Chapter Two

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

This chapter attempts to present a brief resume of research findings related to

academic stress. In the present context, the interest of the researcher is to review the

findings of past researches. The previous researches help the researchers to

conceptualize and hypothesize phenomenon, and do critical appraisal which may

contribute with regard to design appropriate methodology. Keeping in mind these

objectives, the researcher reviewed literature in order to obtain information and the

status of work being done in this area. Therefore, literature from various sources was

extensively reviewed in the light of the present investigation.

Stress

Stress is an interesting word. Most of the people have no difficulty saying when

they are under stress and attributing all problems to stress. But educationalists and

psychologists have considerable difficulty in defining stress and have tended to avoid

the concept, as it is too global. Stress combines the external stimulus, the life events

and the host of individual responses to the stimulus, such as anxiety or depression.

Stress regulation in students is important for understanding the development and

prevention of psychopathology. Research evidence suggests that cumulative life stress

increases risk for emotional and behavioural problems, such as negative views of the

self, problematic interpersonal relationships and stressful life experience. These

developmental costs of emotional distress then put students at risk for further

symptoms and lifetime difficulties. Stress may be considered as any physical, chemical

or emotional factor that causes bodily or mental unrest and that may be a factor in
disease causation. Stress is the process by which an individual or a person reacts when opened to

external or internal problems and challenges. "The organism processes numerous systems to

coordinate such adaptive responses both at systematic and cellular levels" by this, stress has direct

effect on the brain and the whole anatomy of the body as such failure to adapt to a stressful condition

can result in brain malfunction, physiological problem and also many areas of psychological

challenge's in the form of depression, anxiety, pain and burnout.

Physical and chemical factors that can cause stress include trauma, infections,

toxins, illnesses and injuries of any sort. Emotional causes of stress and tension are

numerous and varied. If stress disrupts body balance and function, then is all stress

bad? Not necessarily. A mild degree of stress and strain can sometimes be beneficial.

For example, feeling mildly stressed when carrying out a project or assignment often

compels us to do a good job, focus better and work energetically.

Likewise, exercising can produce a temporary stress on some body functions, but

its health benefits are indisputable. It is only when stress is 28 overwhelming or poorly

managed, that its negative effects appear. We can learn to manage stress so that we

have control over our stress and its effects on our physical and mental health. Creating

enabling outdoor environments support young children’s health, wellbeing, development

and learning.

Physiologically, stress-related diseases in the form reproduction, cardiovascular, metabolism

and gastrointestinal diseases are determined by great areas of genetic and developmental factors

which are different from a person to a person but also symptoms of this disease may be similar

sometimes among individuals (Hellhammer & Hellhammer 2008. vii). According to (Wheeler 2007),

stress is physics word which refers to the amount of force used on an object and it relates in real life
as to how certain issues that carry force applied to human life. Examples financial difficulties, health

challenge issues, conflicts with friends, all carry force or pressure on person's body -mind and spirit.

Some of the pressure or force originates from the environment but most often comes from within a

person's head in the form of worry, anxiousness, regret, discouragement and low confidence.

Therefore, stress is basically force applied to a person and may result in a strain which is as a result

of an unmanaged stress that is when a person is not able to handle a challenge or problem

encountered strain result. To some people, the effect is minimal which means they are able to endure

pressure whiles in others the effect is enormous and have an adverse effect.

Stress is explained by (Pargman 2006) as “An uncertain reaction to external and internal

factors” that means a negative or positive reaction to environmental stimuli. In this regard, it is how

the totality of your body relate to changes and unfamiliar situations that present itself in the course of

time. During such a period, vital organs such as sexual organs, heart rate, blood pressure, stroke

volume, respiratory rate in the body react speedily. Many hormonal responses are at peak.

Stress may be induced from different sources:

(i) Interpersonal issues causing Stress - There are several interpersonal

situations causing stress. In close interpersonal relations deep emotions are

involved. Inherent to the ancient Indian system of education has been its

healthy teacher-student bonding. But with the expansion of education, there

seems to be a change in the present scenario. Large class strength and

unrealistic workload on teachers in the schools in India are the major causes

of lack of healthy personal communication between teachers and the

students.
(ii) Personality related Stress - the personality characteristics of an individual

to a large extent are responsible for appraising a situation as stressful or

otherwise (fear of failure, committing mistakes). An individual’s value system

is closely related to feeling of guilt and feeling of ‘not being good enough’.

The change in the role of the Indian women, who is now ‘career-centric’ is

resulting in role conflict in marriages – a mismatch between the career

demands and traditional family values.

(iii) Environmental Stress - Living or working in an uncomfortable physical

environment may be stress inducing. Excessive noise, heat, lack of

ventilation, unhygienic surrounding, crowded or an environment with strong

smell or lack of light may cause stress and lower work efficiency either in

students or in teachers. For instance, after a hectic drive in heavy traffic, one

may find it very difficult to immediately switch over to an important

presentation or lecture in the classroom.

(iv) Change induced Stress - One major potential of ‘change’ to induced stress

is in the form of ‘fear of change’. The main reason of change-induced stress

is the fear of the unknown. In teaching profession, ad hocism, transfer of job

to a remote area and many other unfamiliar aspects can be a cause of

change-induced stress. The best coping strategy is to move from the

unknown zone to the known zone.

(v) Stress caused by system issues - ‘System’ refers to any organization,

family, school or other social enterprises in which an individual functions. An

 average individual distributes his time between these systems. The stress

related to ‘system’ has become highly relevant in Indian society in the context

of changing demands in the family and school. A teacher has to do many

duties relating to his profession as well as to his family life. Especially, the

female teachers come under stress as a lot of extra work is expected from

others.

Aspects of Stress

Figure . Aspect of stress.

The figures present and displays the different aspects of stress.

Anxiety

In May’s book “The meaning of anxiety” (2015), anxiety is explained as the

manner in which a person reacts or response to stress, accept and interpret. In this

view, stress is seen as a journey to anxiety thus anxiety is an outcome of stress and it

how an individual handles stress. A good handler of stress is likely to experience or no

form of anxiety. Whereas those without effective management skills is prune to a high

level of anxiety.

Burnout

Burnout, also refer to as soulless situation is where a person loses the eagerness

and motivation in continuing to a particular kind of studies or activity as a result of both

external and internal factors. The skills and expertise is still active but the desire and

the wellness to perform is dead in the person as such activity or studies become huge

responsibility without any joy. Burnout destroys a person’s motivation and may kill the

initiative’s at studies or school. Service providers like teachers, counsellors and other

officers experience these issues much and make them at times to be hostile to the

people that they dedicated to serving. It normally affects people whose studies are

interaction with people like team leaders, managers, etc. Also, people whose studies

are time band that is adhering to strict time schedule’s also experienced burnout. In a

situation where an activity or studies required much details and explanations burnout is

likely to result in the people who are taking such activities.' The following are symptoms

of burnout:

 Trouble sleeping due to worrying about studies

 Getting into too much conflict

 Bored with studies or activity

 Feeling frustrated with studies

 Studying very hard and accomplishing little

 I don’t like going to studies

  Social activities are draining

Distress

Distress is a moment of great pain sorrow, acute physical and mental suffering;

Affliction, trouble ([Link] 2016). It is as a result of an inability to handle or deal

with a challenge or problem encountered in the performance of a specific activity or

studies. Distress result in both emotional and physical pain. An example of emotional

pain is sadness, resorting to drugs, violence, a low concentration at studies, low

participation in social activities. Most often than not Distress are caused by external

factors.

Fear

Fear “is a chain reaction in the brain the start with a stressful stimulus and ends

with the release of chemicals that cause a racing heart, fast breathing and energise

mussels, among other things also known as the fight of light responses” (Layton 2016).

Fear is a common aspect of human emotion that is sentenced in our nervous

system. Fear is a result of instinct in human that responses to sensed danger or unsafe.

It protects and alert us to an impending danger and that’s help to prepare for this

danger. It is a natural aspect of humans and in some cases it very good because it can

be a warning or a signal that cautions us to be very careful. However, it is and can be

extremely dangerous to the life of a person. Fear can be mild or intense and it can be

short term or last longer. When a person sensed danger the brain responses

Immediately and send signals which affect the nervous system this causes various

aspect of the body to response to the reaction to the nervous system and core
symptoms of these are fast breathing and heartbeat, increased blood pressure,

experience of sensation in their legs, head, chest and hands. There is also profuse

sweating. The fight of light is a term used to express how the body react to these

symptoms and reactions thus either fighting off the danger or running fast to get away.

(Fears and phobias 2016)

Worry

Worry is as a result of thinking about an existing problem or yet to happen

problem. It is constant thinking and meditating of challenge or fear. Worry looks into

what is likely to happen in the future as a result of the present situation. It is a

disturbing of one composer or peace of mind, worry causes distress to the mind and

results in high blood pressure, headache, stomach disturbances and other physical

discomforts.

Types of Stressors

Stress is a reality of our everyday life. At the point when individuals search for

help, they are regularly managing conditions, circumstances, and stressors in their life

that leave them feeling emotionally and physically troubled. Countless people feel that

they have very little resources or assistances to deal with the high levels of stress they

are experiencing. Circumstances that trigger stress are known as stressors.

According to (Centre 2010, 4–6; Davidson 2001) Stress is not only negative

things that happens positive things also cause stress. In our life we only know stress to

be bad but that’s not the cases. There are two types of stressors which is the positive
stressors which is known as eustress and negative stressors which is also known as

distress.

There some positive situations that causes a person to be stressed up. Some

examples of these circumstances are, promotion at work, starting a new job, getting

married, and having a child which are few of the many. Positive stressors are usually

not noticed because it has some characteristics.

Positive Stressors Characteristics:

• It is a short term event.

• It feels very exciting.

• It improves one’s attitude and performance.

• It motivates people.

On the other hand, negative stressors happen to be the bad things or events

which cause us to be stress and these type of stressors is easily noticed. Examples of

negative stress or are, death of a loved one, unemployment, divorce and illness which

are also few of many. There are also some characteristics of negative stressors that’s

makes it easily for them to be noticed.

Negative Stressors Characteristics:

• It causes anxiety and makes one troubled.

• It’s also short term but can have long term implications.

• It feels unpleasant and disturbing.

• Decrease ones’ productivity and moral.

 In the book of Brain, Luke Seaward (2012) also mentions some other types of

stress which are different in their own ways. There is another type of stress which is

the

neustress and “this is any kind of information or sensory stimulus that is perceived as

unimportant”.

Academic Stress

Attending Senior High School is the positive experience for many, yet many

students also experience it as chronically stressful due to academic requirements i.e.,

tests, papers, presentations. Childhood stress is increasing in both its frequency and

severity. Some factors that may contribute to this stress include: the pressure on

children to mature emotionally and psychologically at increasing earlier ages, a

decrease in the number of caring parents and subsequent reduction in parent’s love and

support. As a child grows and reaches puberty a psychological metamorphosis takes

place and this is adolescence stage. It is developmental period during which a growing

person makes a transition from childhood to adulthood. Irvine (2002) also identifies a

range of stressors in children from parental divorce and separation, to academic and

social failure. Throughout the adolescent years, stressful experiences are also

considered to be increasing in intensity, as prominent stressors involving family

dysfunction, peer demands and academic concerns are faced by adolescents.

A number of studies have explored a relationship between stress and poor

academic performance (Clark & Rieker, 1986; Linn & Zeppa, 1984; Struthers, Perry &

Menec, 2000). Felsten and Wilcox (1992) found a significant negative correlation
between the stress levels of college students and their academic performance. Similarly,

in a study, Blumberg and Flaherty (1985) found an inverse relationship between self-

reported stress level and academic performance. Struthers et al. (2000) also reported

that a high level of academic stress was associated with lower course grades. Students

experience a high level of academic stress due to exams, assignments, time pressure,

grade pressure, and uncertainty. In summary, this stress has a detrimental effect on

their academic performance.

Stressed children show signs of emotional disabilities, aggressive behavior,

shyness, social phobia and often lack interest in otherwise enjoyable activities. In a

study, it was revealed that students’ stress affects their academic performance. He

further showed that the most frequently mentioned stressor by students was school and

fear related stressors. Many teenagers tend to become non-conformist and fall prey to

teenage depression in response to a variety of growing up anxieties. However, stress

induced fears and anxiety in children adversely affects children’s performance at various

levels.

Generally reaction to stressful situation is based on individual appraisals and

interpretations but some situations are inherently more stressful than others. When

students interpret stressful situations which are dangerous or threatening they

experience feelings of tension, apprehension and worry. They also undergo a range of

physiological and behavioural changes resulting from the activation of autonomic

nervous system. The intensity of the reaction is proportional to the magnitude of the

perceived danger or threat. The behavioural changes due to stress depend up on a

large number of variables such as nature and intensity of the stress stimulus, previous

experiences of the individual, and the existence and degree of social support in the

individual’s environment.

Major Sources of Stress in Students

Indeed, students have a unique cluster of stressful experiences. Student’s

academic performances can be affected by many factors. Bernstein et al. (2008) define

the sources of stress as every circumstance or event that threatens to disrupt people’s

daily functioning and causes them to make adjustments.

Similarly, Phinney and Haas (2003) stressed out sources of stress more

specifically as a unique set of stressful encounters among student which includes:

difficult financial challenges, domestic responsibilities, responsibilities related to holding

a job while in school, and a heavy academic load.

Relationships as a source of stress

Relationship or relations on its own is a broad topic that can be discussed and it

has had a lot of effect on most aspects of a life of individuals. The term relationship

talks about how people are connected and the connection can be through blood,

marriage, adoption and other legal ways like neutralisation for a country and

registration.

This bond that is created between people can at times turn to be a burden on

them and others to turn out to be victims of relationship abuse. Relationship abuse is

an example of oppressive and coercive practices used to keep up force and control over

a previous or current cosy accomplice. Abuse can be enthusiastic, money related,

sexual or physical and can incorporate dangers, seclusion, and terrorising. Abuse has a

tendency to raise after some time. All these relationship issues can be in the form of

change in a relationship, conflicts with a roommate, working with people you don't

know, contact with strangers and family problems. The student turns to stress up to

about these issues and begins to think a lot about ways to solve them which leads to

them being distracted or having divided attention from academic work.

In view of this relationships might look very simple and easy but at the long run,

they really cause so much stress than one can imagine especially in the life of students.

Personal factors as a source of stress

Personal factors happen to really cause so much stress than we can imagine and

they also play a very important role in the various aspect of the life of a student. These

factors vary from person to person that results in a different set of perceptions,

attitudes and behaviours. Personal factors can take a form of so many ways which one

way or the other affect student performance and stress them up. Some of these factors

are:

 Change in Living Environment

The reality that stress occurs when an event or stimulus requires us to

change in some way makes a change in living environment a stressful experience.

Apart from moving from home to school, our daily bumping into new faces on

campus, disorders from roommates, etc. is tensed experience.

 Change in Sleeping Habits

 The somewhat burdensome nature of student-life causes a drastic change in

sleep pattern. More to the point, this newly adopted pattern is unstable, as it is

often tied to academic workloads and/or tasks at hand.

 New responsibilities

Responsibilities related to holding a job while in school will certainly

compound to a heavy academic load which is bound to result in stress. This is really

challenging, as one has to financially rely on a job for sustenance.

 Financial Difficulties

It is definitely not a conducive experience when a student has to handle dual

challenges of academics and financial constraints. Life becomes very challenging

when a student is behind on bills payment; for when deadlines are not met and bills

stares at you, it is enough to get a student tensed and depressed.

 Combining Job with studies

Many take part -time job or short term job during their period of studies.

Some of them do this to gain experience for the future and also other to support

their studies and themselves financially. Although working while in school is very

beneficial to a student it also causes a lot of stress for them which might be too

difficult to handle. Students will not have much time to study for their quizzes or

exams and some even miss a lot of classes because they will be worn out or tired by

the time they come back from their workplace. Students turn to face a lot of

challenges when they combine work with studies.

 Health Problems
 Health issues are a concern to everyone because bad health causes a lot of

damage to the life of a person. In the life of a student, health problems cause a lot

of stress and these stress turn out to even make the conditions worst by adding

insult to injury. Stress can lead to physical symptoms including headaches, upset

stomach, elevated blood pressure, chest pain, and problems sleeping. Research

suggests that stress also can bring on or worsen certain symptoms or diseases.

 Poor Eating Habit

Poor nutrition and unhealthy eating habits can increase a student's stress

level, according to the Physicians Committee for Responsible Medicine. Diets that

can build stress levels in understudies incorporate those that are high in fat,

caffeine, sugar and refined starches Examples of stress-inducing foods are sodas,

energy drinks, doughnuts, candy bars, processed snack foods, white bread, and

French fries. Healthy diet that helps to reduce stress includes foods that are low in

fat and high in fibre and complex carbohydrates. Such foods include fruits,

vegetables, whole grains, nuts and lean proteins.

Academic factors as a source of stress

There are some factors that happen in the academic curriculum that causes so

much stress to students. So many things take place in the day to day activities of the

academic processes that make students stress up.

 Increased class workload

An increase in class workload stresses up students in the sense that when

students have to do more than they can handle, they turn to get frustrated and are
unable to focus and think straight. Students will overschedule their plans to meet up

with the class workload in other to get good grades but eventually because these

tasks are too much for them, they end up messing everything up.

Especially in situations where there are a lot of assignments to do after

having a very long day at work makes students more confused. Also Too much

workload can also make student to be stressed in the sense that, when a student is

undergoing so many courses in school and each of these courses are also

demanding it make the student not have enough time to handle all these courses to

his or her perfection and ones that happen the student turns to think so much and

as a result will be stressed up and this will have a great effect on the academic

performance of the student.

 Lower grade

It is the desire of every student to excel in their field studies as such high

grades mean a lot to students. In situations where students believe they expect a

higher grade but at the end get a lower grade than they expected it weighs them

down and kills the motivation they have. Once this happens students start to think a

lot about what they didn't do, where they went and most times are not able to find

answers to those questions. At the long run, they become stressed up with that and

are not able to do everything right again.

 Many hours of studies

Every student has a life outside the academic curriculum and environment.

When a student has to compromise and use their personal time for other activities
for studies, they turn to get bored and lose interest in studies. At the long run, this

situation stresses them up which causes them to lose focus on academic work. As

the saying goes "all work and no play make Jack a dull boy ", it also applies to

students since they will become dull if all they do is to use their private time for

studies and not have time for themselves.

 Language difficulties

Language proficiency may have a profound effect on an individual's ability to

learn and develop, due to its key role in the transmission of information and

regulation of cognitive processes (Binder & Smith 2013). Language is one factor that

has so much influence on the life of a student. Language is the only means to

communicate freely, so if students are having issues understanding the language

been used in the academic process it becomes a big challenge to them and they will

eventually start thinking about it. Once this happens they become frustrated and

stressed up when even they have communicated and at the long run affects their

performance.

 Procrastination

Procrastination, as they say, is the thieve of time, one attitude that is very

common among a lot of students is procrastination. Procrastination is the avoidance

of doing a task which needs to be accomplished. It is the act of accomplishing more

pleasurable things set up of less pleasurable ones or completing less critical errands

rather than more pressing ones, in this manner putting off approaching assignments

to a later time. When student keeps doing this they lose interest in doing that
particular task or assignment and once the loss of interest sets in stress follows up

since they will be thinking how to meet up with the deadline for the assignment or

task.

 Examinations

Periods for examinations causes so much stress in students than one can

imagine. Examination is the only means for a student to prove that he deserves a

better grade for a course and due to these students think a lot and also revise

everything they have learnt during the whole period of the cause, in doing so, some

students get confused about some topics they treated and others also don't know

where to begin their studies from. The thought of these stuff makes them frustrated

and confused which at the long run stress them up.

 Missing Lectures

It is the desire of students to miss lectures or skip school. Although some

students wake up and decide to miss lectures or school, others also have to do that

due to circumstances beyond their control. When some students miss class or

lectures they become disturbed and worried especially of the course is on they have

difficulties in understanding. When this happens they start to wonder how they will

make up for the lessons they lost so as they will be on the same pace with their

fellow colleague in school. The thought of finding ways to make up with lessons

which they have issues in becomes a burden and stress them up beyond

imagination.

 Frustration due to misunderstandings

 A lot of students get frustrated when they don’t understand what is being

taught by the teachers in class. Some also misinterpret what the teacher said in a

different way or meaning. This frustration leads to students being stressed up

because they wonder how they will pass the course because they hardly get what

the teachers say in class.

Environmental factors

The environments students leave in plays a major role in how their life will be in

school. Some students turn to adapt to new environment whiles others also feel

discomfort being in a new environment. The environment student finds themselves in

can stress them up which may cause them not focus on their studies or other academic

issues and work.

 Lack of vacations or Breaks

The human body is in such a way that it needs some rest and break from

time to time. In a situation where students have to be in the learning and teaching

environments for long period of times affects the cognitive thinking of the students.

They became tired and lazy to continue the studies. These feelings, in the long run,

makes the students stressed up since the body does not have enough energy and

zeal to continue with the teaching and learning process.

 Computer problems

We are in the era of technological world and as a result of that most aspect

of the human life is adapting to changes to suit the environment to avoid difficulty,

these changes do not only affect humans but also institutions. The introduction of
information technology and also computers have done a lot of good to schools and

students especially but on the other hand, has also created problems for certain

students.

Most students lack the skills of using the computer for academic purpose and

unfortunately for most of the curriculum in our modern schools makes so much use

of the computer and this creates so many challenges and discomfort for the student

which cause them to start thinking and become stressed up eventually.

 Bad living conditions

Living conditions of people place a major role in the feeling and thinking of

students. When students live in a condition which is difficult to afford some basic

amenities of life they really live unhappily and this affects almost all the aspect of

their life. Therefore, when they start to ponder about this issues they get stressed

up and lose focus.

 Divorce between parents

Major life changing events or happens can be very stressful to everyone,

especially students. Unpleasant events like the divorce of parents make the student

not be themselves because they become victims of broken homes. Divorce takes

away the happiness students have and once that happiness they lose themselves

and reflect on the past which stresses them up at the long run.

 Placed in unfamiliar situations

There are a lot of situations that when someone finds themselves in they

become frustrated and try to find ways and means out of that situations. Students
are also victims of some of these situations. Some kind stuff or issues take places in

school which might involve a student and he or she knows nothing about that

situation and most often they are unpleasant ones. Students become disturbed and

worried when they find themselves in such situations and thinking about that stress

them up a lot.

 Fear

Fear is one of the biggest problem student face each day in and out in their

academic life. Fear in a student can be about failure or talking in public. When a

student has the fear of failure they are always scared to undertake any initiative

even when they know it's the right thing to do due to this they always stress up

when they are confronted with such situations. It's the same with fear of talking in

public. They always try to escape public so as not to talk.

 Future worries

The thought of how the future will turn out is a burden for most students,

especially if the field of their studies is one that has difficulties in finding a job.

Students get stress up when they think of what they will do in the future and most

of these thoughts is about whether they will be a burden to the society or they will

be an impact of it.

 Unrealistic expectations

There so expectations of students which in the real life seems impossible and

most often their colleagues or friends make fun of them whenever they talk about it.

However, these expectations at times can be attainable but because of how

 unrealistic they sound it makes them wonder what they have to do to achieve them

and get stressed up finding ways to do that.

SYNTHESIS OF RELATED LITERATURE

It may be seen from the brief review of literature presented in the foregoing

pages that a number of studies have been carried out on the relation between

academic stress of general students, adolescent students, college students etc. The

studies yielded contradictory results on the relation between different personal and

demographic variables and academic stress and adjustment styles of the different

categories of students. Therefore it is difficult to summarise the conclusions of these

studies as they have concerned themselves about a wide variety of aspects of academic

stress, adjustment styles in relation to the mental health and study habits of the

different categories of students.

Although mental health and study habits are also important from the educational

point of view, these areas are not much explored as academic stress on the students.

The results of even the few studies present a confusing picture with contradictory

results.

It is needless to say that a very few studies have been conducted to study

academic stress and adjustment styles of teacher training students in relation to the

mental health and study habits and whatever studies exists, none of them is

comprehensive enough so as to enable one to draw any conclusive result.