Carlos Hilado Memorial State College-Talisay

College of Arts and Sciences

GECSEL: Understanding the Self

MODULE 1 The Self from Various Perspectives

WEEK/TIME ALLOTMENT 3 WEEKS; 4 HRS SYCHRONOUS CLASS/WEEK
COMPILED BY AILEEN TRANQUILO, RGC

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I. OVERVIEW

The philosophy of the self defines the essential qualities that make one person
distinct from all others. There have been numerous approaches to defining these qualities.
The self is the agent responsible for the thoughts and actions of an individual to which they
are ascribed. It is a substance, which therefore endures through time; thus, the thoughts
and actions at different moments may pertain to the same self.

The philosophical framework for understanding the self was first introduced by the
ancient great Greek philosophers Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle. In particular, Socrates
suggests: "Know thyself" But what exactly does "know thyself" mean? What is self and the
qualities that define it? This lesson presents an overview of the philosophical perspective of
the self to aid students identify one's own self and eventually to gain self-knowledge and
self-awareness. It intends to give a wider perspective in understanding the self. The
different views of prominent philosophers regarding the nature of the self are discussed and
while there are disagreements in how philosophers view the self, most of them agree that
self-knowledge is a prerequisite to a happy and meaningful life.

This module will seek to understand the construct of the Self from various disciplinal
perspectives: philosophy, sociology, anthropology, and psychology. Moreover, the lessons
encourages you to express your views and analysis through a reflection paper. This
chapter covers 9 hours per week.

II. TARGETED COURSE LEARNING OUTCOME

CLO1. Discuss the different representations and conceptualizations of the self from
various disciplinal perspectives
CLO2. Compare and contrast how the self has been represented across different
disciplines and perspectives
CLO3. Examine the different influences, factors, and forces that shape the self
CLO4. Demonstrate critical and reflective thought in analyzing the development of one‟s
self and identity by developing a theory of the self

III. TARGETED TOPIC LEARNING OUTCOME

At the end of the module the students should have:

1. Explain the construct of the self from various disciplinal perspectives
2. Compare and contrast how the self can be represented in different disciplines

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GECSEL: Understanding the Self

and perspectives
3. Examine the different influences, factors, and forces that shape the self.
4. Demonstrate critical and reflective thought in analyzing the development of one‟s
self and identity by developing a theory of the self

IV. ASSESSMENT

1. Short quiz
2. Essay Writing

V. TEACHING-LEARNING ACTIVITIES

A. ENGAGE

ASSIGNMENT:

Name: __________________________________________ Score: __________________

Course, Year, Section: _______________________ Date Submitted: _________________

REFLECTION QUESTIONS:
1. Who am I 2. What am I 3. Why am I existing 4. Where will I be from here?

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Name: __________________________________________ Rating: __________________

Course, Year, Section: _______________________ Date Submitted: _________________

Direction. Write your own philosophy of “The Self” incorporating the ideas you learned from the different
philosophers.

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GECSEL: Understanding the Self

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Rubric for assessing the assignment and exercise 1:

Areas of
10 points 7 points 5 point 0 points
Assessment
Clarity of Explanation is tightly Explanation is Explanation lacks Explanation is not
Explanation focused and contains adequately focused. relevance or focus. clear.
accurate information.
Logical Sequence Ideas are presented in Ideas are in logical order Some ideas are not Ideas are not
of the Processes/ logical order with with adequate transitions presented in a proper presented in proper
Procedures effective transitions between most major order. order transition.
between major ideas. ideas.
Level of The student The student The student strives to The students do not
Understanding demonstrates deep demonstrates demonstrate understand the topic.
understanding of the understanding of the understanding of the
topic. topic. topic.

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GECSEL: Understanding the Self

B. EXPLORE

Name: __________________________________________ Score: __________________

Course, Year, Section: _______________________ Date Submitted: _________________
Direction:
 List down five (5) characteristics or talents/capabilities that you possess. Identify
person/s whom you believe influenced or helped develop them in you. Then state
how.

Characters/Talents/Capabilities Person/s who How?

influenced

They always bring me to church and taught me

Example: Being religious. My mother and father
how to pray.
1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

Exercise No. 3:
Name: __________________________________________ Score: __________________
Course, Year, Section: _______________________ Date Submitted: _________________

Ways of greetings in different countries. Greetings around the world differ radically from culture to
culture and sometimes they are shaped by religion or superstitious beliefs. Post the pictures and identify what
country they represent. Countries are identified below and paste it on the space provided below the pictures.
a. Russia
b. Philippines
c. Japan
d. Argentina
e. New Zealand
f. Nigeria

Rubric for assessing the activity/exercise no. 2 and 3:

Areas of
10 points 6 points 3 point 0 points
Assessment
Level of The student The student The student strives to The students do not
Understanding demonstrates deep demonstrates demonstrate understand the
understanding of the understanding of the understanding of the topic.
topic. topic. topic.
Clarity of Explanation is tightly Explanation is Explanation lacks Explanation is not
Explanation focused and contains adequately focused. relevance or focus. clear.
accurate information.
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GECSEL: Understanding the Self

Grammar and No errors Few errors Several errors Numerous errors

mechanics

C. EXPLAIN

Please see attached lecture notes

D. ELABORATE

Name: __________________________________________ Score: __________________

Course, Year, Section: _______________________ Date Submitted: _________________

Create a representation, diagram, or concept map of the SELF according to where you came from,
starting from your maternal and paternal grandparents. Provide a brief explanation of places, religion and culture
where they came from in which the family used it until now.

1. Is your family considered as individualistic or collectivistic? Why?

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GECSEL: Understanding the Self

2. What western or eastern cultures influence your family?

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3. What western or eastern culture would you like to adapt in your own self?
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E. EVALUATE

UNIT TEST

Name: __________________________________________ Score: __________________

Course, Year, Section: _______________________ Date Submitted: _________________

Direction: Encircle the letter of the correct answer.

1. Philosophy came from two Greek words philia and sophia. Sophia means ____.
a. Love b. Friendship c. knowledge d.
wisdom
2. A philosophy that tells us that an unexamined life is not worth living.
a. Know thyself b. I sense therefor I am c. I think therefore I am d. tabula rasa
3. Allen forces himself to get up from bed and go to school because he believes that he needs to
attend his classes. What part of Allen’s soul pushed him to get up?
a. Appetitive soul b. Rational soul c. spirited soul d. ignorance
4. The fact that man is doubting, he is ______ and when he is _____ he is existing.
a. Feeling b. Remembering c. thinking d.
ignorant
5. What I am today is a product of my experiences in the past stored in my memory. This belief
is based on the philosophy ___.
a. Tabula rasa b. Free will c. inner self d. outer self
6. Nora has the capacity to plan out for her life without being dictated by anybody else. This is
because her mind has the capacity for ___.
a. Receptivity b. Spontaneity c. perception d. memory
7. Athena feels guilty for cheating during the test. This is the work of her ___.
a. Id b. Ego c. super ego d.
all of the above
8. He proposed that “the Self is how you behave”.
a. Gilbert Ryle b. Maurice Merleau Ponty c. Paul Churchland d.
Sigmund Freud
9. He believes that the self originates in the physical brain, not in the invented brain.
a. Paul Churchland b. Sigmund Freud c. Socrates d.
Plato
10. Tonny is confident because he is always reminded of his accomplishments during his
elementary years. This is “the self” based on the philosophy:
a. Inner self b. Free will c. Tabula Rasa d.
Outer self
11. Glen was able to develop her self-confidence through badminton. Badminton is an example
of _______.
a. Language c. Game

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GECSEL: Understanding the Self

b. Play d. All of the above

12. Ben was able to understand the role of a chef and eventually wished to become one someday
because he was tasked to dress and act like a chef during their career guidance activity. This
is an example of self-development through ____.
a. Games c. Language
b. Play d. Research
13. Linda feels proud about herself because she was given by her teacher three stars during the
class. “Feeling proud about oneself” shows her _____.
a. “Me” Self
b. “I” Self
14. The socialization agent that helps us prepare for the world of work. It teaches us the
knowledge, skills and attitude needed for career success.
a. Home c. School
b. Church d. Sports
15. Men learn that being competitive in sports is considered as part of _____.
a. manhood c. the game
b. growing up d. none of the above
16. The following describes culture EXCEPT for one.
a. Learned c. Shared
b. Biologically Inherited d. Dynamic
17. Which of the following is NOT a symbol of culture?
a. Food c. Clothes
b. Religious Rites d. none of the above
18. How can one learn about culture and cultural practices?
a. Through talking with elderly only
b. Through acquisition of genes from the ancestors
c. Through reading historical books only
d. Through listening, talking, and interacting with other people.
19. At present, television, print media, advertisements and internet influence the language,
traditions, beliefs, knowledge and even our personalities.
a. True
b. False
20. How can one acquire the K-Pop culture?
a. By watching the television c. By choosing K-Pop clothing style
b. By listening to music d. all of the above
21. The scientific study of behavior and mental processes.
a. Psychology b. Philosophy c. Sociology d. Mathematics
22. Our sense of personal identity and of who we are as individuals.
a. Self b. Body c. Self-concept d. Self-awareness
23. “My legs” refer to ____ self.
a. extracorporeal b. spiritual c. bodily d. social
24. “My bed” refers to ____ self.
a. extracorporeal b. spiritual c. bodily d. social
25. “My personality” refers to ____ self.
a. extracorporeal b. spiritual c. bodily d. social
26. This is classified as the thinking self.
a. “Me” self b. “I” self c. Spiritual Self d. Social Self
27. “I am tall, dark and handsome. This is who I actually am no matter how others see me.” This
statement shows ___ self.
a. Perceived self b. Ideal Self c. Real Self d. Id
28. If the way that I am is aligned with the way that I want to be, then I will feel ____.
a. a sense of mental well-being. b. distress c. anxiety d. letter b and c
29. I want to sleep all day. I don’t care about the chores at home nor the demands of my studies.
This statement shows ___.
a. Id [Link] c. Super – ego d. none of the above

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Direction: Look at the list of characteristics and behaviors given below. If you decide the statement
is more likely to apply to people living in an individualist culture, write "I" in the blank space; if you
think it is characteristic of a collectivist culture, write "C."

_______1. There is no need for affiliation.

_______2. A girl needs to establish genuine friendships
_______3. It’s okay to stand out.
_______4. Face-saving is important.
_______5. The young guy wears whatever he wants to wear no matter what others will say
_______6. The boss is always right
_______7. The girl asks her parents if she can now marry.
_______8. Extended families exist
_______9. People love to do things on their own
_______10. People adhere to tradition.
_______11. There is a need for autonomy

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LESSON 1 THE SELF FROM VARIOUS PHILOSOPHICAL PERSPECTIVES

Philosophy as a subject presents various philosophers offering multiple perspectives

on just about any topic including the self. Philosophical, discussion of the self is a basic
search for meaning and purpose in life. Determination, rationalization, and identification of
the self set the direction from which an individual travels to fulfill his or her purpose in life.
The inability to define oneself leads to a lot of contradictions within the self later on; hence, it
is one of the many imperatives in life to know oneself and to go on with the business of
leading a life charted by oneself.

Socrates (c. 469 - 399 B.C.)Greek Philosopher - Know Thyself

Many people never consciously contemplate this question of

how one ought to live. Instead the course of their lives is largely

determined by the cultural values and norms which they

unquestionably adhere to. But according to Socrates, the examination

of this question is very important as it is through striving for answers to

it that one can hope to improve their life. One of the reasons why most do not consciously
contemplate this question is because it requires that one attain self-knowledge, or in other
words, turn their gaze inward and analyze both their true nature and the values which guide
their life. And such knowledge is perhaps the most difficult knowledge to obtain.
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College of Arts and Sciences
GECSEL: Understanding the Self

“…once we know ourselves, we may learn how to care for ourselves, but otherwise
we never shall.” (First Alcibiades)

When we turn our gaze inward in search of self-knowledge, Socrates thought we

would soon discover our true nature. And contrary to the opinion of the masses, one‟s true
self, according to Socrates, is not to be identified with what we own, with our social status,
our reputation, or even with our body. Instead, Socrates famously maintained that our true
self is our soul.

As a quick side note, it is important to mention that the Ancient Greeks lived before
the ascension of Christianity, and hence for them the notion of the „soul‟ did not have the
same religious connotations that it has for us. What Socrates actually meant when he made
the claim that our true self is our soul is not known for certain. Although many scholars have
taken a view similar to the one put forth by the famous historian of philosophy Frederick
Copelston who wrote that in calling our true self our soul Socrates was referring to “the
thinking and willing subject”.

According to Socrates it is the state of our soul, or our inner being, which determines
the quality of our life. Thus it is paramount that we devote considerable amounts of our
attention, energy, and resources to making our soul as good and beautiful as possible. Or as
he pronounces in Plato‟s dialogue the Apology: “I shall never give up philosophy or stop
exhorting you and pointing out the truth to any one of you whom I meet, saying in my most
accustomed way:

“Most excellent man, are you…not ashamed to care for the acquisition of wealth and
for reputation and honor, when you neither care nor take thought for wisdom and truth and
the perfection of your soul?” (Apology 29d)

After coming to the realization that one‟s inner self, or soul, is all important, Socrates
believed the next step in the path towards self-knowledge was to obtain knowledge of what
is good and what is evil, and in the process use what one learns to cultivate the good within
one‟s soul and purge the evil from it.

Most people dogmatically assume they know what is truly good and what is truly evil.
They regard things such as wealth, status, pleasure, and social acceptance as the greatest
of all goods in life, and think that poverty, death, pain, and social rejection are the greatest of
all evils.

However, Socrates disagreed with these answers, and also believed this view to be
extremely harmful. All human beings naturally strive after happiness, thought Socrates, for
happiness is the final end in life and everything we do we do because we think it will make
us happy. We therefore label what we think will bring us happiness as „good‟, and those
things we think will bring us suffering and pain as „evil‟. So it follows that if we have a
mistaken conception of what is good, then we will spend our lives frantically chasing after
things that will not bring us happiness even if we attain them.

However, according to Socrates if one devoted themselves to self-knowledge and

philosophical inquiry, they would soon be led to a more appropriate view of the good. There
is one supreme good, he claimed, and possession of this good alone will secure our
happiness. This supreme good, thought Socrates, is virtue.

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Virtue is defined as moral excellence, and an individual is considered virtuous if their

character is made up of the moral qualities that are accepted as virtues. In Ancient Greece
commonly accepted virtues included courage, temperance, prudence, and justice.

Socrates held virtue to be the greatest good in life because it alone was capable of
securing ones happiness. Even death is a trivial matter for the truly virtuous individual who
realizes that the most important thing in life is the state of his soul and the actions which
spring from it:

“Man, you don’t speak well, if you believe that a man worth anything at all would give
countervailing weight to the danger of life or death, or give consideration to anything but this
when he acts: whether his action is just or unjust, the action of a good or of an evil man.”
(Apology 28b-d).

In order to become virtuous Socrates maintained that we must arrive at knowledge of

what virtue really is. Knowledge of the nature of virtue, in other words, is the necessary and
sufficient condition for one to become virtuous.

This explains why Socrates went about conversing with his fellow Athenians, always
in search of the definition, or essence, of a specific virtue. He thought that when one arrived
at the correct definition of virtue, one would come to realize that virtue is the only things
which is intrinsically good. And since human beings naturally desire the good, as it alone
secures happiness, with this knowledge one would have no choice but to become virtuous.

To summarize this idea it is useful to express it in a simple formula: knowledge =

virtue = happiness. When we arrive at knowledge of virtue we will become virtuous, i.e., we
will make our souls good and beautiful. And when we perfect our souls, we will attain true
happiness.

If all individuals naturally desire happiness, and if it is only by becoming virtuous that
one can attain happiness, then a simple question arises: Why do so many people fail to
become virtuous and instead commit evil acts, thereby preventing themselves from attaining
that which they really want?

To put it bluntly, the answer to this question is that most people are ignorant. If one
truly knew what they were doing was evil, they would refrain from such an action. But
because all evil acts are committed out of ignorance, Socrates held that all evil acts are
committed involuntarily. Socrates did not mean that when one committed an evil act they did
so in some sort of state of complete unawareness, but rather that such an individual was
unaware that their action was evil. In Plato‟s dialogue the Protagoras Socrates says:

“My own opinion is more or less this: no wise man believes that anyone sins willingly or
willingly perpetuates any base or evil act; they know very well that every base or evil action
is committed involuntarily.” (Protagoras)

An individual who commits an evil act is one who is ignorant of the fact that virtue
alone is the one true good. Such an individual instead falsely assumes that wealth, power,
and pleasure are the greatest goods in life, and therefore if necessary will use evil means to
attain these goods. In other words, they are ignorant of the fact that by committing such evil
acts they are tarnishing their soul and thus condemning themselves to a perpetual
unhappiness.

Socrates was fully convinced that philosophy must obtain practical results for greater
wellbeing of society. And for Socrates, the very first step towards realization of this goal is

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GECSEL: Understanding the Self

the acquisition of wisdom through “knowing one‟s Self. As Socrates famously said, “ultimate
wisdom comes from knowing oneself.”

For Socrates, every man is composed of body and soul. This means, every person
is dualistic, that is, he is composed of 2 important aspects of personhood. For Socrates, this
means all individuals have an imperfect, impermanent aspect to him, and the body, while
maintaining that there is also a soul that is perfect and permanent.

Plato (c. 428 - 348 B.C.) Greek philosopher “Ignorance. The root and stem of every
evil.”

Plato was considered to be the greatest student

of Socrates. In fact, it was Plato who wrote his
philosophy. As well known, Socrates did not write
anything. It was Plato who systematically articulated
Socrates philosophy through his famous dialogues,
which also chronicled Socrates‟s life. Plato, as
student of Socrates basically took off from his master
and supported the idea that man is a dual nature of
body and soul. In addition to what Socrates, Plato
added that there are 3 components of the soul: the
rational soul, the spirited soul and appetitive soul.

The rational soul (intellect) is the thinking portion within each of us, which discerns
what is real and not, judges what is true and what is false, and makes the rational decisions.

The spirited soul, is the active portion; its function is to carry out the dictates of
reason.

Finally, the appetitive soul (emotion or desire) is the portion of each of us that wants
and feels many things, most of which must be deferred if we are to achieve self-
control.

Plato emphasizes that justice in the human person can only be attained if the 3 parts
of the soul are working harmoniously with one another. This is a similar conception of good
and bad as the Buddhists have: Rather than bad being sin, it is considered a matter of
ignorance. So, someone who does something bad requires education, not punishment.
The soul is drawn to the good, the ideal, and so is drawn to God. We gradually move
closer and closer to God through reincarnation as well as in our individual lives.

DUALISM: There‟s the body, which is material, mortal, and “moved” (a victim of
causation).

Then there‟s the soul, which is ideal, immortal, and “unmoved” (enjoying free will).
The soul includes reason, of course, as well as self-awareness and moral sense. Plato
says the soul will always choose to do good, if it recognizes what is good.

Aristotle (384 - 322 B.C.) Greek Philosopher- “We are what we do repeatedly.”

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Aristotle undeniably diverged from Plato

in his view of what a human being most truly
and fundamentally is. Plato, at least in many of
his dialogues, held that the true self of human
beings is the reason or the intellect that
constitutes their soul and that is separable
from their body. Aristotle, for his part, insisted
that the human being is a composite of body
and soul and that the soul cannot be separated
from the body. Aristotle‟s philosophy of self
was constructed in terms of hylomorphism in
which the soul of a human being is the form or
the structure of the human body or the human
matter, i.e., the functional organization in virtue
of which human beings are able to perform
their characteristic activities of life, including
growth, nutrition, reproduction, perception,
imagination, desire, and thinking.

As the soul, in Aristotle's view, is an activity of the body, it cannot be immortal

(when a knife is destroyed, the cutting stops). More precisely, the soul is the "first activ ity"
of a living body. This is a state, or a potential for actual, or 'second', activity. "The axe
has an edge for cutting" was, for Aristotle, analogous to "humans have bodies for rational
activity," and the potential for rational activity thus constituted the essence of a human
soul.

Aristotle used his concept of the soul in many of his works; the De Anima (On the
Soul) provides a good place to start to gain more understanding of his views.

Aristotle also believed that there were sections of the soul:

*the calculative and scientific parts on the rational side used for making
decisions,
*the desiderative,
*the vegetative parts on the irrational side responsible for identifying our
needs.

St. Augustine of Hippo (A.D. 354 - 430) “Thou hast made us for thyself, O
Lord, and our heart is restless until it finds its rest in thee.”

Augustine took from Plato the view that the human self is an
immaterial soul that can think. Plato held that after death the
souls eternal truths, a sort of heaven beyond space and time.
Augustine said that these forms were ideas in the mind of the
perfect eternal God. He said that what was required was that
we love the perfect eternal God.
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While Plato emphasized the importance of perfecting reason

and following it, Augustine emphasized the importance of the WILL,
the ability to choose between good and evil. He introduced the
concept of freewill which means that humans are morally responsible
for their actions. The fundamental religious duty is to love and serve
God; if we can succeed in this, we will also choose the good and avoid
the evil. The goal of every human person is to attain communion and
bliss with the Divine by living his life on earth in virtue. He created a
new concept of individual identity: the idea of the self.

Human nature, as created by God, is good, and the free will that He originally gave
us places us higher in the metaphysical ladder of beings than nonhuman animals or plants.
(The angels and, of course, God Himself are above us.)

Thomas of Aquinas (1225-1274)- “Beware the man of a single book.”

Aquinas is usually thought to have a theory of "indirect"

self-knowledge, according to which the mind only knows itself
in a second-order act that reflects on a first-order act directed
toward extramental objects. Aquinas said that indeed man is
composed of 2 parts: matter aand form. Matter or hyle in
Greek, refers to “common stuff that makes up everythingin the
universe. Man‟s body is part of theis matter. Form or morphe
in Greek refers to the essence of a substance or thing. “It is
what makes what it is.” To Aquinas, just as Aristotle, the soul
is what animates the body; it is what makes us human.

For Aquinas, we don't encounter ourselves as isolated minds or selves, but rather always as
agents interacting with our environment. Aquinas begins his theory of self-knowledge from
the claim that all our self-knowledge is dependent on our experience of the world around us.

René Descartes (1596 - 1650) French philosopher

"Cogito ergo sum," I think, therefore I exist.

Descartes views as the “self”; a thinking thing concludes that

I know one thing clearly and distinctly, namely,
that I exist because I think:
"Cogito ergo sum," I think, therefore I exist.

From this starting point I can begin to note other truths

that I know clearly and distinctly, such as the principle of
identity (A is A) and the notion that things in the world are
"substances." Since identity and substance are ideas that are not

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based on sensation, they must be innate (that is, they must be implicit in the very act of
thinking itself). Even sensible things (e.g., a block of wax) are knowable not based on sense
experience but intellectually, insofar as we know them to be the same things even though
their sensible appearances might change dramatically.

David Hume (1711 - 1776) Scottish philosopher

“ No man ever threw away life while it was worth living.”

Hume‟s Thesis: There is no soul, it is an illusion

created by our unfounded trust in cause and effect.
Because our consciousness is constantly changing
there is no „self‟ which remains the same.

Hume begins by setting up the theory of

self which argues that there is a permanent
soul:
“There are some philosophers, who imagine we
are every moment intimately conscious of what
we call our Self; that we feel its existence and
its continuance in existence; and are certain,
beyond the evidence of a demonstration, both
of its perfect identity and simplicity…”

Immanuel Kant (1724 - 1804) German philosopher

“What can I know? What ought I do? What can I hope?”

Not many philosophers would turn to Kant for a

positive view about the metaphysics of the
self (the referent of „I‟). On the contrary, most of
Kant‟s interpreters read him as warning that any attempt
to give a positive account of the self‟s nature is doomed
to failure, and as building his theories without
metaphysical assumptions about the self.
This broad interpretive approach, which is
“anti-metaphysical interpretation,” often sees
Kant‟s project as anticipating Wittgenstein‟s
claims that the self or subject “doesn‟t belong to
the world, but is a limit of the world.”
Kant‟s discussions of the self shows he thinks that, if there were any such thing, it
would have to be something outside of appearances, in the realm of things in themselves.
Since that is a realm we could only cognize a priori, a metaphysics of the self would have to
be an a priori metaphysics of a thing in itself. But one of Kant‟s central doctrines is that we
have no cognition of things in themselves, and he explicitly carries this doctrine over to the
case of the self:

“I … have no cognition of myself as I am, but only as I appear to myself” (B158).

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Since a metaphysics of the self would have to involve some sort of claim concerning
the nature of the self in itself, it would seem that Kant has ruled out the possibility of any
such doctrine‟s being legitimate.

Gilbert Ryle (1900 - 1976) 20th Century British philosopher –

“Man need not be degraded to a machine by being denied to be the ghost in a

machine”

Ryle rejects Descartes‟ theory of the

relation between mind and body, on the
grounds that it approaches the investigation of
mental processes as if they could be isolated
from physical processes.

In order to demonstrate how this theory

is misleading, he explains that knowing how to
perform an act skillfully may be not only a
matter of being able to reason practically, but
also a matter of being able to put practical
reasoning into action.

Practical actions may not necessarily be produced by highly theoretical reasoning or

complex sequences of intellectual operations. The meaning of actions may be explained not
by making inferences about hidden mental processes, but by examining the rules that
govern those actions.

According to Ryle, mental processes are merely intelligent acts. There are no mental
processes distinct from intelligent acts. The operations of the mind are not merely
represented by intelligent acts; they are those intelligent acts. Thus, acts of learning,
remembering, imagining, knowing, or willing are not merely clues to hidden mental
processes or complex sequences of intellectual operations; they are the way in which those
mental processes or intellectual operations are defined. Logical propositions are not merely
clues to modes of reasoning; they are those modes of reasoning

Maurice Merleau-Ponty-French philosopher (1908-1961)

“I sense, therefore I am”

Merleau-Ponty believed the physical body to be an

important part of what makes up the subjective self.
This concept stands in contradiction to rationalism and
empiricism. Rationalism asserts that reason and mental
perception, rather than physical senses and experience,
are the basis of knowledge and self.

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Mind or consciousness cannot be defined formally

in terms of self-knowledge or representation, then, but
is essentially engaged in the structures and actions of the human world and encompasses
all of the diverse intentional orientations of human life.

Sigmund Freud (1856-1939 ) The Psychoanalytic Theory

“The mind is an iceberg, it floats with one-seventh of its bulk above water”

Sigmund Freud (May 6, 1856 to September 23, 1939) was an

Austrian neurologist who developed psychoanalysis, a method
through which an analyst unpacks unconscious conflicts based
on the free associations, dreams and fantasies of the patient.
His theories on child sexuality, libido and the ego, among other
topics, were some of the most influential academic concepts of
the 20th century.

Freud proposed that the conscious mind (everything we are aware of) is seen as the
tip of an iceberg; the unconscious mind is the repository of primitive wishes and impulses
kept at bay and meditated by the preconscious area. Freud developed a more structural
model of the mind, comprising the: id (child in us), the unconscious level – the pleasure
principle containing the two biological instincts: Eros (love) , helps people to survive and
directs sustaining activities or the life instincts known as libido and Thanatos (death)
instincts; ego (adult)follows the reality principle both unconscious and conscious, this
satisfies the demands of the id in a safe and acceptable way; superego (parent), the
psychic apparatus, the morality principle, motivates us to behave in a socially reasonable
and acceptable manner, this can make the person feel guilty.

However, in cases where there is conflict between the id and superego, the ego has
to serve as a referee and mediate the conflict, thus this can deploy defense mechanisms to
prevent overwhelming anxiety.

Lesson 2: THE SELF FROM THE SOCIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE (3 hours)

Lesson 2 discusses the self from the perspectives of sociology and anthropology.
The theory of Herbert Mead on the Social Self will be explored as well
as the different socialization agents. It will also discuss the role of
culture in the development of the self, including the contemporary
culture which influence the people today.

Societies shape the development of their members in very

different ways. Each society teaches its concepts, values, and
accepted behaviors to its children. This instruction is largely

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accomplished by social institutions such as the home, school, and church.

Mead and the Social Self

George Herbert Mead, a sociologist from the late 1800s, is well known for his theory
of the social self, which includes the concepts of 'self„, 'me„, and 'I' . Mead‟s work focuses
on the way in which the self is developed.
Mead's theory of the social self is based on the perspective that the self emerges
from social interactions, such as observing and interacting with others, responding to others'
opinions about oneself, and internalizing external opinions and internal feelings about
oneself
The social aspect of self is an important distinction because other sociologists and
psychologists felt that the self was based on biological factors and inherited traits. According
to Mead, the self is not there from birth, but it is developed over time from social experiences
and activities.

According to Mead, three activities develop the self:

 Language develops self by allowing individuals to respond to each other through
symbols, gestures, words, and sounds. It allows individuals to take on the “role of
the other” and allows people to respond to his or her own gestures in terms of the
symbolized attitudes of others.
 Play develops self by allowing individuals to take on different roles, pretend, and
express expectation of others. Play develops one's self-consciousness through
role-playing. This process of role-playing is key to the generation of self-
consciousness and to the general development of the self. “All the world‟s a
stage, and all the men and women merely players.”
 Games develop self by allowing individuals to understand and adhere to the rules
of the activity. Self is developed by understanding that there are rules in which
one must abide by in order to win the game or be successful at an activity. In the
game, the individual is required to internalize the roles of all others who are
involved with him or her in the game and must comprehend the rules of the
game.
According to Mead's theory, the self has two sides or phases: 'me' and 'I.'
 The 'me' is considered the socialized aspect of the individual. The 'me'
represents learned behaviors, attitudes, and expectations of others and of
society. A phase of the self that is in the past. The “me” represents the
expectations and attitudes of others (the generalized other). It has been
developed by the knowledge of society and social interactions that the individual
has gained. It allows the individual to still express creativity and individualism and
understand when to possibly bend and stretch the rules that govern social
interactions. One must participate in the different social positions within society
and only subsequently can one use that experience to take the perspective of
others and thus become self-conscious.
 The 'I', therefore, can be considered the present and future phase of the self. The
'I' represents the individual's identity based on response to the 'me„, or the
person‟s individuality.
The 'me' and the 'I' have a didactic relationship.

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The Socialization Process

Humans learn the expectations of society through socialization. By interacting with
others, they learn about the norms, cultures, values, etc. Socialization is different based on
race, gender and class.

Agents of Socialization
a. The Family. The family is the basic unit of the society. It the first and primary venue
of sociality for children. Families introduce children to the expectations of society.
Socialization is different based on race, gender and class.
b. The Media. Media is the means where people can gain information as well as
entertainment. It may be in the form of print, radio, television and the internet. The
average young person (age 8–19) spends 6 3/4 hours per day immersed in media in
various forms, often using multiple media forms simultaneously. Television is the
dominant medium, although half of all youth use a computer daily.
c. Peers. Peers are individuals whom you share one or more characteristics with such
as age, social status, economic status, occupation, or education. Interactions with
them are usually on a level of equality and are very influential to one‟s attitudes,
emotions, and behavior. For children and adolescents, peer culture is an important
source of identity. Through interaction with peers, children learn concepts of self,
gain social skills, and form values and attitudes.
d. Religion/Church. Church is a fellowship of individuals believing in one god. It may
also refer to a structure where people gather to worship, pray and do religious
activities. It a place where people learn about God and how to live a righteous life.
Children tend to develop the same religious beliefs as their parents. Very often those
who disavow religion return to their original faith at some point in their life, especially
if they have strong ties to their family of origin and after they form families of their
own.
e. Sports. Sports are activities involving physical exertion and skill in which an
individual or team competes against another or others for entertainment (Oxford
Languages). Through sports, men and women learn concepts of self. Men learn that
being competitive in sports is considered a part of “manhood.”
f. Schools. Schools are institutions dedicated to educate individuals. In schools we
learn about essential things for us to be successful in our career, personal and social
life. In school, teachers and other students are the source of expectations that
encourage children to think and behave in particular ways. Research finds that
teachers respond differently to boys than to girls, with boys receiving more of their
attention.

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Lesson 3: THE SELF AND THE ANTHROPOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE (2 hours)

The Self embedded in culture

Cultural Anthropology is the study of human culture and society. It is the study of
people – their origin, their development, and contemporary variations, wherever and
whenever those have been found (Ferraro, 2008).

Culture on the other hand refers to the major way in which human beings adapt to
their environment and give meaning to their lives. It includes human behavior and ideas
that are learned rather than genetically transmitted, as well as the material objects produced
by a group of people (Nanda and Warren, 2007).

How we see ourselves shapes our lives, and is shaped by our cultural context. Self
perceptions influence how we think about the world, our social relationships, health and
lifestyles choices, and another people‟s well-being. Culture has such a great influence on our
lives and is contributing greatly to our self-concept. The influence might either be negative
or positive depending on the type of culture we have been brought up in. Culture contributes
a great deal in shaping our individual personality or the SELF. The impact of culture on the
self is based on our cultural beliefs and values. It also depends on the kind of education we
receive or the kind of culture we are growing up into. It is sometimes argued that the
concepts of the self, the person, or the individual are culturally variable because people are
not always considered to be persons everywhere. Culture is something shared that
characterize a group collectively just like identity.

The Origins of Self explores the role that selfhood plays in defining human society,
and each human individual in that society. It considers the genetic and cultural origins of self,
the role that self plays in socialization and language, and the types of self we generate in our
individual journeys to and through adulthood.

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Culture play a vital role in the development of an individual. Haviland, et al. (2005)
defines culture as “consisting of the abstract ideas, values, and perceptions of the world that
inform and are reflected in people‟s behavior. Culture is shared by members of a society and
produces behavior that is intelligible to other members of that society. Culture are learned
rather than inherited biologically, and all the different parts of a culture function as an
integrated whole.” Anthropologist Clifford Geertz states that “…culture provides the link
between what men are intrinsically capable of becoming and what they actually, one by one,
in fact become.” This leads us to the importance of culture in understanding who we are as
human beings.

Man acquires his knowledge, beliefs, morals, customs, and other habits and
capacities from his interactions with others in the society where he belongs. We learn our
cultural practices and traditions by listening, talking, and interacting with other people. As a
child we learn appropriate behavior by observing and copying the behavior of adults. We
express our feelings and make judgements of what is right or what is wrong based on our
interpretation of adults‟ behavior. This serves to guide our own behavior and perceptions
throughout life. Thus, our shared beliefs, values, memories, and expectations bind us
together who grow up in the same culture.

Anthropology - has explored various meanings of culture, self and identity to better
understand the self. - holds a holistic view of human nature. It is considered with how
cultural and biological processes interact to shape the self.

Contemporary Anthropologist Culture and self are complementary concepts that are
to be understood in relation to one another.

Who am I?
What could be the answer to this question?

Anthropology considers human experience as an interplay of “nature” referring to

genetic inheritance which sets the individual‟s potentials. - meaning to all of the genes and
hereditary factors that influence who we are – from our physical appearance to our
personality characteristics

“nurture” referring to the sociocultural environment - meaning to all the environmental

variations that impact who we are, including our early childhood experiences, how we were
raised, our social relationship, and our surrounding culture.

Anthropology is providing insights into the nature of self-based on continuous

understanding of the basic element of culture

The Self and person in contemporary anthropology

Contemporary culture refers to current, shared themes, beliefs and values of the
society. It includes present practices, trends, as well as political and social beliefs. At
present, television, print media, advertisements and internet influence the language,
traditions, beliefs, knowledge and even our personalities. We are fond of artists, loveteams
and other performers whom we appreciate and (consciously or unconsciously) imitate their
way of talking, fashion style, expressions, and even relationships and way of life. Magazines

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and other print materials tends to present and set acceptable clothing, accessories,
cosmetics, etc. Look at the picture on your right. What message does it try to convey to you?
The internet provides us with diverse entertainment, allowed us to easily connect with
others, provided latest information, etc. Whether we are aware or not, all these affect our
self-concept and our individuality as a whole. With this, Clifford Geertz seems to be right
when he said, “Culture is also not a force or causal agent in the world, but a context in which
people live out their lives.”
Two ways in which the concept of self is viewed in different societies:
1. egocentric – suggests that each person is defined as a replica of all humanity but
capable of acting independently from others.
2. Sociocentric – the self is viewed as dependent on the situation or setting.

In sociocentric, the membership of a person in a particular social group define the

boundaries of the self.
In egocentric, the self is viewed as autonomous and distinct individual with inherent
characteristics.

- From the similarities and differences in characteristics among individuals, people

construct their social identities.

- The identity toolbox refers to the “features of a person‟s identity that he or she
chooses to emphasize in constructing a social self”.

- Self-identification may be attained by: kinship, family membership, gender, age,

language, religion, ethnicity, personal appearance, and socioeconomic status

- Some characteristics such as kinship, gender and age are almost universally used
to differentiate people.

- Other characteristics such as ethnicity, personal appearance, and socioeconomic

status are not always used in every society

- Family membership could be the most significant feature to determine the person‟s
social identity.

- Another important identity determinant that is often viewed as essential for the
maintenance of a group identity is language.

- In other societies, religious affiliation is an important marker of group identity.

- Personal naming, a universal practice with numerous cross-cultural variations
establishes a child‟s birthright and social identity. A name is an important device to
individualize a person and to have an identity.

- Changes in one‟s identity usually involve rites of passage that prepares individuals
for new roles from one stage of life to another.

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======================================================================

Lesson 4: THE SELF AS PSYCHOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE (3 hours)

This lesson discusses the self from the perspective of Psychology. It will discuss the
self as a cognitive construct, the theory of William James on Me and I self, the real versus
ideal self and other dichotomy of self with emphasis on promoting alignment or congruence.

Psychology is the scientific study of behavior and mental processes and how they
are affected by an organism‟s physical state, mental state, and external environment. Its
explanation of behavior and other practices are anchored on the biological, learning,
cognitive, sociocultural, and psychodynamic perspectives. These approaches reflect
different questions about human behavior, different assumptions about how the mind works,
and, most important, different kinds of explanations of why people do what they do. (Wade
and Tavris, 2000)
The “Self”, as one of the foundations of human behavior, is one of the central subjects of
psychology. It is defined in psychology as “our sense of personal identity and of who we are
as individuals.” Psychology explains self by focusing on the individual and the cognitive
functions at the same time recognizing other factors that contributes to its development.

The Self as a Cognitive Construction

As a child develops his ability to think, reason, decide

and other cognitive functions, he/she also develops his/her self-
concept. The self-concept is the belief and feelings that we have
about ourselves. This includes our beliefs about our personality
traits, physical characteristics, abilities, values, goals, and roles,
as well as the knowledge that we exist as individuals.

Throughout childhood and adolescence, the self-concept

becomes more abstract and complex and is organized into a
variety of different cognitive aspects of the self, known as self-
schemas – a cognitive structure involving some aspects of the self that is considered
important to the individual. Children have self-schemas about their progress in school,
their appearance, their skills at sports and other activities, and many other aspects. In turn,
these self-schemas direct and inform their processing of self-relevant information, much as
we saw schemas in general affecting our social cognition.

Self-awareness refers to the extent to which we are currently fixing our attention on
our own self-concept.

William James and the Me-Self and I-Self

William James, a renowned American psychologist, developed a theory of self-

consciousness in his work, Principles of Psychology, which was published in 1890. James
discusses the composition of what makes the Self, and breaks it down into "I" and "Me" and
explaining the differences and importance of each. The "Me" is explained as being the
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material, social, and spiritual components of the ego. The theory also details self-esteem
describing it as the ratio of an individual's actual behavior in contrast to their pretensions.

William James Theory of Self

• The self is divided into two main categories: “Me” Self and “I” Self
 “ME” Self refers to the aspects of someone that come from that person's
experiences or known as the “empirical self”.
Three sections:
 The Material Self. Consists of things that belong to us or that we belong to.
Things like family, clothes, our body, and money are some of what makes up our
material selves. The material self refers to tangible objects, people, or places
that carry the designation my or mine. It is not the physical entities themselves,
however, that comprise the material self. Rather, it is our psychological
ownership of them (Scheibe, 1985). This is what we mean when we talk about
the extended self. It includes all of the people, places, and things that we regard
as “ours.”
 Two subclasses of the material self:
 The bodily self . This includes our body and its parts.
Example, “My eyes.”
 Extracorporeal (beyond the body) self. Rosenberg (1979)
has referred to the extracorporeal self as the extended self.
This refers to other people (my children), pets (my dog),
possessions (my car), places (my home town), and the
products of our labors (my painting) that we consider ours.
 The Social Self. Refers to how we are regarded and recognized by others. Our
social selves are who we are in a given social situation. For James, people
change how they act depending on the social situation that they are in. James
believed that people had as many social selves as they did social situations they
participated in.
• The Spiritual Self. For James, the spiritual self was who we are at our core.
The spiritual self is more concrete or permanent than the other two selves. The
spiritual self is our subjective and most intimate self. Aspects of an individual's
spiritual self include things like their personality, core values, and conscience
that do not typically change throughout their lifetime. The spiritual self is our
inner self or our psychological self. It is comprised of our self-perceived abilities,
attitudes, emotions, interests, values, motives, opinions, traits, and wishes.
 „I‟ Self. This is classified as the thinking self. For James, the "I" part of self was the
thinking self, which could not be further divided. He linked this part of the self to the
soul of a person, or what is now thought of as the mind.

True vs False Selves

Winnicott in his book “Ego Distortion in Terms of True and False Self” published in
1960 said, “We all wear masks. Our social masks enable us to survive and to interact
appropriately in a wide variety of interpersonal contexts. We show a different side of
ourselves to different people in our lives: significant others, family members, friends,
professional colleagues, and acquaintances”. He further explains that the false self develops
through early environmental failure wherein true self-potential is unrealized and hidden. The
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idea is that infants depend on their primary caregiver not only to meet their most basic needs
for survival, but also for reliable, accurate, and empathic emotional responses.

There is a natural human tendency to protect our authentic selves from the scrutiny
of the outside world. When we protect our true selves, we are able to avoid being rejected
or hurt. There is a downside to this protection though – we may miss out on the opportunity
to have genuine connections with other people.

Some of us may relate to both ourselves and others from a dominantly false self-
position. If we have been relating to the world in this way for many years, it can feel
“normal.”

 Authentic Self:
o The sense of self based on spontaneous authentic experience and feeling of
being alive, having “real self”.
o Lack of disparity between values and lived values
o Unique combination of your vast multitude of talents, skills, interests, and abilities
 False Self:
o Putting on a facade with others may result in an internal sensation of being
depleted, drained, or emotionally numb
o Possible tendencies to turn to mood-altering substances in order to feel “different”
o Actions may feel forced, alienated, or detached

While there are clear distinctions between characteristics of acting from the authentic
self versus the false self, it is important to remember that the false self, or social mask,
serves many adaptive (i.e., useful) purposes. We need to be able to utilize aspects of the
false self in a variety of social contexts. The difference between utilizing the false self in an
adaptive way versus a maladaptive way has to do with both our awareness of its attributes
and sense of congruence between our social masks and our core values.

When we are aware of the many sides of ourselves we are able to gain a sense of
ownership and mastery over when and how we choose to show these sides. When we are
in control of what part of ourselves we choose to show, the false self is no longer foreign and
detached: our social masks become congruent and integrated. We are whole.

Real and Ideal Self-Concepts

Carl Rogers came up with his conception of self through

the interventions he used for his clients as he practices the
Person – Centered Therapy. This approach is a non-directive
intervention because it believes that all people have potential to
solve their own problems. Rogers believe that people must be
fully honest with themselves in order to have personal discovery
on oneself. In this concept of self, he came up with three sides of
a triangle.

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• Perceived Self (self-worth) It is how the person sees self and others see him.
• The real self (Self-Image). It is who we actually are. It is how we think, how we feel,
look, and act. It can be seen by others, but because we have no way of truly knowing
how others view us, the real self becomes our self-image.
• The ideal self is how we want to be. It is an idealized image that we have developed
over time, based on what we have learned and experienced. May include
components of what our parents have taught us, what we admire in others, what our
society promotes, and what we think is in our best interest.
Importance of Alignment
• If the way that I am (the real self) is aligned with the way that I want to be (the ideal
self), then I will feel a sense of mental well-being or peace of mind.
• If the way that I am is not aligned with how I want to be, the incongruence, or lack
of alignment, will result in mental distress or anxiety.
The greater the level of incongruence between the ideal self and real self, the greater
the level of resulting distress

Lesson 5: THE SELF IN WESTERN AND ORIENTAL/ EASTERN THOUGHT (2 hours)

Lesson 5 discusses the self from the eastern and western thought. It will discuss
individualism and collectivism as opposing cultures that influence the development of the
self. Certain religious beliefs that are known to have influenced these thoughts will also be
explored.

Different cultures and varying environment tends to create different perceptions of

the “self” and one of the most common distinctions between cultures and people is the
eastern vs. western dichotomy wherein eastern represents Asia and western represents
Europe and Northern America. Oftentimes we associate western thought with individualism
and eastern/oriental with collectivism. In this lesson we learn more of their differences in
terms of culture, values, norms, and practices.

The Social Construction of the Self in Eastern and Western Thought

Individualism
• Individualist culture is a culture in which the goals of the individual take precedence
over the goals of the group.
• It is characterized by individual autonomy; self-oriented; personal goals; unique and
independent; individual privacy; nuclear family; individual rewards (equity);
competition

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• Examples of Countries with Generally Individualistic Cultures

United States Italy

Australia Belgium
United Kingdom Sweden
Canada Ireland
Netherlands Norway
Hungary (post-communist generation) Switzerland
New Zealand Germany

Collectivism
• Collectivist culture is a culture in which the goals of the group take precedence over
the goals of the individual.
• It is characterized by group unity and harmony; group-oriented; group goals;
conforming and interdependent; group belongingness; extended family; equal
distribution of reward (equality); cooperation
• Examples of Countries with Generally Collectivistic Cultures
China Malaysia
Taiwan Egypt
India Cyprus
Pakistan Ghana
Bangladesh Nepal
Indonesia Argentina
Afghanistan Armenia

In other words, in an individualist culture, members are responsible for themselves

and, perhaps, their immediate families. In a collectivist culture, members are responsible for
the group as a whole. In an individualist culture, success is measured by how far one stands
out from the crowd. Ex: self-made millionaires, employees of the month, standing out. In a
collectivist culture, success is measured by one‟s contributions to the group as a whole. Ex:
loyalty to company or country, specialized skills, fitting in.
Also applies on a personal level. That is, one can personally be collectivist while his
or her culture is individualist:
 Cooperation versus competition.
 Importance of in-group and out-group members

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Individualism vs. Collectivism

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Religious Beliefs
The following religious beliefs have generally influenced the culture of different
countries as well as the self, specifically.

Confucianism
• This can be seen as a code of ethical conduct, of how one should properly act
according to their relationship with other people, thus it is also focused on having a
harmonious social life (Ho 1995, 116).
• The cultivated self in Confucianism is what some scholars call a “subdued self”
wherein personal needs are repressed for the good of many, making Confucian
society also hierarchical for the purpose of maintaining order and balance in society
(Ho 1995, 118).
Taoism
• Living in the way of the Tao or the universe. Taoism rejects having one definition of
what the Tao is, and one can only state clues of what it is as they adapt a free-
flowing, relative, unitary, as well as paradoxical view of almost everything.
• The self is not just an extension of the family or the community; it is part of the
universe, one of the forms and manifestations of the Tao (Ho 1995, 120)
Buddhism
 This believes that the self is seen as an illusion, born out of ignorance, of trying to
hold and control things, or human-centered needs, thus the self is also the source of
all these suffering (Ho 1995, 121).

In general, Confucianism and Taoism still situate the self within a bigger context. The
person, in striving to a better person, does not create a self above other people or nature but
a self that is beneficial to his/her community as well as in order and in harmony within
everything else. As for Buddhism, the self, with all its connections and selfish ideas, is totally
taken, not just out of the center of the picture, but out of the whole picture as a whole.

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