EE 401 -Module V

Satellite communication
Multiple access (MA) techniques-FDMA, TDMA, CDMA, SDMA -applications in
satellite communication wire, MA techniques applications in wired
communication. in satellite communication, earth station.
Fibers – types: sources, detectors used, digital filters, optical link

Jerry Kuriakose Module 5 EE401 SCMS 1

Elements of a Satellite Communication Link

Jerry Kuriakose Module 5 EE401 SCMS 2

Elements of a Satellite Communication Link
• The basic structure consists of many earth stations on the ground and
these are linked with a satellite in the space. The user is connected to
the earth station through a terrestrial network and this terrestrial
network may be a telephone switch or dedicated link to an earth
station. The user generates a baseband signal that is processed
through a terrestrial network and transmitted to a satellite at the
earth station.
• The satellite consists of a large number of repeaters in space, that
receives the modulated RF carrier in its uplink frequency spectrum
from all the earth stations in the network, amplifies these carriers and
retransmits them back to the earth stations in the downlink
frequency spectrum.

Jerry Kuriakose Module 5 EE401 SCMS 3

Elements of a Satellite Communication Link
• To avoid interference between uplink & downlink, downlink
frequency spectrum should be kept different from the uplink
frequency spectrum. The signal at the receiving earth station is
processed to get back the base band signal, it is sent to the user
through a terrestrial network.
• Commercial communication satellites use a freq band of 500MHz
bandwidth near 6GHz for uplink transmission and another 500MHz
bandwidth near 4GHz for downlink transmission
• Since 6/4 GHz band is used in many countries, the problem of mutual
interference may occur.

Jerry Kuriakose Module 5 EE401 SCMS 4

Multiple Accessing

Jerry Kuriakose Module 5 EE401 SCMS 5

Multiple Accessing

Jerry Kuriakose Module 5 EE401 SCMS 6

Multiple Accessing Arrangements

Jerry Kuriakose Module 5 EE401 SCMS 7

Frequency Division Multiple Access

Jerry Kuriakose Module 5 EE401 SCMS 8

Frequency Division Multiple Access

Jerry Kuriakose Module 5 EE401 SCMS 9

SPADE

Jerry Kuriakose Module 5 EE401 SCMS 10

SPADE

Jerry Kuriakose Module 5 EE401 SCMS 11

Carrier frequency assignments for the Intelsat single-channel-per-carrier PCM multiple-access
demand-assignment equipment (SPADE)

Jerry Kuriakose Module 5 EE401 SCMS 12

Common Signaling Channel in SPADE

Jerry Kuriakose Module 5 EE401 SCMS 13

Time Division Multiple Accessing

Jerry Kuriakose Module 5 EE401 SCMS 14

Time Division Multiple Accessing

Jerry Kuriakose Module 5 EE401 SCMS 15

Time Division Multiple Accessing

Jerry Kuriakose Module 5 EE401 SCMS 16

TDMA-Unique word Correlator

Jerry Kuriakose Module 5 EE401 SCMS 17

Time Division Multiple Accessing

Jerry Kuriakose Module 5 EE401 SCMS 18

Time Division Multiple Accessing

Jerry Kuriakose Module 5 EE401 SCMS 19

Time Division Multiple Accessing

Jerry Kuriakose Module 5 EE401 SCMS 20

CodeDivision Multiple Accessing

Jerry Kuriakose Module 5 EE401 SCMS 21

CDMA Encoder

Jerry Kuriakose Module 5 EE401 SCMS 22

CDMA Decoder

Jerry Kuriakose Module 5 EE401 SCMS 23

CodeDivision Multiple Accessing

Jerry Kuriakose Module 5 EE401 SCMS 24

CodeDivision Multiple Accessing

Jerry Kuriakose Module 5 EE401 SCMS 25

CodeDivision Multiple Accessing

Jerry Kuriakose Module 5 EE401 SCMS 26

CDMA – Correct code

Jerry Kuriakose Module 5 EE401 SCMS 27

CDMA – Orthogonal code

Jerry Kuriakose Module 5 EE401 SCMS 28

Optical Fibre Communication.
• Electromagnetic waves are guided through a media.
• Uses light as the carrier of information
• Uses glass or plastic fibre cables
• Have very high Bandwidth

Jerry Kuriakose Module 5 EE401 SCMS 29

Advantages of Optical Fiber Cables
• Wider bandwidth & greater information capacity
• Immunity to cross talk
• Possible since no electric current flows through it
• Immunity to static interference (lightning, electric mototrs, fluorescent lights etc)
• Environmental immunity
• Resistant to weather variations, corrosive liquids & gases
• Safety & convenience
• Lower transmission loss
• Security
• Durability & reliability
• Economic
• Fewer repeaters

Jerry Kuriakose Module 5 EE401 SCMS 30

Disadvantages of Optical Fiber Cables
• Interfacing costs
• Low tensile strength
• Remote electrical power needed for regenerating equipment
• Susceptible to bending losses
• Need for specialized tools, equipment & training

Jerry Kuriakose Module 5 EE401 SCMS 31

Optical fiber
communication

Jerry Kuriakose Module 5 EE401 SCMS 32

Jerry Kuriakose Module 5 EE401 SCMS 33
Optical fiber
• Three types of optical fibres commonly used
• Plastic core & cladding
• Glass core & plastic cladding (PCS fiber)
• Glass core & Glass cladding (SCS fiber)
• Plastic fibers are flexible, more rugged than glass, easier to install, less
expensive & light weight
• But plastic fibers have attenuation & do not propagate light as
efficiently as glass. So plastic cables are used for short cable runs.

Jerry Kuriakose Module 5 EE401 SCMS 34

Cable configurations

Jerry Kuriakose Module 5 EE401 SCMS 35

Refraction of light

Jerry Kuriakose Module 5 EE401 SCMS 36

Jerry Kuriakose Module 5 EE401 SCMS 37
Jerry Kuriakose Module 5 EE401 SCMS 38
Cable configurations

Jerry Kuriakose Module 5 EE401 SCMS 39

Cable
configurations
• Single mode &
• Multi mode

Jerry Kuriakose Module 5 EE401 SCMS 40

• Single mode
step index

Multimode
Step index

Multimode
graded

Jerry Kuriakose Module 5 EE401 SCMS 41

Single mode
• Air cladding

• Glass cladding

Jerry Kuriakose Module 5 EE401 SCMS 42

Optical Sources
• Light sources used for optical fiber systems must be at wavelengths
efficiently propagated by the optical fiber.
• In addition, the range of wavelengths must be considered because
the wider the range, the more likely the chance that chromatic
dispersion will occur.
• Lightsources must also produce sufficient power to allow the light to
propagate through the fiber without causing distortion in the cable
itself or in the receiver.
• Lastly, light sources must be constructed so that their outputs can be
efficiently coupled into and out of the optical cable

Jerry Kuriakose Module 5 EE401 SCMS 43

Optical Sources
• There are essentially only two types of practical light sources used to
generate light for optical fiber communications systems: LEDs and
ILDs (injection laser diode).
• Both devices are constructed from semiconductor materials and have
advantages and disadvantages.
• Selection of one light-emitting device over the other is determined by
system economic and performance requirements. The higher cost of
laser diodes is offset by higher performance.
• LEDs typically have a lower cost and a corresponding lower
performance. However, LEDs are typically more reliable.

Jerry Kuriakose Module 5 EE401 SCMS 44

Optical Sources - LED
• AnLEDis ap-njunction diode, usuallymadefrom a semiconductor material
such as aluminumgallium- arsenide (AlGaAs) or gallium-arsenide-
phosphide (GaAsP).
• LEDs emit light by spontaneous emission—light is emitted as a result of the
recombination of electrons and holes.
• When forward biased, minority carriers are injected across the p-n
junction. Once across the junction, these minority carriers recombine with
majority carriers and give up energy in the form of light. This process is
essentially the same as in a conventional semiconductor diode except that
in LEDs certain semiconductor materials and dopants are chosen such that
the process is radiative; that is, a photon is produced. A photon is a
quantum of electromagnetic wave energy. Photons are particles that travel
at the speed of light but at rest have no mass.

Jerry Kuriakose Module 5 EE401 SCMS 45

Optical Sources - LED
• To produce LEDs, semiconductors are formed from materials with
atoms having either three or five valence electrons (known as Group
III and Group IV atoms, respectively, because of their location in the
periodic table of elements).
• To produce light wavelengths in the 800-nm range, LEDs are
constructed from Group III atoms, such as gallium (Ga) and aluminum
(Al), and a Group IV atom, such as arsenide (As). The junction formed
is commonly abbreviated GaAlAs for gallium-aluminum-arsenide. For
longer wavelengths, gallium is combined with the Group III atom
indium (In), and arsenide is combined with the Group V atom
phosphate (P), which forms a gallium-indium-arsenide-phosphate
(GaInAsP) junction.

Jerry Kuriakose Module 5 EE401 SCMS 46

Homojunction LEDs
• A p-n junction made from two different mixtures of the same types of atoms is
called a homojunction structure. The simplest LED structures are homojunction
and epitaxially grown, or they are single-diffused semiconductor devices.
• Epitaxially grown LEDs are generally constructed of silicon-doped gallium-
arsenide . A typical wavelength of light emitted from this construction is 940 nm,
and a typical output power is approximately 2 mW (3 dBm) at 100 mA of forward
current.
• Light waves from homojunction sources do not produce a very useful light for an
optical fiber. Light is emitted in all directions equally; therefore, only a small
amount of the total light produced is coupled into the fiber. In addition, the ratio
of electricity converted to light is very low.
• Homojunction devices are often called surface emitters.
• The primary disadvantage of homojunction LEDs is the nondirectionality of their
light emission, which makes them a poor choice as a light source for optical fiber
systems.

Jerry Kuriakose Module 5 EE401 SCMS 47

Homojunction LEDs

Jerry Kuriakose Module 5 EE401 SCMS 48

Heterojunction LEDs
• Heterojunction LEDs are made from a p-type semiconductor material
of one set of atoms and an n-type semiconductor material from
another set.
• Heterojunction devices are layered (usually two) such that the
concentration effect is enhanced. This produces a device that
confines the electron and hole carriers and the light to a much
smaller area. The junction is generally manufactured on a substrate
backing material and then sandwiched between metal contacts that
are used to connect the device to a source of electricity.
• With heterojunction devices, light is emitted from the edge of the
material and are therefore often called edge emitters.
Jerry Kuriakose Module 5 EE401 SCMS 49
Heterojunction LEDs

Jerry Kuriakose Module 5 EE401 SCMS 50

Heterojunction LEDs
• Heterojunction devices have the following advantages over
homojunction devices:
• The increase in current density generates a more brilliant light spot.
• The smaller emitting area makes it easier to couple its emitted light
into a fiber.
• The small effective area has a smaller capacitance, which allows the
planar heterojunction LED to be used at higher speeds

Jerry Kuriakose Module 5 EE401 SCMS 51

Burrus Etched-Well Surface-Emitting LED
• For the more practical applications, such as telecommunications, data
rates in excess of 100 Mbps are required. For these applications, the
etched-well LED was developed. Burrus and Dawson of Bell
Laboratories developed the etched-well LED. It is a surface-emitting
LED. The Burrus etched-well LED emits light in many directions. The
etched well helps concentrate the emitted light to a very small area.
Also, domed lenses can be placed over the emitting surface to direct
the light into a smaller area.
• These devices are more efficient than the standard surface emitters,
and they allow more power to be coupled into the optical fiber, but
they are also more difficult and expensive to manufacture.

Jerry Kuriakose Module 5 EE401 SCMS 52

Burrus Etched-Well Surface-Emitting LED

Jerry Kuriakose Module 5 EE401 SCMS 53

Edge-Emitting LED
• The edge-emitting LED, which was developed by RCA, is shown in Figure.
• These LEDs emit a more directional light pattern than do the surface-
emitting LEDs. The construction is similar to the planar and Burrus diodes
except that the emitting surface is a stripe rather than a confined circular
area.
• The light is emitted from an active stripe and forms an elliptical beam.
• Surface-emitting LEDs are more commonly used than edge emitters
because they emit more light. However, the coupling losses with surface
emitters are greater, and they have narrower bandwidths.
• The radiant light power emitted from an LED is a linear function of the
forward current passing through the device
Jerry Kuriakose Module 5 EE401 SCMS 54
Edge-Emitting LED

Jerry Kuriakose Module 5 EE401 SCMS 55

ILD
• Lasers are constructed from many different materials, including gases,
liquids, and solids, although the type of laser used most often for fiber-
optic communications is the semiconductor laser.
• The ILD is similar to the LED. In fact, below a certain threshold current, an
ILD acts similarly to an LED. Above the threshold current, an ILD oscillates;
lasing occurs. As current passes through a forward-biased p-n junction
diode, light is emitted by spontaneous emission at a frequency determined
by the energy gap of the semiconductor material. When a particular
current level is reached, the number of minority carriers and photons
produced on either side of the p-n junction reaches a level where they
begin to collide with already excited minority carriers. This causes an
increase in the ionization energy level and makes the carriers unstable.
When this happens, a typical carrier recombines with an opposite type of
carrier at an energy level that is above its normal before-collision value. In
the process, two photons are created;

Jerry Kuriakose Module 5 EE401 SCMS 56

ILD
• The construction of an ILD is similar to that of an LED except that the
ends are highly polished. The mirror like ends trap the photons in the
active region and, as they reflect back and forth, stimulate free
electrons to recombine with holes at a higher than- normal energy
level. This process is called lasing.
• It can be seen that very little output power is realized until the
threshold current is reached; then lasing occurs. After lasing begins,
the optical output power increases dramatically, with small increases
in drive current. It can also be seen that the magnitude of the optical
output power of the ILD is more dependent on operating
temperature than is the LED.

Jerry Kuriakose Module 5 EE401 SCMS 57

ILD

Jerry Kuriakose Module 5 EE401 SCMS 58

ILD- advantages
• ILDs emit coherent (orderly) light, whereas LEDs emit incoherent
(disorderly) light. Therefore, ILDs have a more direct radian pattern,
making it easier to couple light emitted by the ILD into an optical fiber
cable. This reduces the coupling losses and allows smaller fibers to be
used.
• The radiant output power from an ILD is greater than that for an LED.
A typical output power for an ILD is 5 mW (7 dBm) and only 0.5 mW
(3 dBm) for LEDs. This allows ILDs to provide a higher drive power and
to be used for systems that operate over longer distances.
• ILDs can be used at higher bit rates than LEDs.
• ILDs generate monochromatic light, which reduces chromatic or
wavelength dispersion.

Jerry Kuriakose Module 5 EE401 SCMS 59

ILD- Disadvantages
• ILDs are typically 10 times more expensive than LEDs.
• Because ILDs operate at higher powers, they typically have a much
shorter lifetime than LEDs.
• ILDs are more temperature dependent than LEDs.

Jerry Kuriakose Module 5 EE401 SCMS 60

Light Detectors
• PIN Diode: A PIN diode is a depletion-layer photodiode and is
probably the most common device used as a light detector in fiber-
optic communications systems. Figure shows the basic construction
of a PIN diode. A very lightly doped (almost pure or intrinsic) layer of
n-type semiconductor material is sandwiched between the junction
of the two heavily doped n- and p-type contact areas. Light enters the
device through a very small window and falls on the carrier-void
intrinsic material. The intrinsic material is made thick enough so that
most of the photons that enter the device are absorbed by this layer.
Essentially, the PIN photodiode operates just the opposite of an LED.
Most of the photons are absorbed by electrons in the valence band of
the intrinsic material. When the photons are absorbed, they add
sufficient energy to generate carriers in the depletion region and
allow current to flow through the device
Jerry Kuriakose Module 5 EE401 SCMS 61
PIN Diode

Jerry Kuriakose Module 5 EE401 SCMS 62

Light Detectors – PIN diode
• Photoelectric effect. Light entering through the window of a PIN
diode is absorbed by the intrinsic material and adds enough energy to
cause electronics to move from the valence band into the conduction
band. The increase in the number of electrons that move into the
conduction band is matched by an increase in the number of holes in
the valence band. To cause current to flow in a photodiode, light of
sufficient energy must be absorbed to give valence electrons enough
energy to jump the energy gap. The energy gap for silicon is 1.12 eV

Jerry Kuriakose Module 5 EE401 SCMS 63

Light Detectors - Avalanche Photo Diode

Jerry Kuriakose Module 5 EE401 SCMS 64

Avalanche Photo Diode
• An APD has a pipn structure. Light enters the diode and is absorbed
by the thin, heavily doped n-layer. A high electric field intensity
developed across the i-p-n junction by reverse bias causes impact
ionization to occur.
• During impact ionization, a carrier can gain sufficient energy to ionize
other bound electrons. These ionized carriers, in turn, cause more
ionizations to occur. The process continues as in an avalanche and is,
effectively, equivalent to an internal gain or carrier multiplication.
• Consequently, APDs are more sensitive than PIN diodes and require
less additional amplification. The disadvantages of APDs are relatively
long transit times and additional internally generated noise due to the
avalanche multiplication factor
Jerry Kuriakose Module 5 EE401 SCMS 65
Jerry Kuriakose Module 5 EE401 SCMS 66
Optical link

Jerry Kuriakose Module 5 EE401 SCMS 67

Optical link

Jerry Kuriakose Module 5 EE401 SCMS 68

Optical link

Jerry Kuriakose Module 5 EE401 SCMS 69

Optical link

Jerry Kuriakose Module 5 EE401 SCMS 70