Merits of direct shear test

 The sample preperation is easy. The test is simple and convenient.

 As the thickness of the sample is relatively small, the drainage is quick and the pore
pressure dissipates very rapidly. Consequently, the consolidated-drained and the
consolidated-undrained tests take relatively small period.
 Direct shear test is ideally suited for conducting drained tests on cohesionless soils.
 The apparatus is relatively cheap.

Demerits of direct shear test

 The stress condition is known only at failure. The conditions prior to failure are
indeterminate and, therefore, the mohr circle cannot be drawn.
 In direct shear test ,the stress distribution on the failure plane (horizontal plane) is not
uniform. The stresses are more at the edges and lead to the progressive failure, like
tearing of a paper. Consequently, the full strength of the soil is not mobilised
simultaneously on the entire failure plane.
 The area under shear gradually decreases as the test progresses. But the corrected area
cannot be determined and therefore, the original area is taken for the computation of
stresses.
 The orientation of failure plane is fixed. This plane may not be the weakest plane.
 Control on the drainage conditions is very difficult. So, only drained tests can be
conducted on highly permeable soils.
 The measurement of pore water pressure is not possible in direct shear test.
 The side walls of the shear box causes lateral restraint on the specimen and do not
allow it to deform laterally.
 SUMMARY OF COMMON SHEAR STRENGTH TESTS
Test Type Applicability Advantages Disadvantages
Direct Shear Test a. Effective strength a. Simple and a. Only for drained conditions
parameters for coarse inexpensive b. Failure plane forced to
grained and fine grained
b. Thin sample allows for occur at joint in box
soils
rapid drainage of fine c. Non-uniform
grained soils
distribution of stress

and strain

d. No stress-strain data

Triaxial Shear Test a. Effective and total a. Easy to control a. Apparatus more
strength parameters drainage complicated than

for coarse-grained and b. Useful stress-strain other types of tests

fine-grained soils data b. Drained tests on fine grained

b. Compared to direct c. Can consolidate soils must be

shear tests, triaxial sample hydrostatically sheared very slowly

tests are preferred for or to in situ Ko state of

fine-grained soils stress

d. Can simulate various

 loading conditions

Unconfined a. Undrained shear a. Very rapid and a. Not applicable to soils

Compression Test strength of 100% inexpensive with fissures, silt

saturated samples of seams, varves, other

homogenous, defects, or less than

unfissured clay 100% saturation

b. Not suitable as the b. Sample disturbance

only basis for design not systematially

on critical projects accounted for

Lab Vane Shear Test a. Undrained shear a. Very rapid and a. Not applicable to soils
strength of 100% inexpensive with fissures, silt

saturated samples of seams, varves, other

homogenous, defects, or less than

unfissured clay 100% saturation

b. Not suitable as the b. Sample disturbance

only basis for design not systematially

on critical projects accounted for

Difference between Compaction and Consolidation are as follows:

Compaction
1. Compaction is the process by which solid soil particles are packed more
closely together by mechanical means.

2. It is achieved through reduction of air voids.

3. It is a rapid process.

4. It is an artificial process.

5. Proper compaction of soil is achieved at optimum moisture content.

Consolidation:
1. Consolidation is the process by which soil particles are packed more closely
together under the application of static loading

2. It is achieved through gradual drainage of water from soil pores.

3. It is a gradual process. In some soils it takes many years.

4. It is a natural process.

5. Consolidation is strictly applicable for saturated or nearly saturated clays or

soils with low permeability.
TYPES OF SOIL SHEAR TEST BASED ON DRAINAGE CONDITION
The shear strength parameters in the case of saturated soils depend very much upon the
drainage conditions and therefore in the laboratory shear test, the drainage condition expected
in the field for a particular problem should be simulated. Based on drainage condition the
shear tests are classified as following 3 types.

1. Unconsolidated Undrained Test (UU test)

2. Consolidated Undrained Test (CU test)
3. Consolidated Drained Test (CD test)

1. UNCONSOLIDATED UNDRAINED TEST (UU)

Drainage is not permitted throughout the test. In the case of direct shear test drainage is not
permitted during the application of both normal stress and shear stress. In the case of triaxial
compression test drainage is not permitted during the application of both cell pressure and
deviator stress. Since the test is conducted fast allowing no time for either consolidation of
sample initially or dissipation of pore pressure in later stage, the test is also called quick test.
2. CONSOLIDATED UNDRAINED TEST (CU)
In this type of shear test the soil specimen is allowed to consolidate fully under initially
applied stress and then sheared quickly without allowing dissipation of pore pressure. In the
case of direct shear test the specimen is allowed to consolidate fully under applied normal
stress and then sheared at high rate of strain to prevent dissipation of pore pressure during
shearing. 0In the case of triaxial compression test the specimen is allowed to consolidate fully
under the applied cell pressure and then the pore water outlet is closed and the specimen is
subjected to increasing deviator stress at higher rate of strain.
3. CONSOLIDATED DRAINED TEST (CD)
In this type of shear test drainage is allowed throughout the test. The specimen is allowed to
consolidate fully under the applied initial stress and then sheared at low rate of strain giving
sufficient time for the pore water to drain out at all stages. The test may continue for several
hours to several days.
PRINCIPAL PLANES AND PRINCIPAL STRESSES
At a point in a stressed material, every plane will be subjected to a normal or direct stress and
a shearing stress. A principal plane is defined as a plane on which the stress is fully normal or
one which does not carry shearing stress. The normal stress acting on this principal planes are
known as principal stresses. There exist three principal planes at any point in a stressed
material. These three principal planes are mutually perpendicular. In the order of decreasing
magnitude the principal planes are designated as major principal plane, minor principal plane
and intermediate principal plane and the corresponding principal stresses are designated in
the same manner.

From this figure,

 These equations will give the stresses on the inclined plane making an angle   with the
major principal plane.

MOHR’S CIRCLE
Otto Mohr, a German scientist devised a graphical method for the determination of stresses
on a plane inclined to the major principal planes. The graphical construction is known as
Mohr’s circle. In this method, the origin O is selected and the normal stresses are plotted
along the horizontal axis and the shear stresses on the vertical axis.

To construct a Mohr circle, first mark major and minor principal stress on X axis, Mark the
centre point of that as C. A circle is drawn with c as centre and CF as radius. Each point on
the circle gives the stresses ? and ? on a particular plane. The point E is known as the pole of
the circle.

1. Mohr’s circle can be drawn for stress system with principal planes inclined to co-ordinate
axes
2. Stress system with vertical and horizontal planes are not the principal planes

MOHR-COULOMB THEORY
 The soil is a particulate material. The shear failure in soils is by slippage of particles due to
shear stresses. According to Mohr, the failure is caused by a critical combination of normal
and shear stresses. The soil fails when the shear stress on the failure plane at failure is a
unique function of the normal stress acting on that plane. Since the shear stress of the failure
plane is defined as the shear strength (s) the equation for that can be written as

S= f ( )

The Mohr theory is concerned with the shear stress at failure plane at failure. A plot can be
made between the shear stresses and the normal stress at failure. The curve defined by this is
known as the failure envelope.

The shear strength of a soil at a point on a particular plane was expressed by Coulomb as a
linear function of the normal stress on that plane as,

In this C is equal to the intercept on Y axis and phi is the angle which the envelope make with
X axis

DIFFERENT TYPES OF SHEAR TESTS AND DRAINAGE CONDITIONS

The following tests are used to measure the shear strength of the soil

1. Direct shear test

2. Triaxial compression test
3. Unconfined compression test
4. Vane shear test

Depending upon the drainage conditions, there are three types of tests

 Unconsolidated-Undrained condition
 Consolidated – Undrained condition
 Consolidated-Drained condition

DIRECT SHEAR TEST

Apparatus
The test is conducted in a soil specimen in a shear box which is split in to two halves along
the horizontal plane at its middle. The size of the shear box is 60 x 60 x 50 mm. the box is
divided horizontally such that the dividing plane passes through the centre. The two halves
are held together by locking pins the box is also provided with gripper plates plain or
perforated according to the testing conditions

Test
A soil specimen of size 60 x 60 x 25 mm is taken. It is placed in the direct shear box and
compacted. The upper grid plate, porous stone and pressure pad is placed on the specimen.
Normal load and shear load is be applied till failure

Presentation of results
 Stress – strain curve
 Failure envelope
 Mohr’s circle

Merits
1. the sample preparation is easy
2. as the thickness of the sample is very less, the drainage is quick
3. it is ideally suited for conducting drained tests on cohesionless soils
4. the apparatus is relatively cheap

Demerits
1. the stress conditions are known only at failure
2. the stress distribution on the failure plane is not uniform
3. the area of shear gradually decreases as the test progresses
4. the orientation of the failure plane is fixed
5. control of drainage conditions is very difficult
6. measurement of pore water pressure is not possible

TRIAXIAL COMPRESSION TEST

It is used for the determination of shear characteristics of all types of soils under different
drainage conditions. In this a cylindrical specimen is stressed under conditions of axial
symmetry. In the first stage of the test, the specimen is subjected to an all round confining
pressure on the sides, top and bottom. This stage is known as the consolidation stage. In the
second stage of the test called shearing stage, an additional axial stress called deviator stress
is applied on the top of the specimen through a ram. Thus the total stress in the axial direction
at the time of shearing is equal to the confining stress plus the deviator stress. The vertical
sides of the specimen are principal planes. The confining pressure is the minor principal
stress. The sum of the confining stress and deviator stress is the major principal stress.
Triaxial apparatus consists of a circular base with a central pedestal. The specimen is placed
on the pedestal. The pedestal has one or two holes which are used in the drainage function or
pore pressure measurement. A triaxial cell is placed to the base plate. It is a Perspex cylinder.
There are three tie rods which support the cell. A central ram is there for applying axial
stress. An air release valve and an oil release valve are attached to the cell. The apparatus also
have special features like,

 Mercury control system

 Pore water pressure measurement device
 Volume changes measurement

Triaxial test on cohesive soil

CU, UU and CD tests can be conducted on soil specimen. The specimen is placed in the
pedestal inside a rubber membrane. The confining pressure and axial pressure is applied till
failure.

Triaxial test on cohesionless soil

The procedure is same as that in the cohesive soil only the sample preparation is different. A
metal former, a membrane and a funnel are used for the sample preparation.
 Merits
1. There is complete control over the drainage conditions
2. Pore pressure changes and volumetric changes can be measured directly
3. The stress distribution in the failure plane is uniform
4. The specimen is free to fail on the weakest plane
5. The state of stress at all intermediate stages up to failure is known
6. The test is suitable for accurate research work

Demerits
1. The apparatus is elaborate, costly and bulky
2. The drained test takes a longer period as compared with that in a direct shear test
3. The strain condition in the specimen are not uniform
4. It is not possible to find out the cross sectional area of the specimen accurately under large
strains
5. The test simulates only axi symmetric problems
6. The consolidation of the specimen in the test is isotropic whereas in the field, consolidation is
generally anisotropic.

Computation of various parameters

1. Post consolidation dimensions

1. Cross sectional area during shearing stage

1. Stresses

Deviator stress=P/A

Principal stresses
 4. Compressive strength

The deviator stress at failure is known as the compressive strength of soil

Presentation of results of triaxial test

 Stress-strain curves
 Mohr envelopes in terms of total stress and effective stress

UNCONFINED COMPRESSION TEST

The unconfined compression test is a special form of triaxial test in which the confining
pressure is zero. The test can be conducted only on clayey soils which can stand without
confinement. There are two types of UCC machines machine with a spring and machine with
a proving ring

A compressive force is applied to the specimen till failure. The compressive load can be
measured using a proving ring..

Presentation of results
In this test the minor principal stress is zero. The major principal stress is equal to the
deviator stress. The Mohr circle can be drawn for stress conditions at failure.

Merits
1. The test is convenient, simple and quick
2. It is ideally suited for measuring the unconsolidated undrained shear strength of intact
saturated clays
3. The sensitivity of the soil can be easily determined

Demerits
1. The test cannot be conducted on fissured clays
2. The test may be misleading for soils of which the angle of shearing resistance is not zero.

VANE SHEAR TEST

The undrained strength of soft clays can be determined in a laboratory by vane shear test. The
test can also be conducted in the field on the soil at the bottom of bore hole. The apparatus
consists of a vertical steel rod having four thin stainless steel blades or vanes fixed at its
bottom end. Height of the vane should be equal to twice the diameter. For conducting test in a
 laboratory, a specimen of diameter 38mm and height 75mm is prepared and fixed to the base
of the apparatus. The vane is slowly lowered in to the specimen till the top of the vane is at a
depth of 10 to 20 mm below the top of the specimen. The readings of the strain indicator and
torque indicator are taken

Shear strength S

T
τ=
2 H D
ПD { + }
2 6

Where T =Torque applied

D = Diameter of vane

H1= Height of vane

Merits
1. The test is simple and quick
2. It is ideally suited for determination of the in-situ undrained shear strength of non fissured,
fully saturated clay
3. The test can be conveniently used to determine the sensitivity of the soil

Demerits
1. The test cannot be conducted on the fissured clay or the clay containing silt or sand
laminations
2. The test does not give accurate results when the failure envelope is not horizontal

The triaxial test has many advantages over the direct shear test:

•  The soil samples are subjected to uniform stresses and strains.

•  Different combinations of confining and axial stresses can be applied.

•  Drained and undrained tests can be carried out.

•  Pore water pressures can be measured in undrained tests.

•  The complete stress-strain behaviour can be determined.

Direct Shear Test

The test is carried out on a soil sample confined in a metal box of square cross-section which
is split horizontally at mid-height. A small clearance is maintained between the two halves of
the [Link] soil is sheared along a predetermined plane by moving the top half of the box
relative to the bottom half. The box is usually square in plan of size 
60 mm x 60 mm. A typical shear box is shown. 

If the soil sample is fully or partially saturated, perforated metal plates and porous stones are
placed below and above the sample to allow free drainage. If the sample is dry, solid metal
plates are used. A load normal to the plane of shearing can be applied to the soil sample
through the lid of the box.

Tests on sands and gravels can be performed quickly, and are usually performed dry as it is
found that water does not significantly affect the drained strength. For clays, the rate of
shearing must be chosen to prevent excess pore pressures building up.

As a vertical normal load is applied to the sample, shear stress is gradually applied
horizontally, by causing the two halves of the box to move relative to each other. The shear
load is measured together with the corresponding shear displacement. The change of
thickness of the sample is also measured.

A number of samples of the soil are tested each under different vertical loads and the value of
shear stress at failure is plotted against the normal stress for each test. Provided there is no
excess pore water pressure in the soil, the total and effective stresses will be identical. From
the stresses at failure, the failure envelope can be obtained.

The test has several advantages:

•  It is easy to test sands and gravels.

•  Large samples can be tested in large shear boxes, as small samples can give misleading
results due to imperfections such as fractures and fissures, or may not be truly representative.

•  Samples can be sheared along predetermined planes, when the shear strength along fissures
or other selected planes are needed.
 The disadvantages of the test include:

•  The failure plane is always horizontal in the test, and this may not be the weakest plane in
the sample. Failure of the soil occurs progressively from the edges towards the centre of the
sample.

•  There is no provision for measuring pore water pressure in the shear box and so it is not
possible to determine effective stresses from undrained tests.

•  The shear box apparatus cannot give reliable undrained strengths because it is impossible to
prevent localised drainage away from the shear plane. 

Triaxial test
The triaxial test is carried out in a cell on a cylindrical soil sample having a length to diameter ratio of 2. The usual
sizes are 76 mm x 38 mm and 100 mm x 50 mm. Three principal stresses are applied to the soil sample, out of which
two are applied water pressure inside the confining cell and are equal. The third principal stress is applied by a
loading ram through the top of the cell and is different to the other two principal stresses. A typical triaxial cell is
shown.

The soil sample is placed inside a rubber sheath which is sealed to a top cap and bottom pedestal by rubber O-rings.
For tests with pore pressure measurement, porous discs are placed at the bottom, and sometimes at the top of the
specimen. Filter paper drains may be provided around the outside of the specimen in order to speed up the
consolidation process. Pore pressure generated inside the specimen during testing can be measured by means of
pressure transducers.

The triaxial compression test consists of two stages:

First stage: In this, a soil sample is set in the triaxial cell and confining pressure is then applied.
Second stage: In this, additional axial stress (also called deviator stress) is applied which induces shear stresses in
the sample. The axial stress is continuously increased until the sample fails.

During both the stages, the applied stresses, axial strain, and pore water pressure or change in sample volume can be
measured.

Test Types
There are several test variations, and those used mostly in practice are:

UU (unconsolidated undrained) test: In this, cell pressure is applied without allowing drainage. Then keeping cell
pressure constant, deviator stress is increased to failure without drainage.

CU (consolidated undrained) test: In this, drainage is allowed during cell pressure application. Then without
allowing further drainage, deviator stress is increased keeping cell pressure constant.

CD (consolidated drained) test: This is similar to CU test except that as deviator stress is increased, drainage is
permitted. The rate of loading must be slow enough to ensure no excess pore water pressure develops.

In the UU test, if pore water pressure is measured, the test is designated by  . 
In the CU test, if pore water pressure is measured in the second stage, the test is symbolized as  .

Significance of Triaxial Testing

The first stage simulates in the laboratory the in-situ condition that soil at different depths is subjected to different
effective stresses. Consolidation will occur if the pore water pressure which develops upon application of confining
pressure is allowed to dissipate. Otherwise the effective stress on the soil is the confining pressure (or total stress)
minus the pore water pressure which exists in the soil.

During the shearing process, the soil sample experiences axial strain, and either volume change or development of
pore water pressure occurs. The magnitude of shear stress acting on different planes in the soil sample is different.
When at some strain the sample fails, this limiting shear stress on the failure plane is called the shear strength.

The triaxial test has many advantages over the direct shear test:

•  The soil samples are subjected to uniform stresses and strains.

•  Different combinations of confining and axial stresses can be applied.

•  Drained and undrained tests can be carried out.

•  Pore water pressures can be measured in undrained tests.

•  The complete stress-strain behaviour can be determined.

VANE SHEAR TEST ON SOIL
The vane shear test apparatus consists of four stainless steel blades fixed at right angle to
each other and firmly attached to a high tensile steel rod. The length of the vane is usually
kept equal to twice its overall width. The diameters and length of the stainless steel rod were
limited to 2.5mm and 60mm respectively.

Let   = unit shear strength of the soil

T= maximum torque at failure in [Link]

H = height of vanes in cm

d = diameter of vane tester in cm

Shear strength at failure along the cylindrical surface

——–>(1)

Consider the sheared surface to be composed of a number of elementary rings of thickness dr.

Shearing resistance on an elementary ring of radius ‘r’ = 

Total shear resistance on the top and bottom of the surface of the cylinder

—————-(2)

Total shear strength = (1) + (2)

Equating the torque T to the total shear resistance, we get

If the top of the vane is above the soil surface and depth of the vane inside the sample is  ,
then

PROCEDURE FOR VANE SHEAR TEST

The following steps are involved:

1. Push into the clay, the vane and rod below the bottom of the bore hole, ensuring the
verticality of the central rod.

2. Rotate the vanes at a constant speed of  per minute by suitable equipment.

3. The test can be conveniently used to determine the sensitivity of the soil.

The shear strength of the soil under undrained conditions is equal to the apparent cohesion.

The vane shear test can be used to determine the sensitivity of the soil. After the initial test,
the vane is rotated rapidly through several revolutions such that the soil becomes remoulded.
The test is repeated on the remoulded soils and the shear strength in remoulded condition is
determined. Thus,

Sensitivity, 

ADVANTAGE OF VANE SHEAR TEST

i. The test is simple and quick.

ii. It is ideally suited for the determination of the undrained shear strength of non-fissured
fully saturated clay.

iii. The test can be conveniently used to determine the sensitivity of the soil.

iv. The test can be conducted in soft clays situated at a great depth, samples of which are
difficult to obtain.
DISADVANTAGE OF VANE SHEAR TEST
i. The test can not be conducted on the clay containing sand or silt laminations or the fissured
clay.

ii. The test does not give accurate results when the failure envelope is not horizontal.