Radio Link

Antenna Antenna

Radio wave

Transmitter Receiver

Antennas: important elements of any radio

link

1
M1

Antenna
 An antenna is a way of converting the guided waves present in a waveguide,
feeder cable or transmission line into radiating waves travelling in free space, or vice
versa.

An antenna is a passive structure that serves as transition between a transmission

line and air used to transmit and/or receive electromagnetic waves.

 Converts Electrons to Photons of EM energy

It is a transducer which interfaces a circuit and free space

Slide 2

M1 Me, 11-11-2011
 What is an antenna?
• An antenna is a device that:
– Converts RF power applied to its feed point into electromagnetic radiation.
– Intercepts energy from a passing electromagnetic radiation, which then appears as RF
voltage across the antenna’s feed point.

• Any conductor, through which an RF current is flowing, can be an antenna.

• Any conductor that can intercept an RF field can be an antenna.

 Antenna Purpose
• Transformation of a guided EM wave
in transmission line (waveguide) into
Space wave a freely propagating EM wave in
space (or vice versa) with specified
directional characteristics
– Transformation from time-function in
one-dimensional space into time-function
in three dimensional space
– The specific form of the radiated wave is
defined by the antenna structure and the
environment

Guided wave
4
 Antennas…
• Electrical conductor (or system of..) used to radiate electromagnetic energy or
collect electromagnetic energy
• Transmission
– Radio frequency energy from transmitter
– Converted to electromagnetic energy
– By antenna
– Radiated into surrounding environment
• Reception
– Electromagnetic energy impinging on antenna
– Converted to radio frequency electrical energy
– Fed to receiver
• Same antenna often used for both
Only accelerated (or decelerated) charges radiate EM waves.

A current with a time-harmonic variation (AC current) satisfies this requirement.

6
 Role of Antennas
• Spatial filter
directionally-dependent sensitivity
• Polarization filter
polarization-dependent sensitivity
• Impedance transformer (50 Ω to 377Ω)
transition between free space and transmission line
• Propagation mode adapter
from free-space fields to guided waves
(e.g., transmission line, waveguide)

7
 Antenna Background

• Maxwell (1831-79) Fundamental equations. (Scottish)

• Hertz (1857-94) First aerial propagation (German)
• Marconi (1874-1937) Transatlantic transmission (Italian)
• DeForest (Triode tube 1920) Signal generators (American)
• World War II (1939-45) Intense war-driven development
 Spherical Coordinates
q=0
z (zenith)

q
q=90
f=90

f y

f= azimuth x
q=90
q= elevation f=0
Isotropic Antenna
• Isotropic antenna or isotropic radiator is a
hypothetical (not physically realizable)
concept, used as a useful reference to
describe real antennas.

• Isotropic antenna radiates equally in all

directions.
– Its radiation pattern is represented by a sphere
whose center coincides with the location of the
isotropic radiator.

10
Omnidirectional Antenna
• An antenna, which
has a non-directional
pattern in a plane
– It is usually
directional in other
planes

11
 Directional Antenna
• Directional antenna is an antenna, which radiates (or receives)
much more power in (or from) some directions than in (or
from) others.

12
 Types of Antennas
• Wire antennas
• Aperture antennas
• Array antennas
• Reflector antennas
• Lens antennas
• Patch antennas
Types of Antennas…

14
 Absolute Power
• dBm is absolute power with reference to a milliwatt
• dBm = 10log10(P/(1 mW))
• dBW = 10log10(P/(1 W))

15
 Radiation Mechanism
Charges transmitted over a straight metal at a constant
speed do not produce radiation.

+++ No radiation

If the charges encountered a discontinuity (OC, bend ...) their

speed changes, then there is radiation.

+++ Radiation

In a resonant structure, charges continuously oscillate,

creating a continuous stream of radiation.
High radiation
+++
 EM Radiation
• Electromagnetic (EM) radiation is caused by charged particles that are
accelerated.
• Charged particles have an electric field.
• Moving charged particles create a magnetic field, which in turn creates
electromagnetic radiation sometimes called an electromagnetic wave or
electromagnetic field.
• Therefore, changing currents are required to create electromagnetic
radiation.
• Electromagnetic radiation has both a magnetic and electric field.

17
Radiation Mechanism
 Radiation Resistance
• Thus “Radiation Resistance can be defined as that fictitious resistance which when
substituted in series with the antenna will consume the same power as is actually
radiated”.
• Total Power loss in an antenna is sum of the two losses
Total Power Loss = Ohmic Loss + Radiation Loss
W W 'W ''

 I 2Rr  I 2Rl
 I 2 (Rr  Rl )
 I 2R
 Radiation Resistance depends on

 Configuration of Antenna
 The Point where radiation resistance is considered
 Location of antenna with respect to ground and other objects
 Ratio of length of diameter of conductor used
 Corona Discharge-a luminous discharge round the surface of antenna due to
ionization of air etc.
 So , Antenna Input Impedance is

• Input Impedance (resistance + reactance)

• Radiation Resistance (corresponds to energy that is
transmitted)
• Loss Resistance

21
 Antenna Impedance
• An antenna is “seen" by the generator as a load with impedance ZA , connected to the line.
ZA
Z A  Rrad  RL   jX A

• The real part is the radiation resistance plus the ohmic resistance.
– Minimizing impedance differences at each interface will reduce SWR and maximize power transfer
through each part of the antenna system.
– Complex impedance, ZA , of an antenna is related to the electrical length of the antenna at the wavelength
in use.
• The impedance of an antenna can be matched to the feed line and radio by adjusting the impedance of the feed
line, using the feed line as an impedance transformer.
• More commonly, the impedance is adjusted at the load with an antenna tuner, a balun, a matching transformer,
matching networks composed of inductors and capacitors, or matching sections such as the gamma match.
Transmitting Antenna Equivalent Circuit
Antenna

Transmitter Transm. line Radio wave

The transmitter with the transmission line is represented by an (Thevenin)

equivalent generator
jXG jXA The antenna is represented by its input impedance
(which is frequency-dependent and is influenced by objects nearby) as seen
from the generator
Generator

RG jXA represents energy stored in electric (Ee) and magnetic (Em) near-field
Rr components; if |Ee| = |Em| then XA = 0 (antenna resonance)

Rr represents energy radiated into space (far-field components)

Rl represents energy lost, i.e. transformed into heat in the antenna structure
VG Rl

23
Receiving Antenna Equivalent Circuit
Antenna

Radio wave [Link] Receiver

The antenna with the transmission line is represented by an

(Thevenin) equivalent generator
jXA
The receiver is represented by its input impedance as seen from the
antenna terminals (i.e. transformed by the transmission line)
jXL
Rr
Antenna

VA is the (induced by the incident wave) voltage at the antenna

terminals determined when the antenna is open circuited
Rl RL
Note: The antenna impedance is the same when the antenna is used to radiate and when
it is used to receive energy

VA

Thevenin equivalent
24
 Radiation Efficiency
• The radiation efficiency e indicates how efficiently the antenna
uses the RF power
• It is the ratio of the power radiated by the antenna and the
total power delivered to the antenna terminals (in transmitting
mode). In terms of equivalent circuit parameters:

Rr
e
Rr  Rl
25
 Antennas and Fields
• Reciprocity Theorem
– An antenna’s properties are the same, whether it is used for
transmitting or receiving.
• Near Field
– An electromagnetic field that exists within ~ λ/2 of the antenna. It
temporarily stores power and is related to the imaginary term of the
input impedance.
• Far Field
– An electromagnetic field launched by the antenna that extends
throughout all space. This field transports power and is related to the
radiation resistance of the antenna.
 Summarizing
[Link] be a piece of conducting material in the form of a wire, rod or
any other shape with excitation.
2. Is a source or radiator of electromagnetic waves.
3. Is a sensor of electromagnetic waves.
4. Is a transducer.
5. Is an impedance matching device.
6. Is a coupler between a generator and space or vice-versa.
 Radiation Mechanism
• The radiation from the antenna takes place when the
Electromagnetic field generated by the source is transmitted to
the antenna system through the Transmission line and
separated from the Antenna into free space.
 Radiation from a Single Wire
• Conducting wires are characterized by the motion of electric
charges and the creation of current flow.
• Assume that an electric volume charge density, qv
(coulombs/m3 ), is distributed uniformly in a circular wire of
cross-sectional area A and volume V.
 Antenna Features
When buying an antenna, what features are important to
consider?
‣ Usable frequency range (bandwidth)
‣ Radiation pattern (beamwidth, sidelobes, backlobe,
front-to-back ratio, location of nulls)
‣ Maximum gain
‣ Input impedance
‣ Physical size and wind resistance
‣ Cost
33
 Radiation Pattern
• The radiation pattern of antenna is a representation (pictorial or mathematical) of
the distribution of the power out-flowing (radiated) from the antenna (in the case of
transmitting antenna), or inflowing (received) to the antenna (in the case of
receiving antenna) as a function of direction angles from the antenna

• Antenna radiation pattern (antenna pattern):

– is defined for large distances from the antenna, where the spatial (angular) distribution of the radiated power
does not depend on the distance from the radiation source
– is independent on the power flow direction: it is the same when the antenna is used to transmit and when it is
used to receive radio waves
– is usually different for different frequencies and different polarizations of radio wave radiated/ received

34
 Power Pattern v/s Field Pattern
• The power pattern is the measured (calculated) and plotted received
power: |P(θ, ϕ)| at a constant (large) distance from the antenna

• The amplitude field pattern is the measured (calculated) and plotted

electric (magnetic) field intensity, |E(θ, ϕ)| or |H(θ, ϕ)| at a constant
(large) distance from the antenna

• The power pattern and the field patterns are inter-related:

P(θ, ϕ) = (1/)*|E(θ, ϕ)|2 = *|H(θ, ϕ)|2
P = power
E = electrical field component vector
H = magnetic field component vector
 = 377 ohm (free-space, plane wave impedance)

35
 Normalized Pattern
• Usually, the pattern describes the normalized field (power)
values with respect to the maximum value.
– The power pattern and the amplitude field pattern are the same
when computed and when plotted in dB.

36
 Antenna Radiation Regions

© Agilent Technologies, Inc. 2009

37
 Antenna Radiation Regions

Quasi-constant Fluctuating Decreasing in 1/r²

Principal Patterns

40
 Principal Patterns…

• 2-D patterns of linearly polarized antennas,

measured in 2 planes
1. E-plane: a plane parallel to the E vector and containing
the direction of maximum radiation, and
2. H-plane: a plane parallel to the H vector, orthogonal to
the E-plane, and containing the direction of maximum
radiation

41
 Typical Radiation Patterns
• Omnidirectional
– Broadcasting
– Mobile telephony
• Pencil-beam
– Microwave links
• Fan-beam (narrow in one plane, wide in the other)
• Shaped-beam
– Satellite antennas

42
 Antenna Parameters
• Solid angle, WA and Radiation intensity, U
• Radiation pattern, Pn, side lobes, HPBW
• Far field zone, rff
• Directivity, D or Gain, G
• Antenna radiation impedance, Rrad
• Effective Area, Ae

All of these parameters are expressed in terms of

a transmission antenna, but are identically
applicable to a receiving antenna
 Radiation Pattern
•This is a rectangular plot and a polar plot of the same
antenna (in a single plane).
•Polar coordinate systems are far more common than
rectangular plots, since they give a better visual
representation of antenna performance in every direction.

44
3-D Pattern
• Antenna radiation pattern
is 3-dimensional
• The 3-D plot of antenna
pattern assumes both
angles θ and ϕ varying,
which is difficult to
produce and to interpret

45
2-D Pattern
• Usually the antenna pattern
is presented as a 2-D plot,
with only one of the
direction angles, θ or ϕ
varies
• It is an intersection of the
3-D one with a given plane
– usually it is a θ = const plane or
a ϕ= const plane that contains
the pattern’s maximum

46
Pattern Lobes

Pattern lobe is a
portion of the radiation
pattern with a local
maximum
Lobes are classified
as: major, minor,
side lobes, back
lobes.

47
Pattern Lobes and Beam Widths

48
 Beam width
• Half-power beamwidth (HPBW) is the angle between two vectors from
the pattern’s origin to the points of the major lobe where the radiation
intensity is half its maximum
• Often used to describe the antenna resolution properties
» Important in radar technology, radio astronomy, etc.

• First-null beamwidth (FNBW) is the angle between two vectors,

originating at the pattern’s origin and tangent to the main beam at its
base.
» Often FNBW ≈ 2*HPBW

49
Example

50
 Polarisation of EM wave
circular

vertical

Electrical field, E
horizontal
 Antenna Polarization

• The polarization of an antenna in a specific direction

is defined to be the polarization of the wave
produced by the antenna at a great distance at this
direction

59
Linear Polarization

60
Mismatched Polarization

61
 Polarization Efficiency

• The power received by an antenna

from a particular direction is maximal if the
polarization of the incident wave and the
polarization of the antenna in the wave arrival
direction have:
– the same axial ratio
– the same sense of polarization
– the same spatial orientation
.
62
 Near and Far Fields of Elemental Dipoles
Electric (Hertzian) Hr  0 Idl  1 1 
z Er  2 0  02 cosq  2 2  j 3 3 e  j 0 r
Dipole 4  0 r 0 r 
Hq  0
 Idl  1 1 1 
Hf  Idl 2  1 1  Eq  0  02 sin q  j  2 2  j 3 3 e  j 0 r
Hf   0 sin q  j  2 2 e  j 0 r 4
Er 4  0r 0 r   0r 0 r 0 r 
θ Ef  0
r Complex dependence on 1/r,
 Complex dependence on 1/r 1/r2, & 1/r3 in near field
Eq y and 1/r2 in near field
dl
Idl e  j 0 r  Idl e  j 0 r 
H far  j  0 sin q af E far  j  0  0 sin q aq
4 r 4 r
x
f Wavenumber:
Only 1/r dependence remains Only 1/r dependence remains
This image cannot currently be display ed.

in far field in far field

2 0 m 2  1 1 
Magnetic (Loop) Er  0 Hr  j  0 cos q  2 2  j 3 3 e  j 0 r
z 4 0  0 r 0 r 
Dipole Eq  0
 0 m 2  1 1 1 
  1 Hq  j  0 sin q  j  2 2  j 3 3 e  j r0

 m 1  4 0  0  r  r  0r 
Hr Ef   j 0  02 sin q  j  2 2 e  j r 0 0
4  0r 0 r  Hf  0
θ
Complex dependence on 1/r,
  Complex dependence on 1/r 1/r2, & 1/r3 in near field
I Ef Hq y and 1/r2 in near field
b
 0 m e  j r 
0
 0 m e  j r 
0

E far   0 sin q af H far    0 sin q aq

4 4 0 r
x
f r

Magnetic dipole moment: Only 1/r dependence remains Only 1/r dependence remains
This image cannot currently be display ed.

in far field in far field