CHAPTER 3: GRAVITATION

3.1 Newton’s Universal Law of Gravitation:

It states that the gravitational force between two bodies is directly proportional to the product
of their masses, and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between the centres
of the two bodies.
From the law stated above:
1 m m
F ∝ m1 m2 F ∝ 2 Hence, we will get F ∝ 1 2 2 , and to make the ‘∝’ sign disappear, we add a
r r
constant called ‘Universal Gravitational Constant, G’ into the equation and get :
Gm1 m2
F= 2
r
where F = Gravitational force
G = Universal Gravitational Constant, 6.67 ×10−11 N m2 k g−2 or k g−1 m 3 s−2
m1= mass of the first body
m2= mass of the second body
r = distance between the centres of the two bodies

r
m2
m1

Example 1: Calculate the gravitational force between a durian and the Earth given that the
mass of durian is 2.0kg, the mass of Earth is 5.97 ×1024 kg and the distance between the
centre of durian and the centre of the Earth is 6.37 ×10 6 m .

Example 2: A rocket at a launching pad experiences a gravitational force of 4.98 × 105 N.

Given that the mass of Earth is 5.97 ×1024 kg , distance between the centres of Earth and
rocket is 6.37 ×10 6 m , what is the mass of the rocket?

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The Earth’s Gravitational Field Strength:
We have defined the weight of a body as the gravitational force exerted on it by the Earth.
Hence, the weight of a body of mass, m anywhere on the earth’s surface is F=mg
F
The gravitational field strength of the Earth, g = = 9.81 N k g−1 at the Earth’s surface
m
Relationship between g and G for a Gravitational Field:
From Newton’s Second Law of Motion, F=mg and
GMm
from Newton’s Universal Law of Gravitation, F= 2 :
r

GM
At the surface of the Earth, r = R = radius of the Earth, hence g =
R2
Variation of g with altitude（高度）:

R 2R 3R 4R 5R

Distance from the centre of the R 2R 3R 4R 5R

Earth, r
Gravitational acceleration, g/ m s−2

Notes:
(i) The value of gravitational acceleration on the Earth’s surface is ________ m s−2.
(ii) As the distance from the centre of the Earth, r increases, the gravitational acceleration
____________.

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 (a) Above the Earth’s surface:

R h

If h= height of the point from the Earth’s surface, then r = (R + h)

GM
Hence, the gravitational acceleration, g = 2
( R+h)

Example 1:
Mass of the Earth is 5.97 ×1024 kg and the radius of the Earth is 6.37 ×10 6 m . Calculate the
gravitational acceleration on the surface of the Earth.

Example 2:
A radar imaging satellite orbits around the Earth at a height of 480km. What is the value of
gravitational acceleration at the position of satellite?
[G=6.67 ×10−11 N m2 k g−2, M=5.97 ×1024 kg , R=6.37 ×10 6 m ]

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Solving Problems Involving Newton’s Universal Law of Gravitation:

(A) Two static objects on Earth.

(Eg: Two people of masses 50kg and 60kg, standing together at distance 1m. What is
the gravitational force experiences by both of them?)

(B) Object on the Earth’s surface.

(Eg: What is the gravitational force on the man-made satellite before it is launched?)
(See also Page 1, Example 1)

(C) Earth and satellites.

(Eg: Calculate the gravitational force between the Earth and the man-made satellite
after the satellite is launched.)

(D) Earth and sun.

(Eg: Calculate the gravitational force between the Earth and the Sun.)

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 The Different Gravitational Acceleration on Earth, Moon, Sun and other planets.
G = 6.67 ×10−11 N m2 k g−2
Planets Mass of the planets, M Radius of the planets, R Gravitational Acceleration
GM
on the planets, g = 2
R
Sun 30
1.99 ×10 kg
8
6.96 ×10 m
Earth 5.972×1024 kg 6
6.37 ×10 m 9.81m s−2
Moon 7.348×1022 kg 6
1.74 ×10 m

Notes:
(a) The Sun has the __________ gravitational acceleration which is________.
(b) The factors that determined the gravitational acceleration on a planet are
_______________________ and _____________________________.

Centripetal Force:
An object which is in circular motion, will experience changes in direction even though its
speed is fixed. This type of motion is called as ‘uniform circular motion’.
The force that keeps an object in a circular motion is centripetal force.

m v2
Centripetal force, F=
r
Where F = centripetal force
m = mass of the body
v = linear velocity
r = radius of the circle

Example 1: Figure shows an athlete is swinging an iron ball in a

horizontal circle before releasing it. What is the
centripetal force that acts on the iron ball when it is
moving at the speed 20m/s?

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Centripetal Force in the Motion of Satellites and Planets:
Can a satellite orbits around the Earth without driven by any rocket engine? In order to move
in circular motion around the Earth, satellites must have centripetal force. Satellites always
experience gravitational force acting towards the centre of the Earth and thus, this
gravitational force is now acting as the centripetal force for the satellites.

By comparing the formula for the force, F = ma

m v2
and the formula for the centripetal force, F=
r
2
v
We get centripetal acceleration, a=
r
Where v= linear speed of the satellites
r= radius of the orbit of satellites

Example 1: Figure shows a weather satellite orbiting the Earth at a height, h=480km. Linear
speed of the satellite is 7.62 ×103 m/s. The radius of the Earth is 6.37 ×10 6 m .
What is the centripetal acceleration of the satellite?

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To determine the mass of the Earth and the Sun.

Given that M = mass of the Earth

m = mass of the Moon
r = radius of the Moon’s orbit
T = period of revolution of the Moon around the Earth
v = linear speed of the Moon
Since the Moon travelled in a circular motion around the Earth, hence
the distance travelled by the Moon when making one complete orbit around the Earth = 2 πr
and let the time take to complete one orbit = T
distance
Hence, linear speed of the Moon, v =
time

2
mv
From the formula of centripetal force, F=
r
GMm
and from the formula of Newton’s Universal Law of Gravitation, F=
r2
(To find mass of the Earth, M, equate both the equations and let M be tittle.)

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3.2 Kepler’s Law
Kepler’s First Law: All planets move in elliptical orbits with the Sun at one focus.
(Law of Orbits)

Ellipse
-The planets in the Solar System have elliptical orbits.
-The major axis is longer than minor axis
-However, most orbits of the planets in the Solar System have major axis and minor axis of
almost the same length. Hence, the shape of their elliptical orbits is almost round.

Kepler’s Second Law: A line that connects a planet to the Sun sweeps out equal areas in
(Law of Areas) equal times.

If planets take the same amount of time to move from A to B and to move from C to D, the
area AFB will be same as area CFD. Distance AB is longer than distance CD. Hence, in order
to achieve the same amount of time, planet have to move faster at region A to B than from C
to D.

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Kepler’s Third Law: The square of the orbital period of any planet is directly proportional
(Law of Periods) to the cube of the radius of its orbit.
A planet which has a larger orbital radius will have a longer orbital period and a planet which
has a smaller orbital radius will have a shorter orbital period. Thus, a planet which is further
away from the Sun will take a longer time to complete one orbit around the Sun.

Derivation of Kepler’s Third Law:

Planets make circular motions around the Sun. S is same as the gravitational force between
the Sun and the planet.
2
mv
From the formula of centripetal force, F=
r

and from the formula of Newton’s Universal Law of

GMm
Gravitation, F= 2
r

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Solving Problems Involving Kepler’s Third Law:
1. Figure shows the planets, Earth and Mars
orbiting around the Sun.
(a) The orbital radius of the Mars can be obtained
by comparison. What is the information needed?
(b) Given that the orbital radius of the Earth is
1.5 ×1011 m, orbital period of the Earth and the
Mars are 1.00 year and 1.88 year respectively.
Find the orbital radius of the Mars.

2. Figure shows that a Satellite needs to orbit at a

height of 380km to capture the clear images of
the Earth’s surface. What is the orbital period of
the satellite?
[Orbital radius of Moon = 3.83 ×106 m
Orbital period of Moon = 655.2 hours
Radius of the Earth = 6.37 ×10 6 m ]

3. (a) State Kepler’s Third Law.

(b) At what height should a satellite be if the satellite is required to orbit the Earth in a
period of 24hours?
[Orbital period of the Moon= 27.3days, Radius of orbit of the Moon = 3.83 ×108 m

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3.3 Man-made Satellites
A man-made satellite is a satellite created and built by humans. It is launched into space
using rockets and is placed in specific orbits of Earth to collect information or
communications.
After the satellites are launched, they will move in orbit at specific heights and suitable linear
speed.
Formulae for centripetal force and Newton’s Universal Law
of Gravitation are used again to establish and determine the
linear speed, v of satellites. (Since satellites will move in
circular motion around the planets.)
2
mv
Centripetal force on the satellite, F=
r
GMm
Gravitational force between satellite and Earth, F=
r2
Hence,

The equation above shows that satellites that orbit at different altitudes have different orbital
speeds. The further away the satellite from the centre of the Earth, the _____________ it
travels.
Example 1:
The International Space Station (ISS) has a Low Earth Orbit (LEO), about 400km above the
Earth’s surface. Calculate its orbital speed. Given that the mass of Earth is5.98 ×1024 kg,
radius of the Earth is 6.37 ×10 6 m .

Example 2:
MEASAT-3 is a Malaysian communication satellite launched on 11December 2006 with an
orbital height of 3.58 ×10 4 km. Calculate its orbital speed.

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 Example 3:
Figure shows a Global Positioning System (GPS) satellite
which is at a height 20200km above the Earth’s surface.
Calculate the linear speed of the satellite.

Conclusion:
1. The suitable linear speed for a satellite to move in a circular orbit around the Earth
is v=
√
GM
r
.

2. If v<
√
GM
r
, hence the satellite will fall to lower orbit and continue to revolve towards the
Earth until it enters the atmosphere.

3. If linear speed is too high, v>

GM
r √ , the movement of satellite against air resistance at high
speed will generate heat and causing it to burn.

Geostationary Satellites and Non-geostationary Satellites

Geostationary Satellites Non-geostationary Satellites
Always in a special orbit called Normally in a lower or higher orbit than
Geostationary Earth Orbit (GEO) Geostationary Earth Orbit (GEO)
Direction of motion same as the direction of Direction of motion need not be same as the
Earth rotation direction of Earth rotation
orbital period, T=24hours orbital period, T is shorter or longer than
24hours
always above the same geographical region above the different geographical region
Example: Communication satellite Example: Earth imaging satellite
GPS

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 Weather forecast
Both satellites orbits around the Earth.
Both satellites acquire a linear speed, v =
√GM
r
2 3
4π r
Orbital period of the satellite can be obtained from Kepler’s Third Law. T 2=
GM
Escape Velocity
Escape velocity: It is the minimum velocity needed by an object/satellite in order to
overcome the gravitational pull of the Earth and escape into outer space
without ever falling back.

If the distance of an object from the centre of the Earth is r, the mass of the object is m, and
the mass of the Earth is M, then the object will possess a gravitational potential energy,
−GMm
U= .
r
Figure above shows an object launched at an escape velocity of v. The object then can
overcome the gravitational force and move an infinite distance from Earth.
Escape velocity is achieved when the minimum kinetic energy of an object is able to
overcome its gravitational potential energy.
Hence, Gravitational potential energy, U + Minimum Kinetic Energy = 0
−GMm 1 2
+ mv = 0
r 2

Example 1:
Given that the mass of Earth, M=5.98 ×1024 kg, and the radius of the Earth is 6.37 ×10 6 m .
Calculate the escape velocity of a body from Earth surface.

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