Learning

A Five-Day Unit Lesson Plan for

High School Psychology Teachers

Jeffrey Stowell, PhD

Eastern Illinois University
Reviewed by
Wendy Hart, MEd
Brentwood High School, Brentwood, TN
and
Sheryl Freedman, MA
Walt Whitman High School, Bethesda, MD

Developed and Produced by the Teachers of Psychology in Secondary Schools

(TOPSS) of the American Psychological Association, August 2013

BACK TO CONTENTS
 Learning
A Five-Day Unit Lesson Plan for High School Psychology Teachers

This unit is aligned to the following content and performance standards of the National Standards for High
School Psychology Curricula (APA, 2011):

Development and Learning Domain Standard Area: Learning

Content Standards

After concluding this unit, students understand:

1. Classical conditioning
2. Operant conditioning
3. Observational and cognitive learning

Content Standards With Performance Standards

Content Standard 1: Classical conditioning

Students are able to (performance standards):

1.1 Describe the principles of classical conditioning
1.2 Describe clinical and experimental examples of classical conditioning
1.3 Apply classical conditioning to everyday life

Content Standard 2: Operant conditioning

Students are able to (performance standards):

2.1 Describe the Law of Effect
2.2 Describe the principles of operant conditioning
2.3 Describe clinical and experimental examples of operant conditioning
2.4 Apply operant conditioning to everyday life

Content Standard 3: Observational and cognitive learning

Students are able to (performance standards):

3.1 Describe the principles of observational and cognitive learning
3.2 Apply observational and cognitive learning to everyday life

This lesson plan is a revision of the unit plan on Learning originally prepared by Ruby Brown, Diane Franz,
Ben Ibarra, and Michael Sullivan and revised and edited by Michael Sullivan, Charlie Blair-Broeker, Terri Lin-
denberg, and Amy Carlisle. The unit plan was originally prepared at the Texas A&M–NSF Summer Institute for
the Teaching of AP and Honors Psychology, July 1992. TOPSS thanks J. Timothy Cannon, PhD, of The Uni-
versity of Scranton, and Linh Littleford, PhD, of Ball State University, for their reviews of this unit lesson plan.

ii Learning
Contents

Procedural Timeline 1

Introduction 3

Content Outline 5

Activities 23

Critical Thinking and Discussion Questions 35

Resources, References, and 37

Recommended Reading

This project was supported by a grant from the American Psychological Foundation.
Copyright © 2013 American Psychological Association.

A Five-Day Unit Lesson Plan for High School Psychology Teachers iii
 Procedural
Timeline

Lesson 1: Attributes of Learning and

Classical Conditioning
Activity 1.1: Classical Conditioning: An All-Purpose
Demonstration Using a Toy Watergun
Activity 1.2: Salivating to Music

Lesson 2: Classical Conditioning (continued)

Lesson 3: Instrumental Learning and

Operant Conditioning
Activity 3: Shaping by Successive Approximations

Lesson 4: Operant Conditioning (continued)

Activity 4: Student Worksheet for Schedules of Reinforcement

Procedural Timeline
Lesson 5: Cognitive Learning and the Role of
Biology and Culture in Learning

BACK TO CONTENTS A Five-Day Unit Lesson Plan for High School Psychology Teachers 1
 Introduction

W elcome to the complex, yet intuitive world of learning! Learning

is defined in the lesson plan as a relatively permanent change in
behavior that occurs as a result of experience. This unit allows us to
expand upon the predominantly behaviorist perspective of psychology
to understand the fundamental explanations behind the simplest human
and animal behaviors. The learning unit explores some of the most
famous researchers (e.g., Bandura, Köhler, and Tolman) and most classic
experiments in psychology (e.g., Pavlov’s dog and Watson’s Little Albert).
Throughout this unit plan, you will gain insight into the basic principles
of learning, the two main paradigms of changing behavior, and the more
modern modifications of these paradigms.

In addition to definitions and examples of each principle, this unit

plan will provide resources, activities, and demonstrations to enrich the
classroom experience. This lesson plan also provides several critical
thinking activities to challenge students to think beyond the basic
definitions and examples and to encourage students to relate these
concepts to their own lives.

The learning unit provides high school students an opportunity to

examine behaviors as simple as raising one’s hand or being attracted
to a certain brand of cereal as evidence that we are products of our
environment. Students can then recognize how to modify unwanted
behaviors or introduce new behaviors based on principles of classical
conditioning, operant conditioning, or cognitive learning. This behavior
Introduction
modification could be as immediate as the cessation of nail biting or could
expand to a long-term change in study habits or relationship interaction.

Throughout this unit, teachers might challenge students to analyze their

own behaviors and find real world examples that extend beyond those
provided in the unit plan. Students can then find the best approach for
analyzing behaviors no matter the situation they encounter.

BACK TO CONTENTS A Five-Day Unit Lesson Plan for High School Psychology Teachers 3
 Content Outline

Lesson 1
Attributes of Learning and
Classical Conditioning

I. Attributes of learning

Learning is defined as a relatively permanent change in behavior that

occurs as a result of experience.

A. Change includes either an increase or a decrease in the strength

of a behavior. Example: You can learn to play a piano louder or
softer, faster or slower.

B. Behavior is any act that is observable.

C. Experience depends on our interaction with the environment.

Sometimes experiences do not lead to lasting changes in
behavior. (Example: You may not be able to repeat a phone
number even though you’ve called it many times.)

II. Classical conditioning

A. A
 ssociative learning occurs when two or more things are paired Content Outline
together in time and/or space. Example: Salt and pepper are fre-
quently paired so that seeing salt will trigger the thought of pepper.
Classical conditioning is a special type of associative learning that
requires using an unconditioned stimulus (see below).

B. Definitions

1. Classical conditioning is defined as learning that takes place

when an originally neutral stimulus (one that doesn’t elicit any
particular reflex) comes to produce a conditioned response
because of its association with an unconditioned stimulus.

BACK TO CONTENTS A Five-Day Unit Lesson Plan for High School Psychology Teachers 5
 2. An unconditioned stimulus (UCS) reflexively produces an
unconditioned response (UCR) without requiring previous
training. A good test for determining if a behavior is an
unconditioned response is to ask if every member of the
species would exhibit that reflexive behavior from birth.
Examples of UCSs and their respective UCRs include:

a. A puff of air blown in the eye (UCS) produces blinking

(UCR).

b. Placing food in the mouth (UCS) causes salivation (UCR).

c. A hot environment (UCS) causes sweating (UCR).

d. A loud sound (UCS) causes behavioral signs of fear

(UCR).

3. A conditioned stimulus (CS) is a stimulus that has come to

elicit a conditioned response (CR) because the organism
learns to associate the conditioned stimulus with the uncondi-
tioned stimulus. Example: A neutral tone (UCS) can be paired
with food that causes salivation (UCR). After several pairings
with food, the tone (now a CS) will elicit salivation (CR). Exam-
ple: If you repeatedly use a scented hand sanitizer (UCS) just
before eating your lunch, the odor of the hand sanitizer (CS)
can elicit salivation (CR). Example: If you experience a fright-
ening event (UCS) at night, you can develop a fear (CR) of the
dark (CS).

4. Note that the UCR and CR are typically the same but occur
in response to different stimuli. There are rare cases in which
the responses are different.

C. Acquisition

1. Acquisition involves repeated pairings of the CS and the

UCS. The greater the number of pairings (trials), the stronger
the conditioned response. However, the first few trials produce
the greatest rate of learning, which then starts to level off after
many trials.

2. CS-UCS Timing: The timing of the CS and UCS is important

in determining the strength of conditioning. Each of the vari-
ations in CS–UCS timing is illustrated on page 7 with a figure
that shows the pairing of a tone (CS) with shock (UCS). In ad-
dition, each description includes a real-life example of classi-
cal conditioning with that particular CS–UCS timing. Trace and

6 Learning BACK TO CONTENTS

 delayed conditioning are types of forward conditioning (the
CS is presented before the UCS), the most effective pattern
of conditioning. Furthermore, conditioning is best when the
interval between the presentation of the CS and the UCS is
about a half second.

a. Trace conditioning occurs when the CS is presented

and terminated before the presentation of the UCS
(see figure below). Example: After seeing lightning flash
(CS) and shortly thereafter hearing thunder (UCS) that
startles you (UCR), you might fear (CR) the sight of
lightning (CS).

b. Delayed conditioning occurs when the CS is presented

and continues at least until the UCS is presented.
Example: Seeing a spray bottle (CS) shortly before
(and during) getting cold water (UCS) sprayed in your
face. Afterwards, you will likely squint (CR) at the sight
of the water bottle (CS).

c. S
 imultaneous conditioning occurs when the CS and the
UCS are presented and terminated at the same time. This
is an effective pattern, although it is slower than forward
conditioning (a and b above). Example: At the exact
moment you enter the cafeteria, you start eating food
(UCS), which will cause salivation (UCR). Later, the
cafeteria (CS) may trigger salivation (CR).

d. B
 ackward conditioning occurs when the UCS is pre-
sented before the CS. This timing is ineffective. Example:
Giving food (UCS), then playing a short piece of music
(CS) will not produce conditioning to the music.

BACK TO CONTENTS A Five-Day Unit Lesson Plan for High School Psychology Teachers 7
 e. T
 emporal conditioning occurs when the CS is a fixed
period of time between presentations of the UCS. Exam-
ple: After being exposed to a frightening explosion (UCS)
every hour, fear (CR) will start to increase near the end of
every hour (CS) (Powell, Honey, & Symbaluk, 2013).

D. Extinction

1. Extinction is a procedure that leads to the gradual weakening

and eventual disappearance of the CR.

2. It involves repeatedly presenting the CS without pairing it with

the UCS.

3. Example: If a dog normally salivates to the sound of the

can opener, you would present the sound of the can opener,
but not give the dog food. Eventually, the dog would stop
salivating to sound of the can opener. Example: If you are
afraid of spiders, repeated exposure to spiders without
subsequent harm can reduce your fear of spiders.

E. Spontaneous recovery occurs when a previously extinguished

CR suddenly reappears after a period of no training. It is import-
ant to emphasize that spontaneous recovery can only occur after
extinction. The fact that it occurs at all suggests that extinction is
not simply forgetting, but rather learning that the CS now signals
the absence of the UCS. Example: If the sight of a dog is a CS
that elicits fear (CR) due to a prior attack, then exposure to a dog
alone (without another attack) during a therapy session will gradu-
ally weaken (extinguish) the fear. However, after extinction occurs,
it is likely that the next time the person sees a dog, there may be
a return of the fear, but it will be weaker than before and will extin-
guish more quickly than last time.

Go to Activity 1.1

Classical Conditioning: An All-Purpose Demonstration
Using a Toy Watergun

Go to Activity 1.2

Salivating to Music

8 Learning BACK TO CONTENTS

 Lesson 2
Classical Conditioning (continued)

III. Classical conditioning

A. Generalization

1. Generalization occurs when a CR results from stimuli that

are similar to the CS, even though these stimuli may never
have been associated with the UCS. Example: After devel-
oping a conditioned salivation response to the beat of a met-
ronome at 60 beats/minute, salivation will likely occur to the
beat of a metronome at 50 or 70 beats/minute.

2. The more similar the stimuli are to the CS, the greater the
likelihood of generalization. Example: After developing a
conditioned fear of a particular dog (poodle), a person might
experience fear of other kinds of dogs similar to poodles.

3. The following figure represents the likelihood of a conditioned

response based on similarity in color to the original CS (in this
case, a yellow circle).

100
conditioned response

80
Likelihood of

60

40

20

0
CS

4. Watson’s Little Albert experiment (see page 10) is a good

example of how fear can generalize to other stimuli.

B. Discrimination

1. Discrimination occurs when stimuli similar to the CS do not

result in a CR. This will happen only after repeated training in
which the CS is paired with a UCS, but the similar stimuli are

BACK TO CONTENTS A Five-Day Unit Lesson Plan for High School Psychology Teachers 9
 not paired with the UCS. Example: To get an animal to
salivate only to a yellow circle, but not an orange one, you
would pair the yellow circle with food and the orange circle
with nothing, repeatedly. Example: If a person develops a fear
of a large dog after an attack by a large dog but continues to
have good experiences with small dogs, the person may fear
only large dogs.

2. The more similar the stimuli are to the CS, the greater the
difficulty of discrimination. Example: Discriminating a circle
from a square would be easier than discriminating a circle
from an ellipse.

C. Famous demonstrations of classical conditioning

1. Ivan Pavlov and his dogs

a. The sound of a metronome (CS) was paired with

meat powder (UCS) until the CS alone produced
salivation (CR).

b. This demonstration established the basic components

of classical conditioning: acquisition, extinction,
generalization, and discrimination.

2. John Watson and Little Albert

a. To better understand the development of phobias,

John Watson and Rosalie Rayner conditioned an infant
(pseudonamed Little Albert) to fear a white rat.

b. The sight of a white rat (CS) was paired with loud noise
(UCS) until the CS alone produced crying and other
responses indicative of fear (CR).

c. This fear generalized to stimuli similar to the CS including

a dog, monkey, rabbit, and fur coat.

d. This demonstration showed that human emotional

responses could develop as a result of classical
conditioning and that most of our fears are learned
rather than inborn.

e. Psychologists are not sure what happened to Little Albert.

Some researchers claimed to have solved the mystery
(Beck, Levinson, & Irons, 2009), but there is still doubt
about their conclusions (Powell, 2010; Powell, 2011).

10 Learning BACK TO CONTENTS

 D. Applications of classical conditioning

1. Advertising: It is suggested that consumer attitudes for

advertised products are influenced by pairing the product
with other pleasant things such as good music and pleasant
photographs (see Stuart, Shimp, & Engle, 1987).

2. Taste aversions: In taste aversion conditioning, the CS is a

novel taste, the UCS is typically a drug that produces nausea
(UCR), and the CR is avoidance of the taste.

a. Garcia and Koelling’s (1966) work on taste aversion

first demonstrated that pairing radiation (UCS) with the
taste of sweetened water (CS) caused rats to become
nauseated (UCR).

b. Women undergoing chemotherapy for treatment of breast

cancer were likely to develop a conditioned taste aversion
to a lemon-lime flavor of Kool-Aid if they drank it prior to a
chemotherapy session that caused nausea (Bovbjerg et
al., 1992).

c. The tendency to develop taste aversions has been used

to help overweight people lose weight by pairing their
favorite foods (CS) with noxious odors (UCS) so they
are less likely to eat them in the future (Foreyt &
Kennedy, 1971).

E. Theoretical models of classical conditioning

1. Contiguity model

a. This model argues conditioning will occur whenever a

CS and a UCS are paired closely in time and space,
but later research showed that simply pairing two things
together is not sufficient to account for many phenomena
of classical conditioning (see below).

b. It is based on the work of Pavlov.

2. Contingency model

a. This model argues the CS must reliably predict the UCS

for conditioning to occur.

b. It is based on the work of Robert Rescorla and Allan

Wagner. A full explanation of this model is beyond
mention here. Briefly, Rescorla emphasizes the

BACK TO CONTENTS A Five-Day Unit Lesson Plan for High School Psychology Teachers 11
 contextual relationship between the CS, UCS, and
other stimuli in terms of the information the CS
provides (Rescorla, 1988).

3. Contiguity vs. Contingency

The contiguity model would suggest that pairing a tone with

shock closely in time would be effective in producing fear
to the tone. However, the contingency model suggests that
contiguity alone is not sufficient. Indeed, if shock (UCS)
occurs as often with a tone (CS) as it does without the tone,
it is not effective in producing fear to the tone because the
CS is not a reliable predictor of the UCS.

12 Learning BACK TO CONTENTS

 Lesson 3
Instrumental Learning and
Operant Conditioning

I. Instrumental learning

A. An organism’s behavior is instrumental in producing an

environmental change that in turn affects the organism’s
behavior. It is primarily based on the type of consequences
that occur after the behavior.

B. The concept of instrumental learning is based on the work of

Edward L. Thorndike (1874-1949).

C. The fundamental principle is Thorndike’s Law of Effect, which

states that behaviors are encouraged when they are followed by
satisfying consequences and discouraged when they are followed
by annoying consequences. His early research with cats showed
that they were able to learn to escape a box by stepping on a
lever to unlatch the door. This behavior was strengthened while
the other behaviors that led to continued confinement in the box
(e.g., clawing, chewing) were weakened (Powell, et al., 2013).

II. Operant conditioning

A. This system of instrumental learning was developed by

B. F. Skinner (1904-1990). Operant conditioning can be used to
influence the likelihood of an organism’s response by controlling
the consequences of the response (e.g., reinforcement and
punishment). This type of conditioning is important for voluntary
behaviors and can explain more of our behavior than classical
conditioning. Example: Making the fastest time in a swim meet is
a behavior that will likely be reinforced by the receipt of a medal
and praise, leading to a greater likelihood of making a faster time
in the future.

B. Training procedures

1. Positive reinforcement occurs when a behavior is followed

by an appetitive (desired) stimulus. The follow-up with the
appetitive stimulus (positive reinforcement) makes the
behavior more likely to recur. Example: If a child picks up a
toy (behavior) and is given praise (appetitive stimulus), the

BACK TO CONTENTS A Five-Day Unit Lesson Plan for High School Psychology Teachers 13
 child will be more likely to pick up the toy in the future.
Example: If a person performs a job (behavior) and then
receives a paycheck (appetitive stimulus), that appetitive
stimulus, a positive reinforcement, leads to the increased
likelihood of that person performing the job in the future.

2. Negative reinforcement occurs when a behavior prevents

or removes an aversive (undesired) stimulus. This procedure
also makes the behavior more likely to recur. Example: If a
child takes out the garbage (behavior) and her mother stops
nagging (aversive stimulus), the child will be more likely to
take out the garbage in the future. Example: You find that
changing a baby’s diaper (behavior) stops the crying (aversive
stimulus). The next time the baby cries, you will be more likely
to change the baby’s diaper.

a. Escape occurs when a behavior terminates an aversive

event. Example: A person can escape a headache
(aversive event) by taking an aspirin (behavior). This
reinforces the behavior of taking the aspirin and makes
it more likely to occur in the future.

b. Avoidance occurs when a behavior happens in the

presence of a signal that informs the organism that an
aversive event is likely. Example: A person can avoid in-
digestion (aversive event) by taking an antacid (behavior)
before eating a spicy dinner (a signal that indigestion is
likely). This reinforces the behavior of taking the antacid
and makes this behavior more likely to occur in the future.

3. Positive punishment occurs when a behavior is followed by

an aversive stimulus. This procedure makes the behavior less
likely to recur. Example: If a child pulls a dog’s tail (behavior)
then has his hand slapped (aversive stimulus), the child will
be less likely to pull the dog’s tail in the future. Example: After
scratching at the couch (behavior), a cat is sprayed with water
(aversive stimulus), making it less likely the cat will scratch
the couch in the future.

4. Negative punishment (also known as omission training)

occurs when an appetitive stimulus is prevented or removed
following a behavior. This makes the behavior less likely
to recur: Example: If a child grabs a toy from her sibling
(behavior) and her mother denies the child access to
television (appetitive stimulus) for a period of time, the child
will be less likely to grab toys in the future. Example: After

14 Learning BACK TO CONTENTS

 driving under the influence of alcohol (behavior), a person
loses his or her license, making it less likely he or she will
drive under the influence of alcohol.

C. Note: Students often confuse these terms because they think

“positive” means good and “negative” means bad. Simply put,
positive means a stimulus or event is added after the behavior,
and negative means a stimulus was avoided or removed.
Reinforcement strengthens a behavior, and punishment weakens
it. When you’re teaching, focus on behaviors that actually occur,
not on behaviors that did not occur. That is, avoid examples about
“not eating your dinner” or “not taking out the trash” because while
someone was not doing these things, they were actually doing
something else (lying on the couch), which is what they are being
punished for. Also, don’t assume that punishment (which weakens
a behavior) will strengthen other behaviors. Again, focus on a
specific behavior and its consequence, and then ask the following
two questions to identify the type of operant conditioning.

Does the consequence strength-

en or weaken the behavior?
Strengthen Weaken
(Reinforcement) (Punishment)
As a consequence Added Positive Positive
of the behavior, (Positive) Reinforcement Punishment
is something
Removed Negative Negative
added or removed/
(Negative) Reinforcement Punishment
avoided?

D. Types of reinforcers

1. P
 rimary reinforcers are stimuli that are biologically relevant
to organisms and so capable of increasing the probability of
organisms’ behaviors toward them. No prior experience is
required for these stimuli to be reinforcing; they are innately
reinforcing. Example: Water is a primary reinforcer for a thirsty
person. Example: A treat given to a dog as the dog learns to
sit is a primary reinforcer. This is an example of using primary
reinforcement.

BACK TO CONTENTS A Five-Day Unit Lesson Plan for High School Psychology Teachers 15
 2. A secondary (or conditioned) reinforcer is neutral, but it
has taken on the reinforcing properties of a primary reinforcer
by being associated with it. Example: Money is a secondary
reinforcer because people have learned that it can be used
to purchase a variety of primary reinforcers. Example: Tokens
earned for good behavior at school are secondary reinforcers
because they can be exchanged for candy (a primary
reinforcer).

E. Shaping

1. Shaping is a technique whereby successive approximations

of a behavior are reinforced. In other words, behaviors that
come closer and closer to the final target behavior are rein-
forced during the training.

2. This technique makes it possible to condition behaviors that

are not likely to happen otherwise.

3. Example: Children are often reinforced when they first write

a letter of the alphabet, then only when they can write it
neatly. Example: When you are learning to parallel park, at
first you’re given reinforcement when far from the curb, but
then only as you park closer and closer to the curb until you
only get reinforcement for parking within 6 inches of the curb.
Example: You can use shaping to teach a dog to catch a
Frisbee by first reinforcing the dog’s behavior of approaching
the Frisbee, then only when the dog takes the Frisbee in its
mouth, and then only when the dog catches the Frisbee, etc.

Go to Activity Activity 3

Shaping by Successive Approximations

F. Chaining is an operant technique whereby an organism is

required to perform several different behaviors in sequence before
receiving the reinforcement. Complex strings of behaviors can
be maintained by the use of a single reinforcement at the end of
the sequence. Example: When operating a vending machine, you
must first put in the money, then make the selection, then retrieve
the item from the vending machine.

G. Extinction occurs in operant conditioning when a behavior that

results in a reinforcer no longer results in the reinforcer—so the
behavior eventually ceases. Extinction is not caused by simply

16 Learning BACK TO CONTENTS

 preventing or avoiding the behavior. Example: A dog that begs
at the dinner table is no longer reinforced with food for doing so
(the behavior is ignored). As a result, the dog will eventually stop
begging for food at the table.

H. Discriminative stimulus (SD)

1. A discriminative stimulus (SD) is defined as a stimulus that

signals or informs the organism of the availability of reinforce-
ment or punishment.

2. SDs are valuable for determining when a particular behavior

should or should not occur.

3. Example: The ring of a telephone is an SD that indicates the

behavior of answering the phone will likely be reinforced
(someone will talk with you). Example: The electronic chime of
a microwave is a discriminative stimulus that signals that the
behavior of removing your food will be reinforced. Example:
The presence of a scowl on a parent’s face signals a teenager
that the behavior of asking a favor of the parent is likely to be
met with rejection.

BACK TO CONTENTS A Five-Day Unit Lesson Plan for High School Psychology Teachers 17
 Lesson 4
Operant Conditioning (continued)

I. Schedules of reinforcement

A. Continuous reinforcement

1. Every target response is reinforced.

2. Continuous reinforcement is the quickest way to train new

behavior.

3. Example: When a dog is being taught to sit, every time

the dog performs the sitting behavior, the dog’s behavior is
reinforced with a treat.

4. A behavior that is continuously reinforced is easily extinguished

if the behavior is no longer reinforced—extinction occurs.

B. Intermittent (or partial) reinforcement

1. Only some target responses are reinforced.

2. Fixed-ratio (FR)

a. There must be a fixed (unchanging) number of target

responses before reinforcement is given.

b. This schedule produces a high rate of responding

following brief pauses by the organism after obtaining
reinforcement.

c. Example: A “Buy 10, get 1 free” offer maintains buying

behavior on an FR schedule. Example: In a video game,
every 100 coins you gather result in an extra life.

2. Variable-ratio (VR)

a. The number of target responses required for

reinforcement varies around some average, and the
organism never knows exactly how many responses are
required for the next reinforcement.

b. This is the gambler’s schedule. Example: A gambler

never knows how many lottery tickets must be bought
before he/she wins. Example: A boxer is never sure how
many punches are required to knock out an opponent.

18 Learning BACK TO CONTENTS

 c. This schedule produces a consistent, high rate of
response very resistant to extinction.

3. Fixed-interval (FI)

a. The first target response after a fixed interval of time has

passed is reinforced.

b. Responses on an Fl schedule increase toward the end

of the interval. This pattern of responding is called
“scalloping” because of the notable scalloped shape of
the line on a cumulative record.

c. Example: When making toast, you must wait a fixed

amount of time before you are reinforced for reaching
your hand to remove the bread from the toaster. Example:
Some hospitals allow patients to self-administer pain
medication, but only after a fixed amount of time has
elapsed since the last treatment.

4. Variable-interval (VI)

a. The VI schedule is similar to the FI schedule, except

that the length of the interval of time changes after each
reinforcement, and the organism has no way of knowing
how long the next interval will be.

b. Responses on a VI schedule tend to be steady and at a

moderate rate.

c. Example: After taking a test, students have to wait a

variable amount of time before the behavior of checking
their grade is reinforced. Example: You have to wait a
variable amount of time before checking your cell phone
to be reinforced with a new text message.

Go to Activity 4

Student Worksheet for Schedules of Reinforcement

II. Aversive conditioning

A. Punishment (see Lesson [Link])

1. Punishment is most likely to be effective when it is intense

and occurs immediately after the behavior.

BACK TO CONTENTS A Five-Day Unit Lesson Plan for High School Psychology Teachers 19
 2. P
 unishment may produce only temporary suppression of the
undesired behavior or lead to aggressive behavior, among
other things.

B. Learned helplessness, a phenomenon described by Martin

Seligman

1. Learned helplessness is defined as a decrease in an

organism’s responding that occurs after the organism’s
exposure to uncontrollable aversive events. Example: Dogs
subjected to uncontrollable electric shocks were later unable
to learn a routine avoidance task (Seligman & Maier, 1967).

2. Seligman believes learned helplessness helps explain

depression. Example: If a person experiences uncontrollable
events such as the death of a loved one, a natural disaster, or
unemployment, the person may believe there is nothing he or
she can do about it. The person may give up and experience
depression.

III. Applications of operant conditioning

A. E
 ducational strategies: Example: Pop-quizzes can be used
to motivate students to be consistently prepared for class
(variable schedules). Example: Rewarding bonus points for
timely submission of assignments can be a positive reinforcement.

B. Animal training: Example: Shaping can be used to train a pig to

step on a weighing platform (Lukas, Marr, & Maple, 1998).

C. Behavior modification techniques: Example: A combination

of punishment (painting fingernails with a bitter-tasting chemical)
and reinforcement (free manicure) can be used to alter the
frequency of nail biting. Example: Making access to TV/video
games contingent upon physical activity increases activity levels
of overweight and obese children (Goldfield el al., 2006).

D. Token economies: Example: In return for completing chores,

children can receive tokens that can be exchanged for treats,
computer time, or a special evening with a parent.

E. Behavior therapy for psychological disorders: Example: For

patients with anorexia nervosa, weight gain can be reinforced.

20 Learning BACK TO CONTENTS

 Lesson 5
Cognitive Learning and the Role of
Biology and Culture in Learning

I. Cognitive learning emphasizes the role of mental processes.

A. Insight learning, described by Wolfgang Köhler (1887-1967) in

The Mentality of Apes, is the sudden awareness of a solution to a
problem. Example: The chimp Sultan seemed to suddenly grasp
the need to use a short stick to reach a longer stick, which in turn
could be used to reach some fruit.

B. Latent learning, described by Edward Tolman (1886-1959), is

defined as learning in the absence of apparent reinforcement.
Example: Rats given an opportunity to explore a maze will
develop a cognitive map (a mental representation of a physical
location) even when there is neither reinforcement nor motivation
for learning. Later, when reinforcement is available, rats that had
the opportunity to explore the maze performed better than those
that did not have the opportunity (Tolman, 1948).

C. Observational learning, described by Albert Bandura (1925),

is defined as learning that takes place by watching another
individual model the learning task. This has important implications
for humans, ranging from the potential negative effects of
violent television programming to the potential positive effects
of providing children with appropriate role models. Example: In
Bandura’s famous Bobo doll studies (e.g., Bandura et al., 1961),
children who watched an adult hit a Bobo doll were more likely to
hit the doll themselves when presented with the toy.

II. The role of biology in learning

A. L
 earning is adaptive in that it enhances an individual’s ability to
survive. Behaviors that are important for food, shelter, and mating
are usually reinforced, while behaviors that are potentially harmful
are often punished. Operant conditioning of behavior is similar
to the natural selection of physical characteristics, but behavior
changes occur much more quickly (within the organism’s lifetime).

B. Biological constraints on learning include innate predispositions

that influence the likelihood that conditioning can occur.

BACK TO CONTENTS A Five-Day Unit Lesson Plan for High School Psychology Teachers 21
 1. R
 ats and other species are predisposed to learn taste
aversions (avoidance of a particular taste after it has been
paired with something that produces nausea). In their
research on taste aversion, Garcia and Koelling (1966)
demonstrated that the time between tasting a novel food
and illness can be long (up to 24 hours), and it only requires
one pairing. It’s also easier to condition a rat to avoid a
solution with a novel taste by pairing it with a nausea-inducing
drug than it is to condition a rat to avoid the same solution by
pairing it with a shock.

2. Breland and Breland (1961) reported that it was difficult to

train a pig to put a wooden disk into a piggy bank because
the pig would drop the coin on the floor and “root” it. Of course
this behavior interfered with completing the task (and
reinforcement). Similarly, a raccoon would rub two coins
together (as if it were washing food) instead of dropping them
into a bank. Thus, instinctive drift occurs when an organ-
ism’s instinctive behavior interferes with the process of condi-
tioning.

III. C
 ulture influences the kind of learning that can occur, and
the environment may limit learning opportunities.
A. According to Skinner, language sounds generated by infants
are reinforced through shaping by parents and caregivers, who
determine the language children learn (Catania, 2007).

B. Culture influences preferences for food choices, clothing styles,

greeting customs, dance moves, music, and many other attitudes
and behaviors.

C. The environment can limit learning opportunities. Example: Feral

children who grow up without proper language and socialization
have severe deficits in these areas.

22 Learning BACK TO CONTENTS

 ACTIVITIES

Activity 1.1
Classical Conditioning: An All-Purpose
Demonstration Using a Toy Watergun
Developed by
Joel I. Shenker
University of Missouri, Columbia

In this popular in-class activity, students see human classical

conditioning actively unfold in an entertaining, understandable, and
memorable demonstration. This demonstration requires minimal
preparation, is easy to execute, and reliably generates excellent student
questions and observations. It is appropriate for class in introductory
psychology, learning and memory, and cognition. It involves one or two
BACK TO
student volunteers, usually takes 10 to 20 minutes, and can be used in
content
most any class size. outline

Concept
Students may find classical conditioning an overly abstract concept
and may have difficulty understanding how it applies to humans and
nonhumans. This demonstration is an easy and entertaining way to give
students a concrete example of classical conditioning in people, and it
is sure to be one of the most memorable activities you will do in your
Activities

course. It serves as a vehicle for discussion by giving easily identifiable

and readily understood examples of classical conditioning phenomena. It
is best used after students have studied classical conditioning. The basic
idea is to read aloud a list of random words that intermittently contains a
single “key” word and splash a student volunteer with a giant squirt
gun each time the key word is read. The volunteer soon starts to show
conditioned responses to the word alone.

BACK TO CONTENTS A Five-Day Unit Lesson Plan for High School Psychology Teachers 23
 Materials
You will need a large plastic garbage bag, scissors, a large capacity
watergun or several water pistols (a bottle that squirts water is another
option and possibly better in a school setting), a towel, and the stimulus
word list (included under instructions).

Instructions
Explain to the class that classical conditioning occurs in humans
and nonhumans and is produced by a variety of different stimulus–
response relationships. Ask for a volunteer, being careful to explain that
participation will involve wearing a protective smock and being squirted in
the face with water (it usually takes some good-natured coaxing to get a
volunteer).

Cut a hole in one end of the bottom of the garbage bag so that
the participant’s head can just pass through. Turn the garbage bag
upside-down and use it as a kind of poncho, sliding it over the volunteer
to expose his or her head but cover the rest of his or her body. Place
the volunteer sitting in a chair facing the class. It is important that the
volunteer’s eyes remain closed throughout the demonstration for
safety reasons. As you proceed with the demonstration, tell the students
to observe silently and carefully and to be ready to discuss what they
have seen at the end.

After the student volunteer is in place, with his or her eyes closed,
and everyone is ready, I usually say that I am going to be reading a list
of words and ask everyone to watch the volunteer as I do so. Without
any further explanation, I go to the word list below. I read each word
aloud, in order, loudly enough so that the entire class can hear and at
a rate of about one word every 2 seconds. You can have another
student do this for you if you wish, but I have found that the whole thing
works better if I do the reading. In the word list, note that the word can
appears often, sometimes in uppercase bold letters (CAN) and some-
times in plain lowercase letters (can). Only after you read the uppercase
bold can, squirt the volunteer in the face using a consistent delay of
about one-half second or so. Do not squirt the volunteer when you see
the plain lowercase can. These trials test the volunteer’s conditioned
response to the target word. As I read the list, sometimes I pause, either
strategically or to let laughter die down before proceeding with the rest
of the list.

24 Learning BACK TO CONTENTS

 Here is the stimulus word list to be used for this demonstration:
cup, can, lime, CAN, dish, girl, chalk, can, dish, CAN, key, screen,
ran, CAN, desk, CAN, knob, bag, tape, CAN, dish, clip, CAN, air, ban,
cheese, CAN, door, can, box, dish, hair, CAN, ring, nail, CAN, boat, cap,
dish, CAN, crane, wheel, fire, CAN, dish, king, cape, apple, CAN, dog,
blue, can, dish, CAN, take, call, brick, pair, CAN, spin, chair, CAN, camp,
CAN, dish, CAN, bridge, scale, can, fan, board, CAN, cool, three, horn,
disk, CAN, can, cast, test, pen, dime, CAN, dish, van, can, card, stand,
meat, pad, can, dish, set, can, tree, ice, plum, can, cost, bird, glass, can,
light, can, sword, juice, can, dish, rock, smoke grease, dish, keep, kid,
tan, dice, hole, set, dish, eye, friend, wax, bill, bulb, dish, class, mine,
mark, work, can, dish, can, bus, dish, phone, can, smart, first, can, crack,
feet, can, tub, bowl, can, van day, can, rake, dish, CAN, bluff, risk, CAN,
salt, dish, CAN, ball, stack, CAN, rain, hat, food, can, van, disk, tree, can

After the reading is finished, the volunteer can return to his or her seat.
Be sure to give the volunteer a towel and a generous thank you. Ask your
students to describe and discuss what they saw. On their own, they will
probably bring up many of the important phenomena related to classical
conditioning. You can name and expand on each of these as they arise in
the discussion.

Discussion
A number of topics that relate to classical conditioning can be tied to the
demonstration:

1. The unconditioned stimulus (UCS) is the water squirted at the

volunteer’s face.

2. Examples of unconditioned responses (UCR) usually include the

volunteer’s flinching, squinting, or perhaps making a distinct facial
expression.

3. The conditioned stimulus (CS) is the sound of the word can.

4. A conditioned response (CR) is usually a flinch, squint, or facial

expression. Note that the volunteer will also often develop some
operant conditioned responses (e.g., turns head or ducks out of the
way). If so, this can serve as an interesting contrast for comparison to
a CR, giving another topic for discussion.

5. Acquisition is demonstrated. At first, the word can by itself causes

no special response. After repeated pairings of the word can and the
water, the word by itself gradually becomes more likely to cause a CR.

BACK TO CONTENTS A Five-Day Unit Lesson Plan for High School Psychology Teachers 25
 6. S
 timulus generalization occurs when words that sound like can
(e.g., ban, ran, cap, cast) lead to a CR.

7. Stimulus discrimination occurs when different stimulus words produce

differences in the CRs. In the demonstration, CRs are strongest and
most likely to occur after the word can. They are weakest and least
likely to occur after stimulus words that do not sound at all like can
(e.g., dish, board, smoke).

8. Extinction has occurred when the word can is uttered several times
unaccompanied by a squirt and so the CRs disappear or become less
pronounced.

9. Spontaneous recovery has occurred after extinction when a long string

of words in which can is not included is followed by the word can, and
the word can again causes a CR. Such a string occurs near the end of
the demonstration.

10. Reconditioning savings is demonstrated at the end of the list, where

the word can and a squirt are again paired. At this point, fewer trials
are needed to achieve strong, reliable CRs compared with the original
acquisition at the beginning of the list.

This demonstration serves several useful purposes. First, it provides vivid

and concrete examples of classical conditioning phenomena. When con-
fronted with new material relevant to classical conditioning, students can
draw from their memory of the specifics of this demonstration to piece
together again the components of classical conditioning. Having such
concrete examples is particularly useful to students who may not grasp
this material in an abstract form.

Second, this demonstration shows how classical conditioning can

affect humans as well as nonhumans, a principle that students often
fail to glean from many other classical conditioning examples they are
otherwise likely to read or discuss.

Third, the volunteer probably developed more than one CR to the

CS; he or she may have developed a flinch, an eye squint, a facial
expression, an upper body movement, a particular breathing pattern,
and so forth. Such observations are important because they highlight
the extent to which classical conditioning in the real world (i.e., outside
the controlled laboratory) allows for CSs to elicit a multitude of relevant
CRs, not just one specific target response that an experimenter intended
to create.

26 Learning BACK TO CONTENTS

 Fourth, and related to the last point, the demonstration illustrates
the adaptive nature of classical conditioning. This viewpoint is especially
useful to students who otherwise regard classical conditioning as trivial
and unimportant when compared with operant conditioning. Thus,
students discussing the demonstration may point to the utility of
squinting just before water hits one’s eyes, as opposed to waiting until
after the moment of impact. It is easy to discuss why it makes sense for
organisms to learn CRs to environmental events when such stimuli come
to predict significant UCSs. Or students may observe the usefulness of
extinction—why bother to continue to produce a squint response when
the CS no longer predicts the water in the face? Students may see similar
utility in spontaneous recovery or reconditioning savings.

References and Suggested Reading

Bitterman, M. E. (2006). Classical conditioning since Pavlov. Review of General
Psychology, 10, 365-376.

Driscoll, M. P. (2003). Psychology of learning for instruction (3rd ed.). Boston, MA:
Allyn & Bacon.

Grant, L. K. (2002). Word diagrams in teaching classical conditioning. Psychological

Record, 52, 129-138.

Kirsch, I., Lynn, S. J., Vigorito, M., & Miller, R. R. (2004). The role of cognition in
classical and operant conditioning. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 369-392.

Kohn, A., & Kalat, J. W. (1992). Preparing for an important event: Demonstrating the
modern view of classical conditioning. Teaching of Psychology, 19, 100-102.

Pavlov, I. P. (1927). Conditioned reflexes: An investigation of the physiological activity of

the cerebral cortex (G. V. Anrep, Trans.). London: Oxford University Press.

Sparrow, J., & Fernald, P. (1989). Teaching and demonstrating classical conditioning.
Teaching of Psychology, 16, 204-206.

Copyright © 2008 by the American Psychological Association. The official citation that
should be used in referencing this material is:

Shenker, J. I. (2008). Classical conditioning: An all-purpose demonstration using a

toy watergun. In L. T. Benjamin, Jr. (Ed.), Favorite activities for the teaching of
psychology (pp. 109-111). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

No further reproduction or distribution is permitted without written permission

from the American Psychological Association.

BACK TO CONTENTS A Five-Day Unit Lesson Plan for High School Psychology Teachers 27
 Activity 1.2
Salivating to Music
Developed by
Jeffrey R. Stowell
Eastern Illinois University

Concept

This activity allows all students to experience classical conditioning

firsthand and tests students’ understanding of classical conditioning
principles. See also Cogan and Cogan (1984).

Materials
You will need lemonade drink mix powder (one teaspoon per student),
and each student will need a blank sheet of paper.

Instructions
Have students fold up the edges of a blank piece of paper to be used as
a container for a small amount of lemonade drink mix powder (about a
teaspoon). Have them lick the tip of their finger and taste the lemonade
powder (UCS), which will cause salivation (UCR). Instruct them to have
some lemonade powder ready on their fingertip so they can lick their
BACK TO fingertip as soon as they hear the music begin playing. Play 3-4 seconds
content
of a song and pair it with the lemonade powder 8-10 times, waiting about
outline
20-30 seconds between pairings. Then, play the music only (without the
lemonade powder) and have them note if they start salivating. Usually
about two-thirds of the class salivates to the music.

Be sure to check with students about food allergies before introducing

any substance to be tasted in a class demonstration.

Discussion
Ask students to identify the UCS (lemonade powder), UCR (salivation),
CS (music), and CR (salivation). You can also mention the timing of the
UCS–CS was most likely delayed conditioning. You should then play the
song until salivation no longer occurs (extinction). Play it again at the start
of the next class period to see if spontaneous recovery occurs.

Recommended Reading
Cogan, D., & Cogan, R. (1984). Classical salivary conditioning: An easy
demonstration. Teaching of Psychology, 11(3), 170-171.

28 Learning BACK TO CONTENTS

 Activity 3
Shaping Demonstration
Developed by
David Watson
University of Hawaii

From original TOPSS Lesson Plan on Learning

Concept
This activity deals with shaping, that is, reinforcing successive
approximations of one behavior to the exclusion of other behaviors.
The exercise helps students learn the basic principles of reinforcement
and makes it possible for them to compare the effects of positive
reinforcement and punishment.

Instructions
Start the exercise by showing students how shaping is done. Ask for a
volunteer whose behavior you will shape. Send the volunteer out of the
room while you and the class select a simple behavior to shape—for
example, touching the chalkboard. Have the volunteer return. Explain the
task as follows: “We’ve picked a particular act that we want you to do, but
we won’t tell you what it is; you have to figure it out. It’s simple and not
BACK TO
embarrassing. Each time you move in the direction of doing it, I will say content
‘good.’ If you don’t move in that direction, I won’t say anything. When you outline
get a little warm, I won’t keep on saying ‘good.’ I’ll wait for you to get a bit
warmer before saying it. That way you will make progress. What I’ll be
doing is called ‘shaping.’”

Begin shaping the volunteer’s behavior by saying “good” to any

movement in the direction of the desired act. For example, if the
volunteer is to touch the chalkboard, say “good” to any glance, turn,
or step toward it. Then say “good” only to steps toward it, then to
approaches of the hand toward it, etc. Eliciting the desired act takes
about 10 minutes, on average.

Now divide the class into pairs. At the outset, one person in the
pair should be the shaper, and the other, the person whose behavior
will be shaped. The roles should be switched. Have the shapers select
a target behavior—remind them that it should be a simple one, not
embarrassing—and then have them proceed to shape their partner’s
behavior. While they are working, circulate among them, coaching.

BACK TO CONTENTS A Five-Day Unit Lesson Plan for High School Psychology Teachers 29
 On the same day, if time allows, or on another day, continue the
exercise, but instead of having shapers say “good” when their partner
gets warmer, have them say “bad” when their partner gets colder.

Discussion
End the discussion with what students have learned. Bring out the
following points: Reinforcers such as the word good guide behavior;
reinforcement must come quickly if it is to have an effect; and shaping
is an effective way to develop behaviors. Ask why some shapers did
better than others. A shaper may have required too large an initial step,
inadvertently reinforced the wrong move, or not given enough reinforcers.
Also discuss the effects the change of approach from “good” to “bad” had.
Typically, punishment (as represented here by the word “bad”) does not
affect each new behavior effectively. There are also some typical side
effects: The person on whom punishment is being used will become
frustrated, may become aggressive, may show disrupted behavior,
and may want to escape from the situation. Ask students for examples
of shaping from real life. Point out that much shaping occurs without
conscious intent. If you are really brave, you might ask your students how
a class might conspire to shape the instructor’s behavior.

Suggested Background Reading

Coon, D. (1977). Introduction to psychology: Exploration and application (Chapters 8, 9).
New York: West Publishing.

Malott, R. W., Ritterby, K., & Wolf, E. L. C. (1973). An introduction to behavior

modification. Kalamazoo, MI: Behaviordelia.

Morgan, W. G. (1974). The shaping game: A teaching technique. Behavior Therapy, 5(2),
271-272.

30 Learning BACK TO CONTENTS

 Activity 4
Schedules of Reinforcement
Developed by
Alan Feldman
Glen Rock High School, Glen Rock, NJ

From original TOPSS Lesson Plan on Learning

The following is a useful activity for teaching students to distinguish

among the four major schedules of reinforcement.

Reinforcement—an increase in the strength or frequency of a behavior

due to its consequences

Reinforcer—any stimulus that, when made contingent upon a response,

increases the probability of that response

Instructions
In terms of delivering a reinforcer, one may: (a) deliver the reinforcer
according to the first correct response after an interval of time (These
BACK TO
are called interval schedules.) or (b) deliver the reinforcer after a certain content
number of responses. (These are called ratio schedules—time is irrele- outline
vant.) A schedule is fixed if it stays the same from reinforcer to reinforcer,
or variable if it is allowed to vary within a certain range.

continued on page 32

BACK TO CONTENTS A Five-Day Unit Lesson Plan for High School Psychology Teachers 31
 Student Worksheet
Combine the four definitions to define the schedules listed below:

1. Fixed-interval schedule
2. Variable-interval schedule
3. Fixed-ratio schedule
4. Variable-ratio schedule

To determine the schedule of reinforcement being used, ask yourself:

Is time the major factor that causes a favorable outcome after the first
correct response or is it the number of responses? If time or the need-
ed number of responses is constant, the schedule is fixed; if the time or
number of responses varies around a certain average, the schedule is
variable. Write fixed interval (FI), fixed ratio (FR), variable interval (VI) or
variable ratio (VR) on the line to the left of the example.

1. ____ For every ten words spelled correctly a child gets a star by their
name on a bulletin board
2. ____ Checking your mailbox for mail which comes daily at 3 PM
3. ____ An owl hunting for mice in a forest
4. ____ A sales clerk at a bakery waiting for the next customer to arrive
5. ____ A child is rewarded if they are sitting correctly after every two
minutes goes by
6. ____ Selling cookies door to door
7. ____ Waiting for clothes to come out of washing machine that takes
32 minutes
8. ____ Trying to complete a telephone call when the line is busy
9. ____ Slot machines are based on this schedule
10. ____ Frequent flyer program in which one gets a free flight after a
specific number of miles are flown
11. ____ Waiting for an elevator to arrive
12. ____ A dolphin is given a fish after it jumps through a hoop six times
13. ____ A writer is paid for every article completed
14. ____ A fisherman turning over rocks looking for worms
15. ____ A rat is rewarded for the first correct response after every 30
seconds
16. ____ Waiting for an important email

32 Learning BACK TO CONTENTS

 Answer Key for Teachers
1. ____ For every ten words spelled correctly a child gets a star by their
name on a bulletin board (FR)
2. ____ Checking your mailbox for mail which comes daily at 3 PM (FI)
3. ____ An owl hunting for mice in a forest (VR)
4. ____ A sales clerk at a bakery waiting for the next customer to
arrive (VI)
5. ____ A child is rewarded if they are sitting correctly after every two
minutes goes by (FI)
6. ____ Selling cookies door to door (VR)
7. ____ Waiting for clothes to come out of washing machine that takes
32 minutes (FI)
8. ____ Trying to complete a telephone call when the line is busy (VI)
9. ____ Slot machines are based on this schedule (VR)
10. ____ Frequent flyer program in which one gets a free flight after a
specific number of miles are flown (FR)
11. ____ Waiting for an elevator to arrive (VI)
12. ____ A dolphin is given a fish after it jumps through a hoop six
times (FR)
13. ____ A writer is paid for every article completed (FR)
14. ____ A fisherman turning over rocks looking for worms (VR)
15. ____ A rat is rewarded for the first correct response after every 30
seconds (FI)
16. ____ Waiting for an important email (VI)

To see if students really understand schedules of reinforcement, you can

add “An animal getting food every 45 seconds” to the list above. In this
case, no schedule of reinforcement is implied because no behavior has
occurred.

BACK TO CONTENTS A Five-Day Unit Lesson Plan for High School Psychology Teachers 33
 Critical
Thinking and
Discussion
Questions

Critical Thinking Questions

For exercises A—C, you may want to have your students read articles
and/or book chapters on the topic before stating their opinions. For
example, the book Taking Sides: Clashing Views on Controversial
Psychological Issues (11th edition) (Slife, 2000) has an article on
spanking and TV’s influence on aggression that may be relevant to

Critical Thinking and Discussion Questions

Exercise C. Corresponding lessons are listed with each exercise below.

Exercise A (Lesson 2)
Develop pro and con arguments regarding this statement: It was ethical
and justifiable for John Watson to use classical conditioning to establish a
fear of white rats in “Little Albert.” Students can then use these arguments
to write a paragraph presenting their personal belief. They may also
analyze whether Watson’s research would be allowed under current APA
guidelines.

Exercise B (Lesson 4)
Hold a discussion on the use of punishment as a parenting technique.
What are its advantages? Its disadvantages? Under what circumstances
is it appropriate? Inappropriate? Are there effective alternatives? What
general principles can be developed to govern the use of punishment?
See Forehand & Kotchick (1996) for a brief summary of parenting values
and behaviors characteristic of different ethnic minority groups.

Exercise C (Lesson 4)
Have students develop their own behavior modification plan using
the principles of operant conditioning. They could choose a target
behavior such as biting their nails or exercising more and explain
how reinforcement or punishment could change these behaviors.

BACK TO CONTENTS A Five-Day Unit Lesson Plan for High School Psychology Teachers 35
 Exercise D (Lesson 5)
Have students research the statement: Children learn to be more
violent from watching television violence. Students should gather
evidence, analyze its weight and relevance, and prepare to defend
their opinion either in a written paper or in class discussion.

Exercise E (Lesson 5)
Have two panels of students discuss how to structure a proposed new
elementary school. One panel should advocate for a reliance on the
principles of cognitive learning, especially observational learning, to
establish appropriate student behavior and learning. The other panel
should advocate for a reliance on the principles of operant conditioning.
You may also want to have the students present these two approaches
to reducing young students’ prejudice and discrimination (based on
race/ethnicity, culture, gender identity and expression, sexual orientation,
disability, religion, socioeconomic status, national origin, and/or aging).

Discussion Questions
1. S
 peculate on what may have happened to Little Albert. How might his
fear have been de-conditioned?

2. For both Pavlov’s and Watson’s demonstrations of classical

conditioning, identify the unconditioned stimulus, the unconditioned
response, the conditioned stimulus, and the conditioned response.

3. How can spontaneous recovery be explained? Is there such a thing as

absolute extinction?

4. Describe the relationship between trial and error and Thorndike’s Law
of Effect.

5. How can an individual’s use of alcohol or other drugs be explained

as positive reinforcement? How can it be explained as negative
reinforcement?

6. How could a high school student use principles of operant conditioning

to train his or her parents to set a later curfew? Consider the effective-
ness of positive reinforcement, shaping, and the use of schedules of
reinforcement in your answer.

36 Learning BACK TO CONTENTS

 Resources,
References, and
Recommended
Reading

Resources
Websites

Resources, References, and Recommended Reading

•E
 ducation Portal: Learning
[Link]
This site contains short video clips, transcripts, and quizzes on most topics in
the learning unit.

•L
 earning in the News
[Link]
the%20News
This page is from the APA Division 2: The Society for the Teaching of Psychol-
ogy ([Link] Teaching of Psychology Idea Exchange (ToPIX).

•P
 avlov’s Dog
[Link]
Play the game “Pavlov’s dog” to see how well you can condition Ivan (Pavlov’s
virtual dog) to salivate to a sound.

Videos

• Annenberg. (Producer). (1990). Discovering psychology: Learning

[Video]. Available from [Link]
chology/08/[Link]
This program discusses the basic principles of how we learn; classical,
instrumental, and operant conditioning; and the role that stimuli and conse-
quences play in learned behavior and habits.

BACK TO CONTENTS A Five-Day Unit Lesson Plan for High School Psychology Teachers 37
 •P
 rentice Hall. (Producer). (2006). Classical films for introductory
psychology. [DVD]. With instructor’s guide by Dennis Thompson,
Georgia State University. Available from [Link]
HigherEducation/PrenticeHall/
This DVD contains original film footage of John B. Watson and the Little
Albert Experiment, Ivan Pavlov and Experiments in Conditioning, Wolfgang
Köhler and Experiments in Ape Intelligence.

•S
 ociety for the Teaching of Psychology. (2013). Teaching of psychology
idea exchange: Learning videos. Retrieved from [Link]
[Link]/w/page/19981016/Learning%20Video
Find several online videos on learning compiled by the Society for the Teach-
ing of Psychology (APA Division 2).

• Williams, C. (Writer), & Whittingham, K. (Director). (2007). Phyllis’s

wedding [Television series episode]. In G. Daniels (Executive
producer), The office. Universal City, CA: NBC Universal.
In The Office episode titled “Phyllis’s Wedding” (Season 3 episode
16), Jim uses Pavlov’s theory to make Dwight want an Altoid.
Teachers may be able to find a clip on YouTube or elsewhere online
to show students.

• Worth Publishers. (Producer). (2013). Video anthology for high school

psychology [DVD]. Available from [Link]
Catalog/
The “Learning” chapter includes the following short video clips
that highlight classical conditioning: clips 119 and 120 (classical
conditioning), clip 125 (operant conditioning), and clip 128 (cognitive map-
ping). The DVD comes with a faculty guide that includes a
description, interpretive comments, and discussion questions.

38 Learning BACK TO CONTENTS

 References and Recommended Readings
Abramson, C. I., Onstott, T., Edwards, S., & Bowe, K. (1996). Classical-conditioning
demonstrations for elementary and advanced courses. Teaching of Psychology, 23(1),
26-30. doi: 10.1207/s15328023top2301_4

Bandura, A., Ross, D., & Ross, S. A. (1961). Transmission of aggression through imita-
tion of aggressive models. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 63, 575-582.
doi: 10.1037/h0045925

Beck, H. P., Levinson, S., & Irons, G. (2009). Finding Little Albert: A journey to John
B. Watson’s infant laboratory. American Psychologist, 64(7), 605-614. doi: 10.1037/
a0017234

Breland, K., & Breland, M. (1961). The misbehavior of organisms. American Psycholo-
gist, 16(11), 681. doi: 10.1037/h0040090

Bovbjerg, D. H., Redd, W. H., Jacobsen, P. B., Manne, S. L., Taylor, K. L., Surbone, A.,
et al. (1992). An experimental analysis of classically conditioned nausea during can-
cer chemotherapy. Psychosomatic Medicine, 54(6), 623-637.

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