulsifying agent.
• Soaps and detergents are excellent
emulsifying agents.
– Soaps are the Na or K salts of long chain fatty
acids.
– Sodium stearate is an example of a typical soap.
88
Hydrophilic and Hydrophobic
Colloids
• Sodium stearate
O
nonpolar tail CH2 C
hydrophobic portion O-Na+
CH2 CH2
H3C CH2 CH2 CH2
CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2
CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2
polar (ionic) head
CH2 CH2 hydrophilic portion

89
Hydrophilic and Hydrophobic
Colloids

90
Hydrophilic and Hydrophobic
Colloids

91
Hydrophilic and Hydrophobic
Colloids
• So called “hard water” contains Fe3+, Ca2+,
and/or Mg2+ ions
– These ions come primarily from minerals that
are dissolved in the water.
• These metal ions react with soap anions
and precipitate forming bathtub scum and
ring around the collar.
2
Ca soap anion Ca(soap anion)2(s)
insoluble scum
92
Hydrophilic and Hydrophobic
Colloids
• Synthetic detergents were designed as
soap substitutes that do not precipitate in
hard water.
– Detergents are good emulsifying agents.
– Chemically, we can replace COO- on soaps
with sulfonate or sulfate groups

93
Hydrophilic and Hydrophobic
Colloids
• Linear alkylbenzenesulfonates are good
detergents.
CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2
CH3 CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2 O
S
O-Na+
O

94
 Synthesis Question
The world’s record for altitude in flying gliders was
60,000 feet for many years. It was set by a pilot in
Texas who flew into an updraft in front of an
approaching storm. The pilot had to fly out of the
updraft and head home not because he was out of
air, there was still plenty in the bottle of
compressed air on board, but because he did not
have a pressurized suit on. What would have
happened to this pilot’s blood if he had continued
to fly higher?
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Group Question
Medicines that are injected into humans,
intravenous fluids and/or shots, must be at the
same concentration as the existing chemical
compounds in blood. For example, if the medicine
contains potassium ions, they must be at the same
concentration as the potassium ions in our blood.
Such solutions are called isotonic. Why must
medicines be formulated in this fashion?

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14 Solutions

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