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Written by
PHYSICS EDUCATION DEPARTMENT
FACULTY OF MATH AND SCIENCE
UNIVERITY OF GANESHA EDUCATION
YEAR 2008
CHATER I
THE SPECIAL THEORY OF RELATIVITY
Basic Competency:
Students are able to understand the special theory of relativity and its
implication for relativistic motion.
Indicator:
1. Able to calculate the relative speed of object respect to an inertial frame of
reference
2. Able to explain the way of Michelson-Morley to prove the existence of Ether
3. Able to explain the implication of postulate Einstein
4. Able to explain the differences between Galileo transformation and Lorentz
transformation.
5. Able to calculate proper length of an object moved relativistic
6. Able to calculate life time of elementary particle observed at any inertial
frame of reference.
7. Able to calculate mass and momentum relativistic
8. Able to prove the equivalence of mass and energy
9. Able to apply of the conservation total energy relativistic.
10. Can analyze relationship among kinetic energy, momentum, and total energy
1.1 Rationale
The theory developed until at the end of the nineteenth century had been
very successful in explaining a wide range of natural phenomena. Newton
mechanics beautifully explained the motion of objects on earth, furthermore, it
form the basis for successful treatment of fluids, wave motion, and sound.
Kinetic Theory, on the other hand, based on Newton Laws, explained the
behavior of gases and other materials, and Maxwell’s theory of
electromagnetism, not only brought together and explained electric and
magnetic phenomena, but it predicted the existence of EM waves that would
behave in every way just like light, and vice versa whose speed 3x10 8 m/sc.
Physics as it was mentioned above is referred to as classical physics. The new
physics that grew out of the great revolution at the turn of the twentieth century
is now called modern physics featured by (1) the special theory of relativity and
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(2) the theory of quantum. The questions are what the special theory of relativity
is? , and what is its contribution in modern physics?
1.2 Galilean-Newtonian Relativity
It’s difficult to say that an object is at motion or at rest without respect to
any reference called a frame of reference. The velocities of object, therefore,
observed by two people with different frame of reference are difference. Let’s
study the problem: A railroad car is moving along straight, level tracks at a
constant velocity of 3.0 m/s to the north. In the car a woman is walking up the
aisle with a constant velocity of 1.0 m/s also to the north. What is the woman
velocity? Two possible answers are: (1) with respect to the railroad car
(observer (O) at rest in railroad car), her velocity is 1.0 m/s, and (2) with respect
to the railroad tracks (observer (O’) at rest on the ground), her velocity is 1.0
m/s. Refer to the problem can be concluded that motion any object at nature is
relative. The next problem is which frame of reference can be used to observe
relative motion of object.
Based on the first law of Newton, an object will move straight with constant
velocity if there is no force exerts on it. Object or place at rest or at motion
straight with constant velocity, in which obey the first law of Newton can be
used as frame of reference called inertial frame of reference. In all inertial
reference frames, all laws of physics have the same mathematical form. It is
called principle of relativity. Newton Laws, however, implicitly assume that time
is absolute at every inertial frame of reference. Under the Galileo transformation
we can transform the observation result between two difference inertial frame of
reference O and O’.
y y’
*A
u
x=x’
O (x,y,z,t) O’ (x’,y’,z’,t’)
z z’
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Galileo transformation formulae as shown below:
(1.1)
(1.2)
(1.3)
(1.4)
Verify that the velocity transform to x-axis:
(1.5)
The inverse Galileo transformation, that is:
(1.6)
(1.7)
(1.8)
(1.9)
(1.20)
Problem 1.1
A river of width L moves uniformly with a speed v. A canoe is to be paddled at a
constant speed c with respect to the river. Calculate the time needed to paddle
directly across the river and back, and compare it to the time needed to paddle
the same distance upstream and back. Ignore the turn around and start-up
times.
Solution: (time for across the river and back)
(time for upstream and back)
1.3 The Null Experiment of Michelson-Morley
The electromagnetic theory of Maxwell, one side, has succeeded to
explain wave phenomena, include light, thoroughly. However, the other side, it
appeared two problem, namely (1) every wave in its propagation need medium,
and what the medium of sun light propagates toward the earth?, and (2) which
reference the speed of light (3x10 8 m/s) is measured from?. At that time, ether,
a hypothetic medium, was proposed as medium for light propagation.
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Absolutely, ether is regard at rest in solar system from where the speed of light
(3x108 m/s) was observed.
Michelson Morley was interested to study the existence of ether in our
nature. They developed simply optic apparatus as shown in figure 1.1.
Figure 1.1 Michelson-Morley Experiment Equipment
The difference in times for rays L// and L will be
(Hint: )
1.4 Postulate of The Special Theory of Relativity
The resolution of the difficulties in explaining the null experiment of
Michelson-Morley, Albert Einstein (1905 proposed two postulate, namely:
1. The principle of relativity: All laws of physics have the same
mathematical form in all inertial reference frames (invariance).
2. The constancy of the light speed: the speed of light at vacuum has the
same value of c=3x108 m/s in all inertial systems.
The first postulate essentially asserts us that there is no experiment by
which we can measure velocity with respect to absolute space, that’s why, the
result, is the relative speed of two inertial system. The second postulate merely
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asserts that the speed of light is the same for all observers at every inertial
frame of reference. In the other word, the speed of light is absolute value at
every inertial frame of reference. It will change our understanding of the time. If
we adapt the absolute of the speed of light, the implication, that the time is
relative for observers at every inertial of reference.
1.5 Lorentz Transportation
Since c is constant for all observer in both O and O’ and is the same in all
direction, all observer in both frames of reference must detect a spherical wave
front expanding from their origin, as shown in figure 1,2. Light in free space is
regard isotropic. The spherical equation can be written:
1.21
1.22
1.23
Figure 1.2. The isotropic of light
The transformation matched with the postulate Einstein, especially respect to
the isotropic of light is Lorentz transformation. Lorentz proposed set of
transformation, that is:
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1.24
1.25
1.26
1.27
The Inverse Lorentz transformation, that is ,
1.28
1.29
1.30
1.31
where ; and
By using above transformation, we can relate the result of observation an event
at inertial frame of reference O’(x’,y’,z’,t’) to another O(x,y,z,t). The coordinate
system of Lorentz transformation is well-known as 4-dimensional space (x,y,z)
and time (t) coordinate system.
y y’
*A
u
x=x’
O (x,y,z,t) O’ (x’,y’,z’,t’)
z z’
Lorentz transformation formulae as shown below:
1.32
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1.34
1.35
1.36
Verify that the velocity transform to x-axis:
1.37
The inverse Lorentz formulae
1.38
1.39
1.40
1.41
1.42
Problem 1.2
Observers on an asteroid measure a spaceship to zip by at speed of 0.60c, as
figure 1.3. All bridge and asteroid clocks are started when the bridge of the ship
passed, the asteroid observers measure a laser flash to occur at a position
having coordinates (3.0, 0.5, -0.2) km respect to them. At what position and
time does the spaceship captain measure that the laser flash occurred?
Solution:
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Fix O in the asteroid, and fix O’ in the bridge of the spaceship. Then
, ;
The asteroid observer are in O, so ; ;
; . The spaceship captain is in O’. By
using Lorentz coordinate transformations. It yield:
; ; ; and
1.6 The Consequences of The Special Theory of Relativity
As we accept the Einstein’s Postulate, that the speed light are the same
for all inertial observers, the consequences that time run slow, and moving
object are shortened. The length of an object that measured in the direction of
motion become increasing smaller, and time intervals on the object become
increasingly larger as the object moves at higher speeds respect to one inertial
frame of reference. Our mind-set paradigm about space and time are altered for
rapidly moving objects. It’s due to relativistic effect, the classical definition of
mass, energy and momentum must be changed to be relativistic one. In
addition, the concept of mass and energy is not separated as known in classical
physics; however, mass and energy are equivalent in relativistic point of view.
1.6.1 Time Dilation
The time at which an event occurs depends not only on the frame of
reference chosen, but also on the position of the event. Therefore it seems
reasonable that the intervals would be measured differently by observers
moving at different speeds. These time interval may be the period of a repetitive
atomic process, the length of a biological process, the time between the ticks of
a mechanical clock, or other difference time between two events.
Suppose an observer at rest in O and a clock is moving by in O’. The
clock is at rest in O”, but has speed v with respect to O. The clock ticks once at
time t2 and again at time t2’, as shown in figure 1.4.
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Figure 1.4 . Time dilation
Both ticks occur at the same position in O ’: x2=x2’. Applying the Lorentz
coordinate transformation can be obtained:
Subtracting gives , remember that . Since the clock at
rest in O’, let’s call the time interval (proper interval time). The
zero refers to zero speed.
1.43
t’ is always greater than t for v geater than zero but less than c. The
measured increase in time intervals of a moving object is called time dilation.
Problem 1.3
Mouns are created in a process near the top of a mountain 4630 m above sea
level. The mean muon traveling at v=0.99c downward with =7.1 will decay at
sea level. What is the mean muon lifetime when is at rest?
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Solution:
In our frame of reference, the mean muon travels 4630 m at 0.99c=2.97x10 8
m/s in a time of about 4630m/(2.97x108 m/s)=1.56x10-5s=15.6 s. Since the
muon is moving in our frame of reference, 15.6 s=t, then to=t/=2.2 s
That is, to=2.2 s is the mean lifetime when the muon is at rest.
Problem 1.4
Jack and Jill are 25-year-old twins. Jack must stay on earth with a head injury,
but astronaut Jill travels at 0.98c to a star 24.5 light years away and return
immediately. Ignoring the end-point acceleration times, find the twin’s ages
when she returns. (One light year =1c. year, the distance light travels in one
year).
Solution:
From the earth-bound frame of reference, Jill travels a total of 49 light years (out
and back) at 0.98c in a time interval of 50 years=49c x years /0.98c. Therefore
50 years of earth time have passed, so Jack is (25+50) years=75 years old.
This 50 years is dilated time, however, Jill’s time interval is t0. Since =5.0 for
v=0.98c, t0=t/=50 years/5.0=10 years. Jill therefore has only aged 10 years,
so he is (25+10) years old. She is 40 years younger that her twin!
Question that might come to the problem 1.4, since the choice of frame
of reference is relative, why don’t we place Jill in O? She then sees the earth
move away and returns, and therefore it is Jack who has traveled out and back
at 0,98c. He should be the one who is 40 years younger. Since them both can’t
be 40 years younger. Each twin expects the other to be younger. Does this
prove relativity wrong? This apparent contradiction is called the twin paradox.
Recall, however, that are dealing with the special theory of relativity, which
refers to inertial reference frames. In the twin paradox, the earth is an
approximately inertial reference frame, but Jill’s spaceship isn’t. It must be
accelerated to start the trip, be decelerated when it turning to earth. The choice
of frames of reference is relative in special Theory of relativity only if the frames
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of reference are all inertial. Therefore an attempt to use the special theory in a
no inertial frame of reference invites incorrect result. Jack does age more
rapidly than Jill. Experiments confirm this prediction.
1.6.2 Length Contraction
Suppose that an observer at rest in O, and want to measure the length of
an object moving past him. First, fix O’ in the object. Then, find the distance to
the two object ends of the object, x 2 and x1. Correctly, x2 and x1 are measured at
the same time t2=t1, as show in figure 1.5.
O O’
X1
X2
Applying the Loretz coordinate transformation,
and
Subtracting, yield:
Note that is the length as measured in O’. Since the object is at rest
with respect to O’, let’s call this length L o , where the subscript “zero” refer to
zero speed (proper length), then represent the length L of the moving
object measured by O. This give:
1.44
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Equation 1.19 tells that L is always less than L o. The decrease in the measured
lengths of moving objects is called length contraction.
Problem 1.4.
A 0.125 m3 cubical box is placed in the cargo hold of a spaceship, which then
flies past us at 0.80c. If some edges of the box are parallel to the motion of the
spaceship, determine the box’s dimensions as we’d measure them.
Solution:
A 0.125 has sides of (0.125 m 3)1/3=0.5. Also, v=0.80c gives =0.60=1/.
The lengths of those edges perpendicular to the direction of motion would be
changed. The length of those edges parallel to the motion would be
L= (0.50)(0.60)=0.30 m. (With the y and z dimensions unchanged and the
dimension contracted, the volume would be (0.50 m) 2(0.30 m)=0.075 m3. Of
course a person in the cargo measures the volume of the box 0.125 m 3, since
the box at rest with respect to that person.
1.6.3 Relativistic Mass and Momentum
Suppose that the following situation: Observer in S1 and S2are given
identical balls that will make a perfectly elastic collision with each other. When
the observers move past one another, each will throw a ball with v x =0 and vy’
that each measures to have the same magnitude but opposite directions.
After a completely symmetric collision, the balls will rebound with the opposite
velocity, -vy. Both S1 and S2 will have a relativistic relative speed (v close to c)
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but vy will be classically (v y<<c). The observer in S1 throws a ball that is
practically at rest in S1, so it will call its mass m o. The ball thrown by the
observer in S2 is measured to be moving at a relativistic speed in S 1. so it is
called m. The observer in S1 throws the ball upward at speed v y. The y
component of the other ball’s velocity as measured in S2 is –v y. This velocity
must be transformed to S1 using the inverse Lorentz transformation, and
becomes:
In the symmetric collision, the momentum is equal and opposite, so:
This gives:
1.45
Equation (1.45) is the relativistic mass transformation. It tells that measurement
of the mass of an object gives a mass that increases as relative speed v
increase. Since and m increase with v, linier momentum is no longer
directly proportional to velocity, as shown in equation (1.46).
1.46
Problem 1.5
If a spaceship were to move past the earth at 0.60c, what would the crew
measure for the standard kilogram (which is at rest on earth)?
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Solution:
When at rest, the standard kilogram has a mass of exactly 1 kg by definition.
The relative speed of the standard kilogram with respect to the spaceship is
0.60C, which gives ==1.25. Therefore m=mo=(1.25)(1 kg)=1.25
kg. The mass mo is called rest mass. It is the smallest mass an object has
because as the object speeds up, the mass increase.
Problem 1.6
What is the momentum of a proton moving at speed of v=0.86c?
Solution:
1.6.4 The Equivalent Mass and Energy
Work may be done on a body to increase it kinetic energy (E k) In
classical physics, . In relativistic physics, that expression is not
generally correct, even if m is the relativistic mass. To obtain the correct
expression let’s start an object from rest with a net external force F in the +x
direction. Then the work done by F will be stored in the form of kinetic energy,
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1.47
1.48
1.49
1.50
where is the relativistic mass increase.
Equation 1.49 tells us that when an object at rest in can be assigned a rest
energy Eo, when an object is in motion, it will have a total energy:
The formulae is well-known the mathematical statement of
the equivalence of mass and energy.
Problem 1.7
A 0 meson (mo=2.4x10-28 kg) travels at a speed v=0.80c. What is its kinetic
energy? Compare to a classical calculation.
Solution:
The mass of the 0 meson at v=0.8c is
kg
Thus its Ek is
1.6.5 The Relativistic Law of Conservation of mass-energy
The total relativistic energy is given by equation:
1.51
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In interaction of particles at relativistic speeds, can be replaced classical
principle of energy with one based on the total relativistic energy. The relativistic
law of conservation of mass-energy, namely:
In an isolated system of particles, the total relativistic energy
remains constant.
Beside that, the relationship between relativistic energy (E) and momentum (P)
can be analyzed as below:
(square both side)
(multiplying by c4)
It is yield :
1.52
Equation 1.52 is a useful mnemonic device for remembering the relation among
the total energy, momentum, and rest energy.
Problem 1.8
Show that the kinetic energy (Ek) of a particle of rest mass m0 is related to its
momentum p by the equation
Solution:
Let’s star from the equation:
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Miscellaneous Problems
1. Explain in your words what is meant by term “relativity”. Are there
different theories of relativity?
2. Does the Michelson-Morley experiment shows that the ether does not
exist or that it is merely unnecessary?
3. Explain in your own words the terms time dilation and length contraction.
4. How fast must an object move before its length is contracted to one-halt
its proper length.
5. The proper life time of a certain particle is 100 ns. (1) How long does it
live in the laboratory if it moves a v= 0.96c?, (2) How far does it travel in the
laboratory during the time, and (3) How far does it travel in its own frame
reference?
6. Several spacecraft leave a space station at the same time. Relative to an
observer on the station, A travel at 0.60c in the x direction, B at 0.50c in the
y direction, c at 0.50c in the negative x direction, and D at 0.50c at 45 0
between the y and negative x direction. Find the velocity components,
direction, and speed of B, C, and D as observer from A.
7. An electron and a proton are each accelerated through a potential
difference of 10.0 million volts. Find the momentum (in MeV/c) and the
kinetic energy (in MeV/c) of each, and compare with the result of using the
classical formulas.
8. Prove that the relativistic expression
9. Find the kinetic energy of an electron moving at speed of (a) v=1.00x10 -4c;
(b) v=1.00x10-2c; (c)v=0.300c; (d) v=0.999c.
10. A helium nucleus (alpha particle) contains two proton and two neutrons and
has a mass of 4.001506u. (a) What is the binding energy of a helium
nucleus? (b) What is the mass difference in kg between a helium nucleus
and its constituents?
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