STONES
• Stone is a ‘naturally available building
material’ which has been used from the
early age of civilization.
• It is available in the form of rocks, which
is cut to required size and shape and
used as building block.
• Stone has been used in almost all the
elements of building structures, as load
carrying units as well as for enhancing
the beauty and elegance of the
structure.
Red Fort Taj Mahal The Colosseum
Machu Picchu The Great Pyramid Washington Monument
Rocks
Geological Physical Chemical
Igneous Stratified Silicious
Sedimentary Unstratified Argillaceous
Metamorphic Foliated Calcareous
Geological Classification
● Igneous rocks - formed as a result of solidification of molten mass lying below or above the earth’s surface.
Granite Trap Basalt
● Sedimentary rocks- formed by the accumulation or deposition of mineral or organic particles at Earth's
surface.
Sandstone Limestone Mudstone
● Metamorphic rocks- previously formed igneous and sedimentary rocks under go changes due to
metamorphic action of pressure and heat.
Marble Quartzite
Greisses
Physical Classification
● Stratified rocks- having layered structure. They possess planes of stratification or cleavage.
● Unstratified rocks- possess crystalline and compact grains. They cannot be split in to thin slab.
● Foliated Rocks- have a tendency to split up in a definite direction only.
Chemical Classification
● Silicious rocks- silica is predominates. They are hard, durable and not easily effected by weathering
agencies.
Granite Trap Quartzite
● Argillaceous rocks- argil (or clay) predominates. These stones are hard and durable but they are brittle.
They cannot withstand shock.
Laterite Shale
Slate
● Calcareous rocks- calcium carbonate predominates. The durability to these rocks will depend upon the
constituents present in surrounding atmosphere.
Limestone Marble Dolomite
Properties of Stones
(i) Structure: The structure of the stone may be stratified or unstratified. Structured stones should be
easily dressed and suitable for super structure. Unstratified stones are hard and difficult to dress. They
are preferred for the foundation works.
(ii) Texture: Fine grained stones with homogeneous distribution look attractive and hence they are used
for carving. Such stones are usually strong and durable.
(iii) Density: Denser stones are stronger. Light weight stones are weak. Hence stones with specific
gravity less than 2.4 are considered unsuitable for buildings.
(iv) Appearance: A stone with uniform and attractive colour is durable, if grains are compact. Marble
and granite get very good appearance, when polished. Hence they are used for face works in buildings.
(v) Strength: Strength is an important property to be looked into before selecting stone as building
block. For a good building stone, the crushing strength should be greater than l000kg per cm2.
(vi) Hardness: It is an important property to be onsidered when stone is used for flooring and
pavement. Coefficient of hardness is to be found by conducting test on standard specimen in Dory’s
testing machine.
(vii) Percentage wear: It is measured by attrition test. It is an important property to be considered in
selecting aggregate for road works and railway ballast. A good stone should not show wear of more
than 2%.
Properties of Stones
(viii) Porosity and Absorption: The reaction of water with material of stone cause disintegration.
Absorption test is specified as percentage of water absorbed by the stone when it is immersed
under water for 24 hours. For a good stone, the percentage absorption should not exceed 0.60.
(ix) Weathering: Rain and wind cause loss of good appearance of stones. Hence stones with
good weather resistance should be used for face works.
(x) Toughness: The resistance to impac. It is determined by impact test. Stones with toughness
index more than 19 are preferred for road works. Toughness index 13 to 19 are considered as
medium tough and stones with toughness index less than 13 are poor stones.
(xi) Resistance to Fire: Sand stones resist fire better. Argillaceous materials, though poor in
strength, are good in resisting fire.
(xii) Ease in Dressing: Cost of dressing contributes to cost of stone masonry to a great extent.
Dressing is easy in stones with lesser strength. Hence an engineer should look into sufficient
strength rather than high strength while selecting stones for building works.
(xiii) Seasoning: The stones obtained from quarry contain moisture in the pores. The strength of
the stone improves if this moisture is removed before using the stone. The process of removing
moisture from pores is called seasoning. The best way of seasoning is to allow it to the action of
nature for 6 to 12 months. This is very much required in the case of laterite stones.
Test on Stones
(ii) Water Absorption Test: For this test cube
specimen weighing about 50 grams are prepared and
the test is carried out in the steps given below:
(a) Note the weight of dry speciment as W1.
(b) Place the specimen in water for 24 hours.
(c) Take out the specimen, wipe out the surface with a
piece of cloth and weigh the specimen.
Let its weight be W2.
(d) Suspend the specimen freely in water and weight it.
Let its weight be W3.
(e) Place the specimen in boiling water for 5 hours.
Then take it out, wipe the surface with
cloth and weigh it. Let this weight be W4. Then,
Test on Stones
Test on Stones
(iii) Abrasion Test: This test is carried out on stones which are used as
aggregates for road construction. The test result indicate the suitability of
stones against the grinding action under traffic.
• Los Angeles abrasion test- is preferred since these test results are
having good correlation with the performance of the pavements.
The Los Angeles apparatus consists of a hollow cylinder 0.7 m inside
diameter and 0.5 m long with both ends closed.
Test on Stones
• Deval abrasion test- used for • Dorry’s abrasion test- consists
testing the abrasion resistance of of a flat circular cast-iron or steel
aggregates. The machine consists disc of not less than 600 mm
of a rotating frame to support two diameter which revolves in a
steel cylinders complete with horizontal plane about a vertical
covers and locking device. shaft.
Deval Abrasion Test Machine Dorry Abrasion Testing Machine
Test on Stones
(iv) Impact Test: It consists of a frame with guides
in which a metal hammer weighing 13.5 to 15 kg
can freely fall from a height of 380 mm.
Aggregates of size 10-12.5 mm are filled in
cylinder in 3 equal layers; each layer being tamped
25 times. The same is then transferred to the cup
and again tamped 25 times. The hammer is then
allowed to fall freely on the specimen 15 times.
The specimen is then sieved through 2.36 mm
sieve. Then,
Aggregate impact
testing machine
Test on Stones
(v) Acid Test: This test is normally carried out on sandstones
to check the presence of calcium carbonate, which weakens
the weather resisting quality.
• In this test, a sample of stone weighing about 50 to
100 gm is taken and kept in a solution of one percent
hydrochloric acid for seven days.
• The solution is agitated at intervals. A good building
stone maintains its sharp edges and keeps its
surface intact.
• If edges are broken, and powder is formed on the
surface, it indicates the presence of calcium
carbonate.
• Such stones will have poor weather resistance.
Apparatus Needed for Testing Stones
Deval Abrasion Test Machine
Los Angeles
Dorry Abrasion
Testing Machine Testing Machine
Aggregate impact
testing machine
Uses of Stones
Stones are used in the following civil
engineering constructions:
(i) Stone masonry is used for the construction
of foundations, walls, columns and arches.
(ii) Stones are used for flooring.
(iii) Stone slabs are used as damp proof
courses, lintels and even as roofing
materials.
(iv) Stones with good appearance are used for
the face works of buildings. Polished
marbles and granite are commonly used for
face works.
Uses of Stones
Stones are used in the following civil
engineering constructions:
(v) Stones are used for paving of roads,
footpaths and open spaces round the buildings.
(vi) Stones are also used in the constructions
of piers and abutments of bridges, dams and
retaining walls.
(vii) Crushed stones with graved are used to
provide base course for roads. When mixed
with tar they form finishing coat.
Uses of Stones
(viii) Crushed stones are used in the following works also:
(a) As a basic inert material in concrete.
(b) For making artificial stones and building blocks.
(c) As railway ballast.