Field Guide

Heating measurement
technology
Practical advice, tips and tricks.
Copyrights, warranty and liability

The information put together in this Field Guide is protected by copyright. All rights belong ex-
clusively to Testo AG. The contents and pictures may not be commercially reproduced, modified
or used for purposes other than the stipulated intended use without the prior written consent of
Testo AG.

The information in this Field Guide has been produced with the utmost care. Nevertheless, the infor-
mation provided is not binding, and Testo AG reserves the right to make changes or additions. Testo
AG therefore offers no guarantee or warranty for the correctness and completeness of the informa-
tion provided. Testo AG accepts no liability for damages resulting directly or indirectly from the use
of this guide, insofar as these cannot be attributed to wilful intent or negligence.

Testo AG, June 2014

2
Foreword

Dear Reader

This guide provides an overview of Tips and tricks from practical experi-
measurement parameters, measuring ence for practical application offer val-
tasks and measurement techniques in uable advice when it comes to using
the heating sector. It contains compe- portable flue gas analyzers. The guide
tent answers to frequently answered will therefore save you from having to
practical questions. It is based on the search through various sources, which
worldwide experiences of Testo instru- is both tedious and time-consuming.
ment users. We are always open to any additional
It offers the keen beginner an overview ideas and suggestions for improve-
of the relevant legislation in Germany, ment that you may have.
and also of limit values which must
be complied with when measuring
emissions. For the experienced flue
gas measurement professional, it is
a valuable reference guide to current
regulations.

Wolfgang Schwörer, Head of Product Management

3
Contents

1. What is flue gas? 6

1.1 Units of measurement 7
1.2 Flue gas components 9

2. Fuels 16
2.1 Solid fuels 16
2.2 Liquid fuels 18
2.3 Gaseous fuels 20

3. Firing installations 22
3.1 Principle of a firing installation 22
3.2 Current situation in the field of boiler construction 23
3.3 Classification of firing installations according to fuel type 25
3.3.1 Solid fuel boilers 25
3.3.2 Gas-fired installations 26
3.3.3 Oil burners 28
3.3.4 Other types of burner 32

4. Legal background for measurements on heating systems 34

4.1 O
 rdinance on small and medium-sized combustion plants 35
(1st BImSchV)
4.2 German Sweeping and Inspection Act (KÜO) 36

5. Measuring tasks on heating systems 38

5.1 Functional testing and settings for gas-fired systems 38
5.2 Functional testing and settings for oil-fired systems 58
5.3 P
 eriodic monitoring of solid fuel systems according 61
to the 1st BImSchV

4
6. Tightness tests on gas and water pipes 68
6.1 Gas pipe test 68
6.1.1 Load test 68
6.1.2 Tightness test 69
6.1.3 Serviceability test 71
6.1.4 Combined load and tightness test on gas pipes 74
6.1.5 Searching for gas leaks 74
6.2 Testing drinking water installations 75
6.2.1 Pressure test using water 75
6.2.2 Pressure test using air or inert gas 76
[Link] Tightness tests 77
[Link] Load tests 78

7. Measuring instruments for flue gas analysis 80

7.1 The sensors 80
7.2 How a chemical two/three-electrode sensor works 80
7.2.1 How a chemical two-electrode sensor works 81
7.2.2 H
 ow a chemical three-electrode sensor for toxic gases works 82
7.3 How a semi-conductor sensor for combustible gases works 83
7.4 Particulate matter sensor 84
7.5 Electronics 84
7.6 Design 85

8. Appendix 86
8.1 Calculation formulae 86
8.2 Introduction to Testo instruments 92

5
What is flue gas?

1. What is flue gas?

Due to the increasing number of recovery of energy must therefore be

combustion processes of all kinds, through limiting pollutants. Flue gas
the environment is being polluted pollutants can only be limited effec-
with ever-increasing concentra- tively if existing plants are operated
tions of pollutants. The formation of as efficiently as possible or polluting
smog, production of acid rain and the combustion plants are shut down. Flue
increasing incidence of allergies are gas analysis is used to determine the
direct consequences of this trend. concentrations of pollutants and opti-
The way to environmentally-friendly mally configure heating systems.

Air + Fuel Combustion products

Carbon dioxide
Oxygen
Carbon monoxide
Flue gas
Sulphur dioxide
Carbon
Residual O2

Nitrogen oxide NOx

Water vapour
Nitrogen
Hydrogen

Sulphur Residual fuel

Residue

Oxygen Ash

Nitrogen Particulate matter

Water vapour Water Soot

Fig. 1: Fuel/flue gas composition

6
Fuel essentially consists of carbon (C) Conversion is as follows:
and hydrogen (H2). The combustion 10,000 ppm = 1%
air is made up of oxygen (O2), nitrogen 1,000 ppm = 0.1%
(N2) and a small proportion of residual 100 ppm = 0.01%
gases and water vapour. 10 ppm = 0,001%
When this fuel is burned in air, oxygen 1 ppm = 0.0001%
(O2) is consumed.
This process is called oxidation. The An oxygen concentration of 21% by
elements from the combustion air and volume would be equivalent to a con-
fuel form new bonds. centration of 210,000 ppm O2.

1.1 Units of measurement

ppm (parts per million)

Pollutants in flue gas are detected
from the concentration of the gas
components. The following units are
generally used:
Like the specification “percent (%)”,
the unit ppm represents a proportion.
Percent means “x number of parts
per hundred parts”; ppm means “x
number of parts per million parts”.
For example, if a gas bottle contains
250 ppm carbon monoxide (CO), and
if one million particles are taken from
that bottle, 250 of these will be carbon
monoxide particles while the other
999,750 particles will be nitrogen diox-
ide (N2) and oxygen particles (O2). The
unit ppm is not dependent on pressure
or temperature and is used for lower
concentrations. If larger concentra-
tions are present, these are specified
in percent (%).

7
What is flue gas?

mg/Nm3 when converting ppm into mg/Nm3.

(milligrams per cubic metre) The conversions for carbon monox-
In the case of the unit mg/Nm3, the ide (CO) and nitrogen oxide (NOx) are
standard volume (standard cubic me- given below.
tres, Nm3) is taken as a reference vari- The factors contained in the formulae
able and the mass of the pollutant gas correspond to the standard density of
is specified in milligrams (mg). Since the gases in mg/m3.
this unit is dependent on pressure and
temperature, the volume in normal mg/kWh
conditions is taken as reference: (milligrams per kilowatt hour of
Temperature: 0 °C energy used)
Pressure: 1013 mbar (hPa) Calculations are made using fuel-
specific data in order to determine the
However, this information alone is not concentrations of noxious gases in the
sufficient, because the volume ratios energy-related unit mg/kWh. There are
in the flue gas change according to the therefore different conversion factors
proportion of oxygen (dilution of flue depending on the fuel. The factors
gas with ambient air). The readings for converting ppm and mg/m³ to the
therefore need to be converted to a energy-related unit mg/kWh are shown
particular volume of oxygen, the refer- below. However, before converting
ence oxygen content (O2 reference). to mg/kWh, the concentrations of
Only data with the same reference measured emission values need to be
oxygen content can be directly com- converted to undiluted flue gas (0%
pared. The measured oxygen content reference oxygen content) (see Ap-
(O2) in the flue gas is also required pendix 13.1).

21 - O2 reference
CO (mg/m3) = × CO (ppm) x 1.25
(21 - O2)

21 - O2 reference
NOx (mg/m3) = × 2.05 × (NO (ppm) + NO2 (ppm))
(21 - O2)

Conversion to mg/Nm3

8
The conversion factors for solid fuels 1.2 Flue gas components
also depend on the form in which
the fuel is available (in one piece, as The elements contained in flue gas
chippings, powder, shred etc.). Hence are listed below in the order of their
the factors for these fuels should be concentration in the gas.
looked up separately.
Nitrogen (N2)
Nitrogen (N2) is the main element in
the air that we breathe (79 % by vol-
ume). This colourless, odourless and
tasteless gas plays no part in combus-
tion. It is drawn into the boiler as bal-
last, heated and channelled to the flue.
Typical values in flue gas:
Oil/gas-fired systems: 78% – 80%

Light fuel oil

1 ppm = 1.110 mg/kWh 1 mg/kWh = 0.900 ppm

CO
1 mg/m3 = 0.889 mg/kWh 1 mg/kWh = 1.125 mg/m3

1 ppm = 1.822 mg/kWh 1 mg/kWh = 0.549 ppm

NOx
1 mg/m3 = 0.889 mg/kWh 1 mg/kWh = 1.125 mg/m3

Natural gas (G20)

1 ppm = 1.074 mg/kWh 1 mg/kWh = 0.931 ppm

CO
1 mg/m3 = 0.859 mg/kWh 1 mg/kWh = 1.164 mg/m3

1 ppm = 1.759 mg/kWh 1 mg/kWh = 0.569 ppm

NOx
1 mg/m3 = 0.859 mg/kWh 1 mg/kWh = 1.164 mg/m3

Fig. 2: Conversion factors for energy-related units

9
What is flue gas?

Carbon dioxide (CO2) H2 content (approx. 22%) and coke the

Carbon dioxide is a colourless and lowest (approx. 3%). The combustion
odourless gas with a slightly acidic gas water vapour (proportion up to ap-
taste. Under the influence of sunlight prox. 15% by volume) contains energy
and the green leaf pigment chloro- (evaporation energy), which is used in
phyll, plants convert carbon dioxide condensing boiler technology.
(CO2) into oxygen (O2). Human and
animal respiration converts the oxygen Oxygen (O2)
(O2) back into carbon dioxide (CO2). Remaining oxygen not used in com-
This would create a balance, but it is bustion in the case of excess air is
disrupted by combustion gases. This discharged as a gaseous flue gas
disruption boosts the greenhouse component and is used to measure
effect. The maximum permissible combustion efficiency. It is used to
concentration of CO2 in the workplace calculate the flue gas loss and the
is 5,000 ppm. carbon dioxide content.
Typical values in flue gas: Typical values in flue gas:
Oil-fired systems: 12.5 – 14% Oil-fired systems: 2 – 5%
Gas-fired systems: 8 – 11% Gas-fired systems: 2 – 6%
(Note continuous-flow heater)
Water vapour (moisture)
The hydrogen contained in the fuel Carbon monoxide (CO)
combines with oxygen to form water Carbon monoxide is a colourless and
(H2O). Together with the water from the odourless respiratory poison and the
fuel and the combustion air, depending product of incomplete combustion.
on the flue gas temperature (FT) this CO has the same density as air, in
is discharged as flue gas moisture (at contrast to CO2, which is heavier and
high FT) or as condensate (at low FT). therefore accumulates close to the
The combustion of hydrogen produces ground. If the concentration exceeds
water vapour. 1 kg H2 requires 8 kg O2 a certain level, it stops the blood
for complete combustion, resulting in absorbing oxygen. CO acts as a blood
9 kg water as a product of combus- poison by forming CO haemoglobin.
tion. In conventional combustion, the CO is 300 times more attracted to the
“combustion water“ is available as va- blood pigment haemoglobin than oxy-
pour and the quantity depends on the gen. If, for example, the air inhaled in
fuel. Natural gas (CH4) has the highest a room contains 700 ppm CO, anyone

10
inhaling this air would be dead within increases sharply. NOx formation
three hours. The maximum permis- processes may be diminished by mod-
sible concentration in the workplace ern combustion technologies, a “cool
is 30 ppm. When, due to a lack of flame”, flue gas recirculation and low
oxygen, carbon burns to form only car- excess air levels.
bon monoxide, only ¹⁄₃ of the energy is Typical values in flue gas:
converted to heat, ²⁄₃ is lost! Oil/gas-fired systems: 50 – 100 ppm
Typical values in flue gas:
Oil-fired systems: 80 – 150 ppm Prompt NOx is formed during com-
Gas-fired systems: 80 – 100 ppm bustion by the free oxygen (excess air)
in the flame reaction zone.
Nitrogen oxides (NOx)
At high temperatures (combustion), Fuel NOx is formed at high combus-
the nitrogen (N2) present in the fuel tion temperatures due to the nitrogen
and in the ambient air combines with content bound in the fuel (fuel oil, coal)
the atmospheric oxygen (O2) to form combining with the oxygen. This reac-
nitrogen oxide (NO). After a certain tion traps the heat. No fuel-based NOx
time, this colourless gas oxidizes is produced during the combustion of
in combination with oxygen (O2) to natural gas, as there are no nitrogen
form nitrogen dioxide (NO2). NO2 is compounds in natural gas.
a water-soluble respiratory poison
which causes severe lung damage if For thermal NOx, the oxygen con-
breathed in and contributes to ozone centration during combustion, the
formation in combination with ultra- combustion air dwell time in the flame
violet radiation (sunlight). The NO and zone (flame length) and the flame tem-
NO2 components together are called perature (up to approx. 1,200 °C = low,
nitrogen oxides (NOx). The MAC value from 1,400 °C = extensive and from
is 5 ppm. 1,800 °C = maximum thermal NOx
formation) are the decisive criteria.
The formation of nitrogen oxides is
dependent on the nitrogen bound in
the fuel, the nitrogen dwell time in
the flame zone (flame length) and the
flame temperature. At flame tempera-
tures over 1,300 °C, NOx formation

11
What is flue gas?

Sulphur dioxide (SO2) and benzene (C6H6). The causes for

Sulphur dioxide (SO2) is a colourless, their formation are similar to those in-
toxic gas with a pungent smell. It is volved in carbon monoxide formation:
formed by the sulphur present in the inadequate atomization and mixing in
fuel, and it irritates the respiratory tract the case of fuel oil and lack of air in
and the eyes. The maximum permis- the case of natural gas or solid fuels.
sible concentration in the workplace Detection using measuring technol-
is 5 ppm. Sulphurous acid (H2SO3) ogy is complex, therefore in practice
is formed in combination with water an oil derivative test is carried out in
(H2O) or condensate. the case of fuel oil, and CO meas-
Typical value in the flue gas of oil-fired urement is carried out in the case of
systems: 180 ppm – 220 ppm natural gas. When it comes to oil-fired
systems, hydrocarbons become no-
Sulphur ‐ S ticeable due to the typical, unpleasant
Sulphur is a solid, yellow/green, very “stink” of the combustion gases.
chemically active substance. In con- Typical value in the flue gas of oil-fired
junction with heat, sulphur combines systems: less than 50 ppm
with almost all elements. 1 kg S re-
quires 1 kg O2 for combustion. Ignition Soot
temperature: 260 °C. Soot consists almost exclusively of
pure carbon (C) and is produced in the
Sulphur trioxide (SO3) event of incomplete combustion in oil
During combustion, part of the SO2 systems.
(approx. 3-7%) oxidizes further to form At normal temperatures, carbon re-
SO3. This solid, white substance ab- acts very sluggishly. 1 kg C requires
sorbs a lot of water, with the formation 2.67 kg O2 for complete combustion.
of sulphuric acid (SO3 + H2O = H2SO4), Ignition temperature: 725 °C. Tempera-
a component of acid rain. tures below this result in soot forma-
tion.
Unburned hydrocarbons (CXHY) Typical value in the flue gas of oil-fired
Unburned hydrocarbons (CXHY) are systems: smoke number 0 or 1
formed when combustion is incom-
plete and contribute to the greenhouse
effect. This group of substances in-
cludes methane (CH4), butane (C4H10)

12
Particulate matter Possible sources of particulate matter:
Particulate matter is the name given to • Technical activities (transport, in-
airborne particles which are so small dustry, agriculture), but also natural
that they can be inhaled, i.e. they can- processes (e.g. Sahara dust).
not be separated from the air that we • Generally speaking, mechanical pro-
breathe into our nose and throat. cesses usually generate particles of
Since particulate matter can vary in > 1 µm, whereas particles of < 1 µm,
size depending on its origin (ranging which pose a considerable risk to
from a few nm to several µm), particu- health, almost exclusively originate
late matter is classified in different size from combustion processes.
categories. The aerodynamic diame- • Another source of particulate matter
ter1 is normally used for this. From this is atmospheric processes, where
the measurement parameter common- gaseous components are converted
ly used these days, PM10 (“Particulate into droplets or salt particles due
Matter < 10 µm”), is derived. to condensation or due to chemical
In Europe, there are limit values for reactions – usually after exposure to
PM10 of 50 µg/m³ per day or an an- sunlight.
nual average of 40 µg/m³. In the USA
and Japan, limit values are also speci-
fied for the even finer fraction PM2.5.
Particles may vary in size, origin and
composition.

1  he aerodynamic diameter of a particle is now defined as the geometric diameter of a spherical,

T
rigid comparison particle

13
What is flue gas?

Difference between a gas and a Particle measurement processes are

particle therefore always statistical in nature
and involve a certain amount of impre-
Gas molecules cision. The multitude of different par-
• Clearly defined chemically and ticle characteristics therefore results
physically in a similar quantity of measurement
• Identical to one another methods (each determining a different
• Specific characteristic particle characteristic).
à specific particles One common measurement method is
determination of the particulate mass,
where the particles are weighed. How-
ever, particularly small particles are
only given limited consideration here.

Impact of particles on health

The link between particulate matter
pollution and premature death is well-
established (EU area approx. 250,000
– 300,000 people).
Particles Dust particles almost exclusively get
• A really wide variety of geometrical into the human body via the lungs.
characteristics The upper and lower respiratory tracts
• A wide variety of material composition are an efficient filter for larger particles
• A wide variety of physical character- in particular (diameter: ~ 5 µm).
istics However, the smaller the particles, the
à non-specific particles deeper they penetrate into the lungs.
Particularly problematic due to:
• The absence of protective mecha-
nisms of the pulmonary alveoli
• A tissue barrier to the adjacent blood
vessels, which is only a few hundred
nm thick – the particles can therefore
get directly into the bloodstream and
be transported to any organ.
Typical value (for particulate mass) in
the flue gas: 5 – 150 mg/m3
14
 Points of attack Particle di-
ameter

Nasopharynx 5 – 10 µm

Airways 3 – 5 µm

Bronchia 2 – 3 µm

Bronchioles 1 – 2 µm

Pulmonary alveoli 0.1 – 1 µm

Diseases caused by particles: substances and therefore also have

various respiratory diseases, cardio- different characteristics.
vascular diseases which can result in There is no typical value in the flue gas
death. from solid fuel furnaces. An aerosol
Particles from combustion processes is a dynamic system and is subject to
are particularly harmful to health. In constant change due to condensa-
particular, diesel exhaust particulate is tion of vapours on particles present,
classified as carcinogenic by the WHO evaporation of fluid constituents of
(WHO press release, 12 June 2012). the particles, coagulation of small
particles to large ones or deposition of
Aerosols particles on surrounding objects.
Aerosols are the dispersions (het-
erogeneous mixture of at least two
substances) of liquid and/or solid
particles (with sizes ranging from
2 nm – 100 µm) in a gaseous medium,
for the most part air. This diversity
also means that the particles can be
composed of a really wide variety of

15
Fuel

2. Fuels

2.1 Solid fuels Ignition temperature: approx. 290 °C,

Solid fuels include hard coal, lignite, flue gas volume approx. 8 m3/kg, net
peat, wood and straw. The main calorific value H12-15 MJ/kg depend-
components of these fuels are carbon ing on the moisture content, dew
(C), hydrogen (H2), oxygen (O2) and point of the combustion gases ap-
small amounts of sulphur (S) and water prox. 40 – 45 °C,
(H2O). Solid fuels are mainly differenti- C 40%, H2 6%, O2 35 – 40%,
ated by their net calorific value. Hard Ash 1 – 2%, H2O 15 – 20%,
coal has the highest net calorific value, CO2max 20.3%, excess air 10 – 200%
followed by lignite, peat and wood. A (depending on burn-off phase).
major problem when handling these
fuels is the creation of large quantities Pellets and wood briquettes
of ash, particulate matter and soot. (Pressed items made of natural
Appropriate mechanical devices must wood)
be provided at the combustion site to Mechanically formed, solid long-
remove these “wastes” (e.g. shaking flame fuel made from untreated wood
grate). residues with no binding agents. Wood
is hackled, ground and pressed into
Wood cylindrical shapes at high pressure.
Wood is a natural, solid, long-flame The H2O content is very low (5 – 6%),
fuel. Soft wood (spruce, fir and pine) thus the net calorific value is higher
is resinous and tends to form highly than in naturally grown wood. The net
dangerous shining soot if the firing calorific value depends mainly on the
installation is wrongly operated. Hard actual water content of the pressed
wood such as beech and oak is suit- items. The requirements and inspec-
able for firing installations with a high tion regulations for these fuels are
combustion chamber and for grateless defined in the legislation (e.g. ÖNORM
firing installations (tiled stove). Wood M7135).
burns with a long, bright flame, no
further oxygen supply is required for
the ember combustion.

16
Wood briquettes takes place in the absence of air via
Like split logs, used for firing installa- geothermal energy and earth pressure.
tions with or without grate firing. 90% surface mining. A distinction is
made between lignite (woody struc-
Pellets ture) and anthracite (black, lustrous).
Used for domestic firing installations Suitable for firing installations with
and boiler systems with automatic a high combustion chamber, large
fuel feed and controlled air supply. grate, secondary air flow for afterburn-
Uniform, adjustable heating with low ing. Highly sooting fuel with high ash
emissions is therefore possible. content.
Ignition temperature: approx. 250 –
Wood chips 450 °C, flue gas volume approx. 7 m3/
Wood chips are normally produced us- kg, net calorific value H approx. 12 –
ing mobile or stationary disc, drum or 20 MJ/kg, C 40 – 60%,
snail chippers. They consist of 100% H2 3 – 5%, N 0.5%, O2 15 – 20%,
wood. However, residual forest wood, S 1.5%, ash 5 – 20%,
smallwood or other low-quality timber H2O 5 – 20%, CO2max 19 – 20%, ex-
(e.g. from thinning), which can no cess air 60 – 100%.
longer be processed by the industry
for high-quality products, is mostly Hard coal
used. Natural, solid, long-flame fuel. Forma-
The water content probably has the tion similar to lignite. Considerably
greatest influence on the net calorific older than lignite, therefore with a high-
value. This can vary considerably er carbon content. Exclusively under-
depending on the species of tree and ground mining. Types ranked according
the storage. Wood chips fresh from to volatile fuel constituents: flame coal,
the forest have a water content of 50- gas coal, fat coal, forge coal, lean coal,
60%, and drying the material (e.g. wa- anthracite. Suitable for tiled stoves
ter content of 20%) virtually doubles with grate, magazine stoves, furnaces
the net calorific value. and boilers with lower combustion.
Highly sooting during the heating-up
Lignite phase, low smoke development during
Natural, solid, long-flame fuel derived the ember combustion phase. Requires
from the remains of deciduous, co- a sufficient supply of combustion air
niferous and palm trees. Coalification during the heating-up phase.

17
Fuel

Ignition temperature: 320 – 600 °C, H2O 5%, net calorific value H approx.

flue gas volume approx. 13 m³/kg, dew 29 MJ/kg, CO2max 20.6%, excess air
point of the combustion gases approx. as lignite.
30 – 35 °C, C 75 – 90%, H2 4 – 6%,
O2 3 – 15%, N 1 – 1.5%, ash 3 – 12%, Anthracite
H2O 2 – 4%, S 1% net calorific value Natural, solid, short-flame fuel. Oldest
H approx. 27 – 32 MJ/kg, CO2max 17 – and therefore highest-quality hard
20%, excess air 60 – 100%. coal. Usually only marketed in bri-
quette form (egg briquette). Highest C
Briquettes and lowest H2 content.
Artificial, solid, long or short-flame
fuel. Coal dust and coal soot is Charcoal
pressed into moulds under high pres- Artificial, solid, short-flame fuel.
sure or with the addition of binders. Wood is heated in the absence of air
(charcoal kiln). The volatile fuel con-
Coke stituents, such as wood gas, wood tar
Artificial, solid, short-flame fuel. vapour and water, are discharged. For
Hard coal is heated to approx. 800 – commercial use and as barbecue coal.
1000 °C in the absence of air. The vol- Burns smoke-free with a short flame.
atile fuel components are discharged
(= town gas), and coke, a hard porous 2.2 Liquid fuels
fuel which is broken down into vari- Liquid fuels derive from petroleum.
ous particle sizes depending on the This is processed at refineries to
intended use and combustion system, produce extra-light (EL), light (L),
remains. Suitable for endurance burn- medium (M) and heavy (S) fuel oils.
ing. Burns virtually smoke and soot- EL and S fuel oils are mainly used in
free, with a short bluish flame. Very heating boilers. EL fuel oil is widely
low flue gas temperature, low dew used in small combustion plants and
point and long embers phase. Ignition is identical to diesel fuel (dyed diesel
temperature approx. 450 – 600 °C, fuel. When using S fuel oil, pre-heating
flue gas volume approx. 12 m3/kg, is also required in order to maintain
dew point of the combustion gases flowability. This is not necessary with
approx. 13 – 15 °C, C 85%, H2 1 %, EL fuel oil.
O2 2 – 4%, N 1%, S 1%, ash 7 – 9%,

18
Fuel oils Properties of fuel oils
Artificial, liquid, long-flame fuels. Fuel The density of fuel oils at 15 °C fluctu-
oil is obtained by the distillation (heat- ates, in the case of HEL between
ing under the exclusion of air) of crude 0.83 ‐ 0.86 kg/l, and in the case of HS
oil (petroleum) in refineries. Crude oil is between 0.90 ‐ 0.98 kg/l. When com-
produced in a similar way to hard coal, paring prices and net calorific values,
only the source materials are animal check whether the price per litre or the
substances (plankton and microorgan- price per kilo is specified, as differ-
isms). Deposits in porous, closed rock ences of up to 20% are possible! The
layers. Extraction via inherent pres- degree of oil viscosity drops when
sure or pumping up. Types of oil: Extra it is heated and increases when it is
Light fuel oil (HEL) for vaporizing burn- cooled, and is always based on a spe-
ers and atomizing burners, light fuel oil cific temperature. Residual oils (HL,
(HL), medium fuel oil (HM) and heavy HM and HS) must be preheated prior
fuel oil (HS) exclusively for atomizing to atomization, so that the viscosity
burners with oil preheating. The re- is as low as possible. The degree of
quirements for the fuel oils are set out coking is expressed by the Conradson
in the legislation (e.g. ÖNORM C 1108 value and indicates how much residue
and C 1109). Flue gas volume approx. remains in the form of coke during
12 m³/kg, dew point of the combus- the oil burning process (coking of the
tion gases approx. 45 – 50 °C, ignition burner nozzles and baffle plates, and
temperature approx. 300 – 400 °C, also of the inlet nozzle in the cup burn-
flashpoint approx. 55 – 100 °C, excess er in the case of an oil furnace). The
air with vaporizing burner 30 – 40%, flashpoint is that temperature at which
- with forced-air yellow flame burner a flammable gas/air mixture forms,
15 – 30%, ‐ with forced-air blue flame which ignites through spark ignition.
burner 10 – 20%, HEL fuel oil H =
42.8 MJ/kg, S = 0.1%, C = 86%, H2 = The flashpoint is divided into three
13.7%, CO2max 15.4%, HL fuel oil H = hazard classes:
41.8 MJ/kg S = 0.2%, C = 87.3%, H2 Class I flashpoint below 21 °C e.g.
= 12.1%, CO2max 15.8%, HS fuel oil H petrol
= 40 MJ/kg, S = 1% C = 86.5%, H2 = Class II flashpoint 21 °C‐55 °C e.g.
10.7%, CO2max 16.4%. petroleum
Class III flashpoint 55 °C‐100 °C HEL,
HL, HM (HS flashpoint above 100 °C).

19
Fuel

The ignition point is that temperature is naturally odourless. Its composition

at which a gas/air mixture continues can vary greatly depending on the
to burn independently. If the ignition production area. Main components
point is not reached during combus- are CH4 (methane) at 80 – 95% and
tion, this results in incomplete burnout N2, sulphur compounds and water.
(soot formation). Processing is required prior to use.
An odorant (for odour detection) is
Pour point is that oil temperature at fed to the natural gas. Unlike town
which the oil is still just capable of gas, methane is non-toxic because it
being poured. Setting point is that oil contains no CO. Natural gas is highly
temperature at which paraffin separa- explosive! In most cases, natural gas
tion occurs and the oil is no longer fields, together with petroleum and
pourable. coal deposits, originated from simple
organisms which were deposited and
2.3 Gaseous fuels transformed under high temperatures
Gaseous fuels are a mixture of com- and pressures. Natural gas is pumped
bustible and non-combustible gases. from the deposits via pipelines to the
The combustible components of the consumption locations, however it can
gas are hydrocarbons (e.g. methane, also be liquefied at ‐162 °C (111 K)
butane), carbon monoxide (CO) and and transported pressureless via tank-
hydrogen (H2). The principal gaseous ers. Storage facilities exist in empty
fuel used for heating purposes these gas reservoirs. Natural gas is burnt in
days is natural gas, the main com- surface burners (multiple burner noz-
ponent of which is methane (CH4). A zles), in forced-draught burners (one
small proportion of households (10%) burner flame) and in matrix burners
are still supplied with town gas, which (premix burner). Ignition temperature
mainly comprises hydrogen (H2), approx. 630 °C, max. flame tempera-
carbon monoxide (CO) and methane ture approx. 1900 °C, flue gas volume
(CH4). The net calorific value of town approx. 10 m³, water vapour volume
gas is only half that of natural gas. approx. 2 m³.

Natural gas (methane) Composition: methane 93.1%, ethane

Gaseous, short or long-flame fuel de- 3.7%, N 2.2%, CO2 0.9%, CO2max
pending on the flame length. Methane 11.7%, air requirement approx. 9.5 m³,

20
density: 0.777 kg/m³, net calorific
value H 36.4 MJ/m³ (10.1 kWh, gross
calorific value 40.3 MJ/m³ (11.2 kWh),
net heating value HB 34.3 MJ/m³
(9.5 kWh), excess air: burner without
fan 200 – 300% (downstream of flow
control), forced-draught burner 10 –
30%, premix burner 10 – 40%.

LPGs
These are by-products in the oil and
fuel industry. The principal LPGs are
propane and butane. They are stored
under pressure in containers in liquid
state. At standard pressure they are
gaseous and heavier than air.
1 kg propane (C3H8) = 1.87 l results in
approx. 0.5 m³/N gas, 1 m³. Propane
has a net calorific value H of 93.8 MJ,
air requirement approx. 23 m³, dew
point of the combustion gases approx.
45-50 °C, flue gas volume approx.
26 m³, water vapour volume ap-
prox. 4 m³, CO2max 13.9%, excess air
20-40%, 1 kg butane (C4H10) = 1.67
l results in approx. 0.37 m³/N gas,
1 m³. Butane has a net calorific value
of 123.6 MJ, air requirement approx.
31m³, flue gas volume approx. 33 m³,
H2OV approx. 5 m³.

21
Firing installations

3. Firing installations

3.1 Principle of a firing installation

The firing installation is used in
conjunction with a heat exchanger to
generate heat. This means that the
hot flue gases produced by a burner
flame heat the water in a heating coil,
and this is then led through pipes as a
“heat transporter” (heat transfer me-
dium) to the various consumers (e.g.
radiators).

Fig. 3: Burner and boiler design

Flue

Oxygen-rich fresh air

Flue gas Damper (bypass)

Thermostat

Fuel reservoir
Heated secondary air

Pre-heating duct

Secondary air

Ash pan Primary air

Fig. 4: Simple grate furnace

22
3.2 C
 urrent situation in the field of When these boilers are in operation,
boiler construction combustion gas condensation does
Boilers are constructed in the form of not occur in the boiler.
special burners and tailored precisely Low-temperature boilers are suit-
to the combustion of a particular fuel. able, in terms of construction and
Boilers are manufactured with very material type, for operation at heat
low combustion gas temperatures and carrier temperatures of around 40
partial condensation of the combus- – 50 °C, without a risk of corrosion.
tion gases in the heat generator or in a The flue gas temperatures are lower,
downstream heat exchanger (condens- in accordance with the lower surface
ing boilers). The use of modulating- temperature of the heat exchangers,
controlled devices is precisely tailored resulting in higher efficiency.
to the heat requirement, and the fuel Ultra-low temperature boilers
input, and therefore the infinitely varia- can be operated up to a boiler water
ble power output of the heater, varies. temperature of around 20 – 40 °C with
Lowering the boiler water temperature no risk of corrosion. An “ultra-low tem-
can reduce both the heat losses (hot perature boiler” can be “cold” started
flue gases) and also the radiation loss and heated up, and standby heat loss
of the boiler. falls to a minimum. The flue gas tem-
perature glides according to the boiler
Using boilers with gliding boiler water water and flow temperature. Flue gas
temperature can increase the annual temperatures of down to below 80 °C
use efficiency. Reducing the boiler are possible, resulting in high efficien-
water temperature, however, requires cy with low radiation losses, however
larger heaters (e.g. underfloor heating). a moisture-resistant flue is necessary.
In conventional boilers, the boiler
water temperature (flow temperature)
is approx. 70 – 90 °C and the flue gas
temperature in the case of:
• Solid fuel boilers is above
160 – 300 °C approximately
• Oil boilers is above 160 – 260 °C ap-
proximately
• Gas boilers is above 100 – 260 °C
approximately

23
Firing installations

Condensing boilers of fuel involved. In the case of the net

This type of boiler makes use of the calorific value, the evaporation heat
condensation heat of the water vapour is deducted from the water vapour
contained in the combustion gas by generated during combustion, which
means of a second heat exchanger. is why the net calorific value is always
The combustion gas must be cooled lower than the gross calorific value.
down as low as possible within the Condensing boilers make use of
firing installation ‐ below the dew point this evaporation heat in addition to
of the fuel. The lower the combustion the combustion heat through ap-
gas temperature (depending on the propriate re-cooling by means of a
boiler water temperature in the return), second heat exchanger. As a result,
the higher the heat gain through con- the flue gas temperatures in condens-
densation. The flue gas temperature ing instruments fall short of those in
can be lowered to 40 °C. Require- conventional boilers. The water vapour
ments are an exhaust fan, owing to in the flue gases condenses, releas-
the absence of negative flue pressure, ing additional heat (latent heat). The
and a moisture-resistant flue, owing temperature below which the humidity
to the dew point not being reached. in the flue gas turns into condensate
Unlike the net calorific value, the gross is referred to as the condensation
calorific value denotes the amount temperature or dew point. The con-
of energy released during complete densation temperature varies from one
combustion, in relation to the amount fuel to another, and is around +58 °C

Forced-draught gas burner

Flow

Stainless steel combus-

tion chamber
Heat exchanger 1

Heat exchanger 2

Flue gas outlet

Return
Condensate trap

Fig. 5: Design of a gas condensing boiler

24
in the case of natural gas and around 3.3 Classification of firing installa-
+48 °C in the case of fuel oil. If the tions according to fuel type
flue gases are cooled, the condensa-
tion temperature for natural gas is 3.3.1 Solid fuel boilers
reached sooner. This means that the In the case of solid fuel heating sys-
condensation heat is released earlier. tems, a distinction is made between
The energy gain is thus greater for gas wood-burning boilers and boilers in
than for oil. Because the burning of oil which coal, coke or briquettes are
produces sulphur dioxide (SO2), which burned. In solid fuel systems, 80% of
in part turns into sulphurous acid in the combustion air is needed for the
the condensate, gas is mainly used actual combustion process. 20% of
in condensing technology. In view of the combustion air (secondary air) is
the condensate that occurs, the flue fed to the flue gases produced during
system must be moisture-sensitive combustion. This ensures thorough
and acid-resistant. burning. This secondary air should be
preheated to prevent it from cooling
• Condensing systems do not have to the flue gas (incomplete combustion).
comply with any minimum efficiency
requirements. Limit values are not
given in the 1st BImSchV.
• Efficiencies of over 100% are pos-
sible, since the energy used is
measured in relation to the lower net
calorific value (Hu).
• Take care with NOx measurements:
the proportion of NO to NO2 may be
as much as 50:50. This means that
the NO and NO2 concentrations must
be measured separately in order to
measure NOx.

25
Firing installations

3.3.2 Gas-fired installations Forced-draught burners

These are firing installations for the The combustion air is supplied to the
combustion of gaseous fuels such as gas pre-combustion by a blower. This
natural gas, LPG and biogas. A dis- enables precise dosing of the combus-
tinction is made between gas-fired tion air and thorough mixing with the
installations featuring atmospheric gas. High efficiency due to low excess
burners with check valve and gas- air levels (10 – 20%). Forced-draught
fired installations featuring forced- burners feature a high degree of oper-
draught burners with no check valve. ational safety and wide-ranging insen-
Premix burners are fan-supported, sitivity to atmospheric influences. The
atmospheric burners with no check overpressure in the boiler is released
valve, where the combustion air is by resistors. At the end of the boiler,
precisely dosed and hence the CO2 the natural negative pressure of the
content is extremely high. flue is responsible for transporting the
The main advantage of gas systems is flue gases outdoors. Forced-draught
the residue-free combustion and the gas burners are designed very similarly
space-saving fuel reserve. In the case to oil burners, with many components
of atmospheric gas burners in particu- taken from these. As is the case with
lar, the combustion air is drawn in by forced-draught oil burners, downtime
the buoyancy of the flue gases and losses are prevented by means of
mixes with gas as it enters the com- automatic air flaps, which prevent air
bustion chamber. The fuel/air mixture from flowing through the boiler when
burned in the combustion chamber the burner is down. Draught fluctua-
quietly releases its heat to the heat tions or excess negative pressure can
transfer surfaces and the escaping flue be reduced through the installation
gas flows through a flow control and and adjustment of draught limiters.
into the flue. The purpose of the flow At the same time, this prevents any
control is to prevent too great a flue moisture penetrating the flue.
draught or back pressure in the flue
system from affecting combustion in
the firing installation.

26
Atmospheric burners removing the flue gases. The com-
These burners have evolved from in- bustion air supply, and hence spe-
jection burners and are predominantly cific excess air, cannot be precisely
installed as burner grates or surface adjusted and regulated, as is the case
burners. These burners work with with forced-draught burners. Since
automatic air intake. The burner grates disruptions to the transport of flue gas
consist of individual combustion tubes must not affect the combustion, at-
or fuel rods, each with an injector and mospheric burners must be equipped
a mixing tube. The primary air (approx. with a check valve. Depending on the
60% share) is sucked into the injection intensity of the negative pressure,
pipe due to the negative pressure of more or less regulating “infiltrated air”
the flowing gas. The gas/air mixture gets into the flue gas stream through
flows through the burner nozzles and the open check valve, so that the most
when exiting is mixed once again consistent combustion conditions pos-
with secondary air (approx. 40 %) sible (air supply) prevail in the com-
and ignited. A streamlined, bluish bustion chamber. The infiltrated air
flame forms. The combustion gas is or secondary air content can signifi-
forced through the heat exchanger via cantly influence a measurement result
thermal buoyancy. Downstream of the (CO2 or O2 measurement upstream or
heat exchanger, the natural negative downstream of the check valve). In
pressure of the flue is responsible for the event of a jam or reverse current,

Flue gas

Flow control
Flue gas damper
Boiler thermostat

Heat exchanger

Gas Burner tube

Combustion air

Fig. 6: Boiler with atmospheric burner

27
Firing installations

the flue gases are forced through burns with a short flame or a flame
the reverse current openings into the film. The flue gases get into the sealed
installation room. After a safety time flue gas system with overpressure (200
of approx. 1‐2 minutes, a flue gas Pa) after cooling and subsequently
monitor (safety device) switches the outside via the flue system.
gas supply off via a magnetic valve. To
reduce the NOx percentage in the flue 3.3.3 Oil burners
gas (potentially up to 30% reduction), The task of oil burners in boilers is
atmospheric burners are furnished to atomize or vaporize the fuel oil as
with cooling ducts or water-cooled finely as possible. The different types
combustion grates. of burner are:
Vaporizing burners for HEL
Premix burners Atomizing burners for HEL, HL, HM
Due to the more stringent legal re- and HS
quirements (efficiency, NOx and CO
values), new combustion techniques
have been developed. Premix burners
feature high efficiency levels (up to
92%) and low pollutant loads. Premix
burners rank among the atmospheric
burners. The combustion air can be
fed through an intake pipe from the
installation room as an open flue, or
from outside as a balanced flue. A
fan sucks combustion air via the air
inlets into the gas-tight sealed inner
sheath or radiator. Above the fan, the
air volume required for the gas volume
(boiler output) is set via a differential
pressure regulator. Very small excess
air quantities can therefore be set. Ad-
vantage: lower flue gas loss, therefore
higher efficiency. The gas/air mixture
is forced through a ceramic surface
burner or a matrix burner, ignited and

28
Vaporizing burners regulated, therefore the air volume and
The main component of all vaporizing the oil flow rate can be controlled col-
burners is a bowl or a pot (therefore lectively. Vaporization burners are ex-
also bowl or pot burners). In this con- tremely efficient! Heating output with
tainer, the oil is vaporized by the ap- no fan approximately 3 to 15 kW, with
plication of heat. Combustion air flows fan up to 50 kW, smoke number max.
through openings on the sides of the 2, efficiency 70 – 80 %, CO2 content
burner pot and brings about the re- of the flue gases 8 – 10%.
quired mixing for flame stabilization in
the combustion chamber. The oil sup- The heating surfaces must be cleaned
ply, and therefore the heating output, regularly. Oil furnaces become slightly
is modified via a control valve in the oil sooted at insufficient or excessive
regulator. In the oil regulator there is a vacuum pressure, or if the air holes are
float gauge, which keeps the oil level obstructed. Insufficient vacuum pres-
constant so that there is a constant sure can result in deflagrations.
flow rate regardless of the admission
pressure. If the flame should go out, Atomizing burners
the float gauge prevents oil leaking out With these burners, the oil is delivered
above the safety mark. The oil runs out via an electrically-driven oil pump at
of the tank in the oil furnace (approx. high pressure (7 – 20 bar) and then fed
20 litres) or an external tank (up to to an oil nozzle, where it is atomized
300 litres). The oil is ignited manually into very fine droplets. A fan draws air
via paraffin wicks or spirit igniters, out of the boiler room and conveys
or during automatic operation via an this through the burner tube to the
electrical heating wire. Fully automated oil nozzle, where it is intermixed with
operation is possible via thermostat the atomized oil via suitable mixing
control. All vaporizing burners are devices (orifice plate, congestion filter,
extremely draught-sensitive. Draught annular discs, swirl discs etc.). The air
pressure of at least 10-15 Pa is volume is set via valves or flaps on the
required. Draught fluctuations or too suction or pressure side. Air chokes
strong a draught can be regulated and prevent cooling losses during burner
configured using a draught limiter. downtime. The mixture is ignited via a
Fan-supported vaporizing burners are high-voltage spark (ignition electrodes)
largely independent of atmospheric and continues to burn independently
influences. The fan speed can be as long as oil and air are conveyed.

29
Firing installations

The oil mist is additionally vapor- Rotary burners

ized via the flame heat. Single-stage With these burners, the fuel oil flows
burners work in on/off mode, i.e. they through a fast-rotating hollow shaft,
always work at the full nominal output an open cup downstream of the
of the burner. For better regulation and boiler side. The centrifugal force effect
efficiency, two-stage burners or two causes the oil to be evenly distributed
nozzles are used in the case of burn- on the inside of the cup, spun off from
ers above 100 kW or thereabouts. The the edge of the cup at high speed and
air flap is controlled via a hydraulic finely atomized. Other types of burner
drive in two different positions. The are the emulsion burner, the air pres-
start-up impact is significantly lower sure atomizer and the steam atomizer.
for two-stage burners. These days,
two-stage burners are used even for
small capacities to save energy. This
means that the burner can be operated
with reduced output for the major-
ity of the year. For large capacities,
adjustable (modulating) burners with
spill-back nozzles are used. The air
volume is controlled in accordance
with the quantity of oil added. In the
case of oil burners with lambda sensor
control, subject to a continuous flue
gas analysis via a zirconium measur-
ing probe, the O2 content of the flue
gases is measured and kept within a
range of 1 – 1.5%. This results in high
efficiency and low pollutant emissions.
Depending on the viscosity of the oil,
preheating to around 70 – 120 °C is
necessary to ensure the relevant “flu-
idity” for atomization. Heating reduces
the viscosity of the oil. For better, low-
emission combustion, burners with oil
preheating are also used for HEL.

30
Regulating and safety devices for The temperature monitor switches the
atomizing oil burners oil burner off if the maximum permis-
Since the main advantage of oil sible temperature is exceeded.
heating is automatic operation, the
automatic mechanism must be con- The automatic oil firing device (control
structed particularly carefully, safely unit) coordinates all switching opera-
and trouble-free. Small systems work tions in the correct order.
according to the on/off switching
principle. Medium-sized systems can How an automatic oil-firing device
be adjusted in steps: off-part load-full works
load. Large systems are continuously Start-up:
adjustable. • Switch the motor on with fan and oil
pumps
Components of an oil-fired system • The ignition transformer is energized
A fully-automated oil-fired system con- • After a few seconds of pre-ignition
sists of the following components: time, the magnetic valve is opened
The ignition transformer generates • The oil mist is ignited
high-voltage sparks (around 10,000 • The flame burns
volts) between two electrodes when • The flame detector is activated and
the burner is switched on, and these the ignition transformer is switched
ignite the oil/air mixture. off

The task of the flame detector is to Operation:

monitor and report the presence or The oil burner remains in operation as
absence of the flame. long as heat is required

The boiler thermostat (temperature Fault circuitry:

controller) is installed in the boiler, If ignition does not materialize once
responds to the water temperature the safety time has elapsed or the
and switches the burner on or off in flame goes out during operation, the
the event of any deviation from the burner is switched off and locked (un-
setpoint. locking button).

31
Firing installations

3.3.4 Other types of burner Pressurized boilers

With this type of boiler for forced-
Boilers with forced-draught oil or draught oil and gas burners, an
gas burners overpressure is generated to overcome
Here, the combustion air is fed to the internal boiler resistances from the
the burner flame via a blower. Since forced-draught burner. This is reduced
there is very little difference between again at the end of the boiler through
modern oil and gas-fired boilers in the installation of turbulators, chicanes
terms of their design, a gas boiler can and cross-draughts. Cleaning aper-
be combined with a forced-draught tures and burner connections must
oil burner, for example. The advan- therefore be sealable overpressure-
tages of these forced-draught burn- tight.
ers are their independence from the
flue draught, the smaller chimney flue Dual-fuel burners
cross-section, stable combustion and These gas/oil burners are constructed
higher efficiency. However, the high for the alternating combustion of oil
energy expenditure of the burner is a and gas. These burners are used
downside. where a reliable heat supply is required
(e.g. hospitals and power stations).
The construction of these burners
essentially corresponds to that of oil
burners. In the centre of the burner
head is the oil nozzle, with gas distri-
bution all around via individual burner
lances.

32
33
Legal background for measurements on heating systems

4. L
 egal background for
measurements on heating ­systems
(taking Germany as an example)

In the Federal Republic of Germany, new German Chimney Sweep Trade

the operation of small combustion Act (SchfHwG) was adopted in 2008
plants is regulated by two pieces of by the Bundestag. This mandates that
legislation. Firstly by the 1st German certain public service duties must only
Federal Immission Control Act be carried out by an authorized district
(1st BImschV), which was created chimney sweep, for example the
primarily to protect the environment, inspection of connected combustion
and secondly by the German Sweep- equipment.
ing and Inspection Act (KÜO), which For the authorized district chimney
ensures the operational reliability of sweep, this sets out the tasks that are
the system. to be carried out, in accordance with
Up until 2013, the district master KÜO and 1st BImSchV, and the re-
chimney sweep was the officer in spective time frames. The owner of the
charge of monitoring these regula- system is obliged to have these tasks
tions. Due to discrepancies with carried out by an authorized chimney
guidelines of the European Union, the sweep company of his choice.

The following measurements must be carried out as per the 1st BImSchV:
Fuels Measurements to be carried out
Oil - Flue gas loss
- CO concentration
- Buoyancy / flue draught
- Smoke number (oil)
Gas - Flue gas losses
- CO concentration
- Buoyancy / flue draught
Wood - Dust content
- CO concentration

34
4.1 O
 rdinance on small and The 4th Federal Immission Control
medium-sized combustion Ordinance applies to medium capaci-
plants (1st BImSchV) ties in the low megawatt range and
The Federal Immission Control Law prescribes the operation of systems
was adopted in 1974 to protect the requiring approval.
environment. In view of the vari- Large systems above 50 MW are gov-
ous threats to the environment, the erned by the 13th Federal Immission
statutory framework for environmental Control Ordinance (BImSchV). The
protection was anchored in 18 Federal operation of systems that incinerate
Immission Control Ordinances. There waste or similar flammable substances
are four sets of regulations on emis- is prescribed by the 17th Federal Im-
sion control regarding the recovery of mission Control Ordinance (BImSchV).
heat by heating systems, and these Since small combustion plants in con-
prescribe how systems are to be oper- gested urban areas significantly con-
ated in an environmentally compatible tribute to pollution, as part of air pol-
manner according to the capacity of lution control the technical equipping
the system and the fuel used. of heating systems is subject to more
The 1st Federal Immission Control stringent requirements. It is particularly
Ordinance governs the condition and important to seek to minimize emis-
operation of small combustion plants. sions of pollutants and preserve fuel
reserves in plants requiring approval.
For optimum tuning of small combus-

Capacity MW
0 to 1 1 to 5 5 to 10 10 to 50 50 to 100 >100

Fuels

Solid fuels
1st German Federal 4. German Federal 13th German
Light fuel oil Immission Control Immission Control Federal Immission
Act Act Control Act

Other fuel oils TI air

Gaseous fuels

Fig. 7: BImSchV allocation according to system capacity and fuel

35
Legal background for measurements on heating systems

tion plants, system-specific data must 4.2 German Sweeping and Inspec-
be recorded and the concentrations tion Act (KÜO)
of pollutants determined. The instru- In January 2010, the KÜO was pub-
ments used for measurement must lished in Germany as a nationwide
have passed the qualification test (TÜV ordinance and amended on 8 April
test). For official measurements in 2013. The German 'Sweeping and In-
Germany, the measuring instruments spection Act' (KÜO) sets out the duties
must be inspected every six months of flue gas inspectors/chimney sweeps
on a test bed. regarding the maintenance of opera-
tional and fire safety, environmental
protection, energy efficiency, and
climate protection. It includes defini-
tions of the type of systems checked,
time periods and limit values, as well
as procedures to be observed during
cleaning or inspections.

The following measurements must be carried out as per the KÜO:

Fuels Measurements to be carried out

Oil/gas - CO concentration
- Measurements in the dual wall clearance

For details regarding carrying out the measurements, please see Section 5.

36
37
Measuring tasks on heating systems

5. M
 easuring tasks on heating
systems

In order to ensure that a system is 5.1 Functional testing and settings

working optimally, various functional for gas-fired systems
checks, adjustment and measurement The work steps and tips described
activities need to be carried out on here illustrate the essential elements of
gas-fired systems, oil and solid fuel the functional checking and configura-
systems, both during commissioning tion when commissioning atmospheric
and at regular intervals. gas boilers and condensing boilers.
These activities are explained in detail Activities to be carried out on forced-
below and the statutory limit values, draught gas burners are not included.
taking Germany as an example, are
shown.
Please also refer to country-specific
guidelines, standards and limit values!

Fig. 8: A flue gas analyzer, e.g. testo 330, is es-

sential for carrying out adjustments

38
1
Check the gas connection
pressure
Prior to commissioning the
instrument, the gas connection pres-
sure (flow pressure) must be tested.
This must be within the permissible
pressure range according to the
manufacturer's documentation (in the
case of natural gas usually between 18
– 25 mbar). If this is not the case, the
gas boiler may not be put into opera-
tion and the responsible gas supply
company must be notified so that the
problem can be remedied.
A pressure gauge is connected to the
relevant measurement connection of
Fig. 9: Reading the gas connection and nozzle
the gas boiler fittings for measuring pressure on the testo 510
the gas connection pressure, with gas
shut-off valve closed. When the gas
tap is opened, the burner is driven to Once the connection pressure is cor-
full capacity via the respective operat- rect, the measurement connection
ing menu and the gas connection is closed again and commissioning
pressure measured as flow pressure. continues.

Consequences of the wrong gas pressure may be:

Gas pressure too high • Flame goes out
• Incomplete combustion
• High CO concentrations
• Risk of poisoning
• High gas consumption

Gas pressure too low • Flame goes out

• High flue gas losses
• High O2 content
• Low CO2 content

39
Measuring tasks on heating systems

2

Set the gas/air ratio operation. A bit more air is supplied for
The aim of environmentally the combustion than would be theo-
compatible system operation retically necessary. The ratio of the
is complete combustion of the fuel excess combustion air to the theoreti-
and the best possible utilization of the cal air requirement is referred to as the
system. The key to optimum operation fuel-air ratio λ (lambda).
is the combustion air volume setting.
In practice, a small amount of excess The following combustion model il-
air has proven to be ideal for system lustrates this.

λ=1
Fig. 10: Ideal combustion

Residual fuel

λ>1
Fig. 11: Actual combustion

40
The fuel-air ratio is determined on the it shows a maximum, therefore a CO
basis of the concentration of the flue or O2 measurement is required in ad-
gas components CO, CO2 and O2. The dition. For operation with excess air
so-called combustion chart shows the (normal scenario), determining the O2
correlations (see Fig. below). During is now generally preferred. Each fuel
combustion, any CO2 content has a has a specific diagram and its own
specific CO (for insufficient air/λ<1) or value for CO2max (see Appendix).
O2 content (for excess air/λ>1).
The CO2 value is not clear in itself as Maximum combustion efficiency is
only achieved if the flue gas heat loss
is minimized with a slight excess of air.
Flue gas components

Insufficient air Excess air s

los
g as
lue
Optimum operating range

F
of combustion plant

Carbo
n diox
Fuel/air mixture id e (CO
2)

Ca
rb
on
mo )
en (O 2
no
xid Oxyg
e(
CO
)

λ=1 Excess air

The diagram shows that the flue gas loss increases if there is a specific lack of air and
also if there is a specific quantity of excess air.
The relative increasing flue gas loss can be explained as follows:
1. Within the deficient air range, the available fuel is not completely burned and is
converted into heat.
2. Within the excess air range, too much oxygen is heated and channelled directly
through the flue into the open air, without being used to generate heat.

41
Measuring tasks on heating systems

The individual work steps for setting adjustment screws on the gas fitting
the appropriate gas/air ratio for the re- and controlled via the pressure gauge.
quired heat output are set out in detail Information about the required nozzle
in the manufacturer's documentation pressure can be found in the manu-
and described in general terms below: facturer's documentation (depending
In the case of non-condensing appli- on the Wobbe index of the gas used,
ances, the gas/air ratio is set using the which you can ask the gas supplier
manometric method, i.e. the noz- about):
zle pressure is set for minimum and In the case of condensing boilers, the
maximum output. The sealing screw is gas/air ratio is usually configured by
removed from, and a pressure gauge measuring the carbon dioxide content
connected to the measurement con- (CO2) in the flue gas. Prepare the flue
nection for the nozzle pressure. gas analyzer as described from step 3
The gas boiler is then usually first onwards and place the flue gas probe
powered up to maximum (full load) in the flue gas duct. Subsequently, get
and then down to minimum appliance the boiler up to maximum output via
output (low load) via the operating the operating menu and measure the
menu. For both output levels, the noz- CO2 content in the flue gas. To set the
zle pressure is modified at the relevant gas/air ratio, the gas volume is now
modified via the adjustment screw (gas
throttle), until the CO2 values in the
flue gas correspond to the manufac-

Heat output (kW)

Nozzle pressure (mbar)
11 13 15 17
Wobbe index 12.0 – 16.1 6.0 8.4 11.2 14.5
(kWh/m3) 10.0 – 13.1 4.8 6.9 8.7 11.3
Table 1: Examples of nozzle pressure values

CO2 at maximum heat CO2 at minimum heat

Gas type
output output
Natural gas E (H) 9.5% 8.7%
Natural gas LL (L) 9.2% 8.6%
Table 2: Examples of CO2 settings

42
 3
turer's specifications. In some cases Prepare the flue gas
manufacturers give setting values for ­analyzer
minimum appliance output. Implement The following steps are rec-
the setting in accordance with the pro- ommended to prepare the measuring
cedure for the maximum output. instrument:
Once these basic settings have been • Definition of the sensor protection:
implemented, carry out an inspec- threshold values can be defined to
tion of the configured gas boiler. This protect the sensors from overload-
consists of measuring the flue gas loss ing in the event of high CO concen-
(qA) and the carbon monoxide content trations. If these threshold values
(CO) in the flue gas. are exceeded, the flue gas pump
In Germany there are limit values for switches off and flue gas is no longer
both these parameters, which are sucked into the measuring instru-
defined in the 1st German Federal Im- ment. For some measuring instru-
mission Control Act (1st BImSchV) and ments, such as the testo 330-2 LL,
the German Sweeping and Inspection when the threshold value is exceed-
Act (KÜO). ed the flue gas is diluted with fresh
In Austria, the limit values are set by air and the measurement need not
the Clean Air Act and the Ordinance be interrupted.
on Firing Installations (see Appendix). • T ightness test: in order to pre-
vent fresh air being drawn into the
measuring instrument unnoticed and
distorting the measurement results,
a tightness test should be carried
out prior to the flue gas measure-
ment. The flue gas probe is sealed
with a cap so that the flow rate at
the measuring gas pump is driven to
zero after a certain time. If this is not
the case, this indicates an instru-
ment leak and you need to check
whether the plug on the condensate
trap is properly sealed.

43
Measuring tasks on heating systems

4
• Gas sensor and draught sensor zero- Determine the flue gas
ing: to zero the sensors, the flue gas loss
probe must be located outside the The flue gas loss is the differ-
flue gas valve, ideally in the fresh air. ence between the heat content of the
The measuring instrument sucks in flue gas and the heat content of the
the ambient air via the flue gas probe combustion air, in relation to the net
and blows it across the gas sensors. calorific value of the fuel. It is therefore
These are therefore “flushed” and a measure of the heat content of the
the measured gas concentration set flue gases diverted via the flue. The
as the “zero point”. At the same time, greater the flue gas loss is, the poorer
the pressure sensor of the flue gas the efficiency and therefore the energy
analyzer is zeroed to the air pressure exploitation and the higher the emis-
around the firing installation. sions from a heating plant. For this
For some measuring instruments, reason, the permissible flue gas loss
such as the testo 330-2 LL, the from combustion plants is limited in
probe may also be located in the some countries. Table 3 lists the limit
flue gas duct during zeroing. Here, values in Germany, as an example.
both the measurement gas path and After determining the oxygen content
also the pressure sensor are decou- and the difference between the flue
pled from the flue gas probe during gas and combustion air temperature,
zeroing and the gas concentration or the fuel-specific factors of the flue
the air pressure around the flue gas gas loss can be calculated. The fuel-
analyzer is used for zeroing. specific factors (A2, B) are stored in
the flue gas analyzers. Appropriate fuel
selection on the measuring instrument
is necessary in order to ensure that the
correct values for A2 and B are used.

Rated heat output in Limit values for flue gas losses

kilowatts in percent
≥ 4 ≤ 25 11
> 25 ≤ 50 10
> 50 9
Table 3: Limit values in Germany for flue gas losses in accordance with the 1st BImSchV

44
Instead of the oxygen content, the car- The parameters needed for the calcu-
bon dioxide (CO2) concentration can lation are explained in detail below:
also be used to calculate. The flue gas
temperature (FT) and oxygen content Measuring the combustion air
or carbon dioxide (CO2) content need temperature (AT)
to be measured simultaneously at a Most flue gas analyzers are fitted with
single point. The AT should also be a temperature probe on the instrument
measured simultaneously. as standard. Thus, the combustion air
temperature in the immediate proxim-
Finding the ideal setting for the heat- ity of the intake point of the burner can
ing plant by calculating the flue gas be measured by attaching the measur-
loss pays off: ing instrument to the burner housing.
1% flue gas loss = 1% additional fuel In the case of balanced flue systems,
consumption or Energy loss/year = this probe is replaced by a separate
flue gas loss x consumption of fuel/ temperature probe, which is inserted
year into the fresh air/combustion air feed
The following example should clarify (see Figure 12).
the point:
Calculated flue gas loss = 10%
Fuel consumption/year = 3000 l fuel oil
On this basis, the energy loss corre-
sponds to approximately 300 l fuel oil/
A separate temperature probe for
year.
calculating the combustion air
You can find the calculation formulae temperature must be used for all
systems in accordance with BlmSchV,
for the flue gas loss in the Appendix since the combustion air temperature may
under point 13.1. change during the measurement.

Condensing boilers are excluded

from this measurement due to their
high efficiency.

45
Measuring tasks on heating systems

Note: Condensate deposition on the

temperature sensor can result in a
sudden drop in the flue gas tempera-
ture.
FT

Measuring the O2 concentration

Oxygen that has not been combusted
in the case of excess air is discharged
AT
as a gaseous flue gas component
and is used to measure combustion
efficiency.
The flue gas is sucked in via the flue
Fig. 12: Measurements on balanced flue systems
gas probe using a pump and chan-
Measuring the flue gas tempera- nelled into the measurement gas path
ture (FT) of the flue gas analyzer. There it is
The thermocouple in the flue gas channelled through the gas sensor
probe measures the flue gas tempera- (measuring cell) for O2 and the gas
ture. The flue gas probe is conducted concentration is determined.
through the measurement orifice The O2 content is also used to cal-
into the flue gas duct (the distance culate the CO2 concentration in the
between the measurement orifice and flue gas, which is used for configuring
the boiler should be at least twice the gas-powered condensing boilers as
diameter of the flue gas duct). Through described above.
constant temperature measurement,
the point with the highest flue gas
temperature (i.e. the centre of flow) is
sought and the probe is placed there.
The centre of flow is where the tem-
perature and the carbon dioxide (CO2)
concentration are at their highest and
the oxygen (O2) content at its lowest.

Surprisingly high O2 values may be caused by leakage of the measuring instrument,

because fresh air is sucked in and the flue gas is diluted. To check this, the measuring
instrument should be tested for tightness.

46
Measuring the carbon dioxide In the manufacturer's documentation
(CO2) concentration you will find information on the CO2
Instead of the oxygen content, as concentrations that can be attained
previously stated the carbon dioxide and the modifications that need to
(CO2) concentration can also be used be made in the air volume settings to
to calculate the flue gas loss. achieve these values.
When the proportion of CO2 is as
high as possible with low excess air Most flue gas analyzers do not contain
(complete combustion), the flue gas a CO2 sensor, but the CO2 concentra-
losses are at their lowest. For each tion in the flue gas is calculated by
fuel there is a maximum possible flue means of the measured O2 content.
gas CO2 content (CO2max) which is de- This is possible because both values
termined by the chemical composition are directly proportional to one an-
of the fuel. However, this value cannot other. Since the maximum CO2 content
be reached in practice, because a of the relevant fuel is incorporated into
certain amount of excess air is always this calculation, prior to each measure-
required for safe burner operation, ment the appropriate system fuel must
and this reduces the percentage of be input into the flue gas analyzer.
CO2 in the flue gas. This is why, when
configuring the burner, the aim is not Calculating the flue gas loss (qA)
the maximum CO2 content but a CO2 The measuring instrument calculates
content that is as high as possible. the flue gas loss from these measured
values. In Germany, once adjust-
CO2max values for different fuels: ment work on the gas boiler has been
- Fuel oil 15.4% by volume CO2 completed, the flue gas loss must be
- Natural gas 11.8% by volume CO2 below the limit values given in Table 3.
- Coal 18.5% by volume CO2

47
Measuring tasks on heating systems

An unusually high flue gas loss may be due to the following:

• Incorrect zeroing of the measuring instrument
• Wrong fuel set

A sudden drop in the flue gas temperature can be caused by the following:
• There is a condensate droplet on the thermocouple (temperature sensor)
• Remedy: Mount the flue gas probe horizontally or beneath the system so that the
condensate can drip off.

5
Calculate the efficiency (η) Condensing systems
Since condensation heat is reclaimed
in modern condensing systems, for
Conventional heating ­systems correct calculation Testo introduced
The level of combustion efficiency (η) the additional value XK, which in-
of a conventional heating system is cludes use of the condensation heat in
calculated by deducting the flue gas relation to the net calorific value. When
loss (qA) from the total energy sup- the flue gases cool down below their
plied (net calorific value HU = 100% dew point temperature, whose theoret-
of the energy supplied). To calculate ical value is stored specific to the fuel
the efficiency, therefore, the flue gas in the Testo analyzer (cf. Fig. 14), the
loss needs to be determined first (see coefficient XK indicates the reclaimed
details above). evaporation heat of the condensed
water as a negative value, whereby
the flue gas loss may decrease or
become negative. The efficiency level

Fuel Dew point temperature (in °C)

Natural gas H 57.53

Light fuel oil 50.37
LPG (70/30) 53.95
Town gas 61.09

Fig. 13: Fuel-specific dew point temperatures of flue gas. Calculated for standard pressure
(1013 mbar) and stoichiometric combustion based on ZIV documents.

48
in ­relation to the net calorific value can A2 = 0.68
take on values of more than 100% B = 0.007
(cf. the following example). FT = 45 °C
AT = 30 °C
O2 = 3%
XK = 5.47%

qA (without coefficient XK) = 1%

qA (with coefficient XK) = -5%

η = 100%-(-5%)

The following diagram uses another example to illustrate once again why
­efficiency in condensing boilers is greater than 100%.

Low temperature Condensing

boiler boiler

100% in relation 111% in relation

to HU to HU

1.5% unused
condensate
11% unused
heat
condensate
heat
1% flue gas
losses
8% flue gas
losses 0.5% radiation
losses
1% radiation
losses

91% used thermal 108% used thermal

energy energy
Fig. 14: Energy losses in low temperature and condensing boilers

49
Measuring tasks on heating systems

6
Once the fuel has been fully im- Measure the flue draught
plemented, heat and water vapour For natural draught boilers,
develop. the buoyancy or flue draught is
• If the heat is fully recorded, 100% of the basic requirement for diverting the
the net calorific value HU is ob- flue gases through the flue. Because
tained. the density of the hot waste gases is
• If the energy contained in the water lower than that of the colder external
vapour (condensation heat) is added, air, a vacuum, also known as a flue
the gross calorific value HS is ob- draught, is created in the flue. As a
tained. result of this vacuum, the combustion
• The total gross calorific value HS is air is sucked in, overpowering all the
always higher than the net calorific resistances of the boiler and flue gas
value HU. duct. In the case of pressurized boil-
• The net calorific value HU is always ers, the pressures in the flue are not
taken as the basis when calculating important, as a forced-draught burner
the efficiency. generates the necessary overpressure
• However, condensing boilers use to divert the flue gases. A smaller flue
condensation energy in addition to diameter can be used in systems of
the net calorific value. This means this kind.
that, in terms of the calculation, the When measuring the flue draught, the
efficiency can be greater than 100%. difference between the pressure inside
the flue gas duct and the pressure of
the equipment room is determined. As
when determining the flue gas loss,
this is carried out in the core current of
the flue gas duct.
As described above, the pressure sen-
sor of the measuring instrument must
be zeroed prior to measurement.
Typical flue draught values:
Pressurized boiler with forced-draught
burner + gross calorific value: 0.12 –
0.20 hPa (mbar)

50
 Draught readings can be too low for any of the following reasons:
• The draught path in the measuring instrument is leaking.
• Pressure sensor not correctly zeroed.

Values that are too high may be due to the following:

• Flue draught too strong.
• Pressure sensor not correctly zeroed.

overpressure oil vaporization burner started that the increased CO content

and atmospheric gas burner: drops to the normal operating value.
0.03 – 0.10 hPa (mbar) vacuum This also applies to gas boilers with
combustion control, since these carry

7

Measure the CO out calibration during burner start-up,
concentration during which very high CO emissions
Checking the CO value offers may occur briefly.
an indication of the combustion quality
and enforces the safety of the system
operator. If the flue gas paths became
blocked, the flue gases would enter
the boiler room via the flow control in
the case of atmospheric gas burner
systems for example, thereby pos-
ing a risk to the operator. To prevent
this, once adjustment work on the
boiler has been completed, the carbon
monoxide (CO) concentration must
be measured and the flue gas paths
checked. This safety measure is not
required for gas burners with a blower,
as the flue gases are forced into the
flue in these burners.
The measurement should not be car-
ried out until the gas burner has been Fig. 15: As well as flue gas readings, the
testo 320 flue gas analyzer can also be used
operating for at least 2 minutes, as
to measure absolute and differential pressures
it is only when the system has been quickly and precisely.

51
Measuring tasks on heating systems

As when determining the flue gas loss, For atmospheric gas systems, the CO
the measurement is carried out in concentrations in the flue gas pipe
the core current of the flue gas duct. are not the same all over (stratifica-
However, since the flue gas is diluted tion). Therefore the sampling must
with fresh air, the CO content must be be carried out at a concentration of
calculated back to the undiluted flue > 500 ppm using a multi-hole probe.
gas (otherwise the CO content could The multi-hole probe features a series
be manipulated as a result of the ad- of holes, which record the CO concen-
dition of air). For this, the measuring tration over the entire diameter of the
instrument calculates the undiluted CO flue gas pipe.
concentration with the oxygen content In Germany, limit values for the CO
measured simultaneously in the flue content for gas-fired installations are
gas duct and displays this as COundi- established in the KÜO and refer to
luted. undiluted flue gas (see Table 4).
The calculation formula for the undi-
luted carbon monoxide concentration
can be found in Appendix 13.1.

CO columns

Centre of flow

Fig. 16: CO measurement with the multi-hole

probe

Reading Procedure
COundiluted > 500 ppm* System maintenance required
COundiluted > 1000 ppm* System shut-down
Table 4: CO readings and consequence

52
 The causes of back pressure may be:
• Constriction of the flue gas pipe due to dirt or deformation.
• Insufficient combustion air supply.
• Material fatigue of seals, pipe connections that have slid apart from each other, cor-
rosion

8
Flue gas path inspection Tightness test in flue gas paths
Checking the flow control In balanced flue heating systems, the
For atmospheric gas boilers flue gas paths are checked for leaks
with flow control, flawless extrac- by measuring the O2 intake air level in
tion of the flue gases is a prerequisite the dual wall clearance. The O2 con-
for the combustion plant to function centration in the intake air in the dual
safely. A back pressure indicator can wall clearance is usually 21%. If values
be used for this, and this is held next below 20.5% are measured, this indi-
to the flow control where it detects the cates that there is a leak in the inner
precipitation of moisture contained in flue gas duct and the system needs to
the flue gas. be checked.

Fig. 17: Using a back pressure indicator

53
Measuring tasks on heating systems

9
The sickle-shaped multi-hole probe Maintenance of the
from Testo facilitates reliable and fast ­measuring instrument
measurement of the O2 content in the Following the measurement,
dual wall clearance. The conventional the flue gas probe should be removed
method of testing for tightness in a from the flue gas duct when the meas-
flue gas pipe by checking pressure uring gas pump is running. As a result,
is only used in flues nowadays. Air is the clean ambient air is blown across
introduced to the flue gas pipe using a the gas sensors, flushing them.
pressure tester until there is a pressure
of 200 Pa. The volume of air escaping
through a leak is determined by main-
taining the pressure.
The flue gas pipe is considered suf-
ficiently leak-proof if it has a leak rate
of 50 l/(hm2).

Dual wall

Flue gas
S
S u
u p
p F p
p l l
l u y
y e a
a g i Sickle-shaped multi-
i a r hole probe
r s

Supply air

Fig. 18: O2 dual wall clearance measurement with sickle-shaped multi-hole probe

54
Additional inspection of Because of the good water solubility
­combustion plants: of nitrogen dioxide (NO2), dry flue gas
needs to be measured in order to ac-
Checking nitrogen oxides (NOx) curately determine the NO2 concentra-
Check the combustion measures tion, as otherwise the NO2 dissolved in
needed to reduce nitrogen oxide the condensate will not be factored in.
emissions from combustion plants by This is why gas preparation is always
measuring nitrogen oxides. Nitrogen carried out for nitrogen dioxide meas-
oxides (NOx) are the sum of nitrogen urements, to dry the flue gas before
monoxide (NO) and nitrogen dioxide the actual measurement.
(NO2). The ratio of NO and NO2 in • When measuring in the vicinity of an
small combustion plants (except con- electrostatic filter, the flue gas probe
densing systems) is always the same should be earthed because of the
(97% NO, 3% NO2). Therefore the static charge.
nitrogen oxides NOx are normally cal- • If high particulate matter and soot
culated after measuring the nitrogen loads are expected, clean, dry filters
monoxide NO. should be used. A preliminary filter
If exact NOx measurements are re- may be used.
quired, the nitrogen monoxide (NO)
and nitrogen dioxide content (NO2)
needs to be measured and added up.
This applies when it comes to con-
densing boilers or when using mixed
fuels, since the ratio in these cases is
not 97% to 3%.

• Cigarette smoke influences the measurement (min. 50 ppm).

• Smoker’s breath influences the measurement by approx. 5 ppm.
• Carry out zeroing in fresh air.

55
Measuring tasks on heating systems

Checking CO/CO2 in the

environment Ambient CO
measurement
For safety reasons, an ambient CO
measurement should be carried out
in addition to flue gas measurement
when servicing gas heaters in living
areas, since backflowing flue gases
can lead to high CO concentrations
and result in the risk of poisoning for
the operator. A CO concentration of
0.16% by volume (1,600 ppm) and
above in inhaled air will result in death
for humans.
This measurement should be carried
out before all other measurements.

CO concentration in the air Inhalation time and effects

30 ppm 0.003% MAC value (max. concentration in the workplace over a

period of 8 hours in Germany)

200 ppm 0.02% Slight headache within 2 to 3 hours

400 ppm 0.04% Headache in the forehead area within 1 to 2 hours,
spreads to whole head area

800 ppm 0.08% Dizziness, nausea and limb twitching within

45 minutes, loss of consciousness within 2 hours

1,600 ppm 0.16% Headache, nausea and dizziness within 20 minutes,

Death within 2 hours

3,200 ppm 0.32% Headache, nausea and dizziness within 5 to 10 minutes,

Death within 30 minutes

6,400 ppm 0.64% Headaches and dizziness within 1 to 2 minutes, death

within 10 to 15 minutes

12,800 ppm 1.28% Death within 1 to 3 minutes

56
Ambient CO2 measurement
Ambient measurements often only
specify the CO content of the ambient
air. However, CO2 is also harmful to
humans above certain concentrations,
such as those caused by blocked flue
gas exhausts.
In order to safely rule out potential
hazards, both values need to be con-
sidered. The CO2 content is a reliable
early indicator of poisoning and there-
fore perfectly complements the CO
measurement. Parallel measurement of
both values offers an early overall indi-
cation of hazardous concentrations.

Effect of the CO2 concentration on humans

387 ppm 0.0387% Normal CO2 concentration outdoors

5,000 ppm 0.5% Maximum permissible concentration in the workplace

15,000 ppm 1.5% Minute respiratory volume increases by at least 40 percent

40,000 ppm 4% CO2 concentration when exhaling

50,000 ppm 5% Dizziness, headache

Shortness of breath, feeling faint or even loss of con-

80,000 –
8 to 10% sciousness
100,000 ppm
Death within 30 to 60 minutes

Rapid loss of consciousness

200,000 ppm 20%
Death within 5 to 10 minutes

57
Measuring tasks on heating systems

5.2 F
 unctional testing and settings
for oil-fired systems
The work steps and tips described
here illustrate the essential elements
of the settings and measurements
involved when commissioning non-
condensing appliances. These are
low temperature boilers with forced-
draught oil burners. Condensing appli-
ances are not included here.

1
Measuring the smoke
­number
To measure the smoke number,
the soot pump is inserted into the flue
Fig. 19: All key readings and calculation values
gas duct with a filter paper in place, can be calculated simply and precisely using a
flue gas analyzer.
and the flue gas is drawn in by ten
even strokes. The filter sleeve is then
removed and examined for the pres- Smoke number
System set up or fundamentally
ence of oil derivatives (drops of oil). modified...
If the filter is discoloured due to oil de- to 30/09/1988 from 01/10/1988
rivatives or the filter has become damp 2 1
due to condensate build-up, then the Table 5: Limit values of smoke number in oil
measurement must be repeated. boilers with forced-draught burner and more
than 11 kW
To officially determine the smoke
number in Germany, three separate vidual measurements. Table 5 provides
measurements must be carried out. information on the permissible limit
The blackening on the filter paper is values in Germany. The aim should be
compared with the Bacharach scale. to achieve a smoke number of 0.
The final value is determined by cal- In the case of high smoke numbers,
culating the mean value from the indi- the basic settings of the oil burner

On unknown systems, a smoke measurement should first be undertaken, so that there

is no unnecessary pollution of the analyzers by any combustion residues that may be
present (soot and oil derivatives).

58
 The cause of oil residues is usually a dirty oil nozzle. The cause could also be the
ignition electrodes, which protrude into the oil mist. In both cases, the drops of oil are
not atomized finely enough and therefore not burned. Less common – but not to be
overlooked – are the cases of incomplete combustion (due to not enough oxygen) or “flame
subcooling”. The latter occurs when the boiler and burner are not compatible with each other,
when the burner output is much smaller than the boiler output.

should be checked and amended first burner. Depending on the furnace's

of all, before further optimizing the required thermal capacity, the corre-
settings using a flue gas analyzer. sponding values for configuring the air
Step 2 explains this procedure: flap and the orifice plate are specified
on a scale.

2
Settings for oil burners
When commissioning and Basic oil pump settings (pump
servicing oil burners, the key pressure)
parameters must be set and checked. The pump pressure has already been
The individual work steps for this are defined via the required burner output
listed in detail in the manufacturer's and nozzle selection in the nozzle
documentation and are described in selection table.
general terms below for so-called yel- A pressure gauge is screwed onto the
low flame burners. oil pump to read off the pump pressure
and the pump pressure is adjusted ac-
Selecting the right nozzle cordingly via the pump's pressure ad-
In the nozzle selection table, use the justing screw. Using a vacuum gauge,
required burner output to select the which is also attached to the oil pump,
right nozzle and the oil pressure to be check that the vacuum in the suction
set. pipe does not exceed 0.4 bar.

Basic air volume settings

The manufacturer's documentation
contains information on the basic set-
tings for the required air volume of the

59
Measuring tasks on heating systems

In the case of a yellow flame burner, the fuel oil is atomized via a nozzle and oil
gasification takes place within the flame. During combustion a yellow flame can be
seen.

In the case of a blue flame burner, the hot flue gas is used to heat up the atomized
oil prior to the actual combustion and thus oil gasification takes place in front of the
flame. This produces a bluish flame.

Combustion optimization and The following work steps are not

control explained in detail because they are
These basic air volume and oil pres- no different from the steps for check-
sure settings should already have en- ing and configuring gas-fired systems
sured appropriate combustion values, and can be found in Section 5.1 (steps
which can be further optimized via a 3 to 7).
flue gas measurement.
Combustion optimization is generally Step 3: Prepare the flue gas analyzer
carried out by changing the air volume Step 4: Determine the flue gas loss
at the air flap (rough adjustment) or Step 5: Calculate the efficiency (η)
the orifice plate (fine adjustment). Too Step 6: Measure the flue draught
little combustion air prevents complete Step 7: Measure the CO concentration
combustion and therefore full exploita-
tion of the fuel and leads to a build-up
of soot. Too much combustion air
results in excess air being heated up in
the combustion chamber and dissi-
pated through the flue unused.
Depending on the burner manufacturer
there are guidelines for CO2 or CO
values, excess air or flue gas loss/effi-
ciency, for optimizing the combustion.
These values are determined using a
flue gas analyzer.

60
5.3 P
 eriodic monitoring of solid The particulate matter probe with
fuel systems according to the the rotation diluter
1st BImSchV CO, O2 and particulate matter values
The revised version of the 1st BIm- are measured using just one probe.
SchV prescribes the periodic inspec- The probe can, of course, also carry
tion of small and medium-sized solid out the draught measurement and the
fuel combustion plants. In this Section, flue gas temperature measurement.
we aim to show you the procedure for
a periodic inspection in accordance The testo 330
with the 1st BImSchV. The procedure The flue gas analyzer, which enables
is adapted for using the testo 380 the parallel measurement of CO and
particulate matter analyzer in order to O2. The best thing about it is that you
save as much time as possible. can take the testo 330 out of the testo
380 at any time and use it indepen-
1. General information dently for measurements on oil and
Even if, at first glance, it's not obvious gas burners. The advantage of this is
from its small, light case: the testo 380 that you only need a few electrochemi-
particulate matter analyzer is a high- cal sensors, which wear out over time.
precision measuring instrument, which Fortunately, however, these sensors
can measure CO, O2 and particulate have a 4-year warranty as is custom-
matter simultaneously. ary.
Like all other electronic instruments,
The testo 380 primarily consists of however, the testo 380 should not be
three main components: exposed to cold and humidity or con-
densation. Therefore the measuring
The particulate matter sensor instrument should not be left overnight
The particulate matter sensor facili- in the car.
tates online measurement, enabling
the user to make a considerably better
assessment of when and why high
particulate matter emissions occur.
Readings can also be displayed im-
mediately.

61
Measuring tasks on heating systems

2. Preparation Crude gas path

The particulate matter analyzer In order to seal the crude gas path, the
requires a certain stabilization pe- cover cap must be fitted on the probe.
riod (generally < 10 min). During the This closes the path between probe
stabilization period, the system heats and CO and O2 sensors.
up to the operating temperature. In the
event that the measuring instrument
was chilled overnight in the car, this
stabilization duration would obviously
be longer.
As soon as the measuring instrument
has been set up and connected, the
tightness test should be carried out
and the fuel selected. Only then is the Measurement gas path
instrument heated up to the correct In order to seal the measurement gas
temperatures. Once the fuel is con- path, the small cover cap must be
figured, it is perfectly OK to carry out plugged onto the condensate trap.
other tasks where you are not standing This tests the leak-tightness between
right next to the instrument (such as the box, the rotation diluter and the
checking the fuel humidity). particulate matter sensor. Since the
spot is difficult to get to, you can
3. Tightness test also block the air inlet with your
When you are carrying out an of- finger. Please note that you should
ficial compliance measurement or an not remove your finger before com-
approval test, you are automatically pleting the testing of both gas paths
asked whether the measuring instru- (confirmed by clicking on “OK”). If
ment passed the tightness test. If you you remove your finger too early, you
click on “No”, you are taken to the will subject the pressure sensor to a
tightness test. During the tightness violent impact, and if this happens
test, two gas paths must be closed. repeatedly it can result in damage to
the pressure sensor.

62
4. Fuel selection Fuel humidity
As soon as you have selected the fuel, The fuel humidity has an impact on
the testo 380 begins to adjust itself to the development of particulate matter.
the required operating temperatures. Therefore the value should be entered
The stabilization period now begins, as accurately as possible. To ensure
which brings the particulate matter that you do not obtain any incorrect
sensor into a defined state and zeroes measurement results, however, it is
it. During the stabilization period, you sufficient to specify the fuel humid-
can input coefficients. ity with a measurement uncertainty of
±15% (u). This means that an entry of
The following points must be ob- 20% (u) covers the range from 5% (u)
served: to 35% (u). In order to measure the
fuel humidity, we recommend the testo
FOLDER/LOCATION
Wood chips 606-2.
Stability criteria

Dust limit value 0,100 g/m3

Ambient temperature
Fuel humidity (u) +/-15% 30 %

Ambient temperature 21,2 °C In order to have a guide value for

Ambient humidity 50.0 % the ambient temperature, we have
Heat carrier temperature 60,0 °C integrated a temperature probe into
Nominal output 25.0 kW the testo 380. However, with pro-
Load area Full load
longed run time this is influenced by
Measurement period 15 min
the temperature of the measurement
Edit Next
box. Therefore it is recommended to
check the ambient temperature with
Dust limit value an external measuring instrument (e.g.
Depending on the dust limit value testo 606-2) in parallel.
entered, the measurement uncertainty
associated with the limit value is de- Ambient humidity
ducted from the measurement result. Ideally, the ambient humidity should
The measurement uncertainties can be measured at the same place as
be looked up in the Federal Gazette or the ambient temperature. Hence we
printed out via instrument information. recommend also using the testo 606-2
here. Therefore ambient temperature
and ambient humidity can be meas-
ured with just a few button clicks.

63
Measuring tasks on heating systems

Heat carrier temperature 5. Preparing for measurement

This value is used for documentation. Once you start the draught measure-
It is also displayed when printing out ment, first of all zeroing is carried
the log, enabling the documentation of out and then the instrument starts to
all relevant values on one sheet. measure the draught and the flue gas
temperature.
Nominal output
This value is also only used for docu- FOLDER/LOCATION
Wood chips
mentation. It is also displayed when Ready
printing out the log.

Load range °C
FT
Depending on the system, the com- mbar
bustion process must be set to half Dra.

load after 5 minutes. If the “half load” Negative pressure

menu item is selected, testo 330 emits
a signal after 5 minutes. Options Next

Measurement period To make it easier to locate the centre

As the measurement period was set to of flow, a red bar appears on the
15 min during the compliance meas- display, which remains permanently
urement, you cannot change anything at the highest value. The green area
within this menu item. This is possi- displays the current value.
ble only within the “Adjustment help” As soon as the centre of flow is
menu item. However, this menu does located, the measurement can be
not follow the sequence of the 1st stopped. Press “Continue” to be ready
BImSchV and is therefore not suitable for measurement.
for official measurements. The testo 380 can stay in this mode
Once you have entered the coefficients until all the other tasks or the correct
and pressed on “Continue” or once the burner status have been attained. The
stabilization duration has finished, then measurement will not be started until
you move on to the draught measure- the start button is pressed.
ment and search for the centre of flow.
However, you can get back to the coef-
ficient input any time via “ESC”.

64
6. Particulate matter ­measurement
ADDRESS/LOCATION
As soon as the measurement is Wood chips

started, the rotation diluter starts to Measurement period

rotate. During this phase, the par-

ticulate matter sensor is loaded with
particulate matter for the first time.
The measuring instrument uses the
loading that occurs during this phase
to decide whether it is being exposed
to a high or low concentration and ad-
Options Cancel Mean values
justs the speed of the rotation diluter
accordingly. After this second stabili-
zation phase, which last approximately mg/m³ CO = CO concentration (con-
3 minutes, the measuring instrument verted to reference oxygen)
goes into measuring mode. The values % O2 = oxygen in percent (if this value
now displayed are used to assess the increases by more than 20% then no
system. If, contrary to expectations, more values converted to reference
the values are not yet to be used for oxygen are displayed, since these
the measurement, you can use “Op- values then become unusable)
tions”, “Repeat” to allow the readings °C FT = flue gas temperature in °C
that have already appeared to lapse °C AT = combustion air temperature
and the measuring time starts again in °C (only permitted with the external
from the beginning (e.g. if the burner is temperature probe (0600 9787), since
not yet in the correct operating mode). in the case of the mini-temperature
probe the heat of the particulate mat-
Here's a brief overview of the read- ter box may have an influence on the
ings: result). The combustion air indication
g/m³ PM = current dust value (con- is for information purposes only. In
verted to reference oxygen) Germany the qA value for solid fuel
g/m³ PM Ø = dust mean value since systems is currently (2014) unregu-
the start of measurement (converted to lated.
reference oxygen) ppm NO = measured NO value in
ppm CO = measured CO value in parts per million (only appears if a NO
parts per million sensor is used)

65
Measuring tasks on heating systems

% AF = flue gas humidity in percent. Configure graphic: In this menu, you

The flue gas humidity is calculated can select the parameters (up to 4)
from the parameters entered in the which are to be shown as part of the
coefficient input. The more accurate graphical progression.
the values entered, the more accurate Mean values: This menu item takes
the result. you back to the reading display,
however the display no longer shows
7. Options the current values but the mean values
In this section we give you a brief since the start of measurement.
overview of the additional functions Number of lines: Used to select the
offered by the testo 380, but which are number of lines displayed and also the
not needed for the measurement. font size.
Repeat: If combustion is not com-
The Options menu offers 5 options: pletely stable at the outset or if the
Show graphic: Here, the various “Start” button was pressed too soon,
parameters and their progression over the “Repeat” option can be used to
the measurement period thus far are discard the current readings and start
displayed graphically. the measurement from the beginning.

FOLDER/LOCATION
Wood chips
Measurement period

Options
Show graphic
Configure graphic
Mean values
Number of lines
Repeat

OK Config. key

66
8. Interpreting the end results then no more values converted to
As soon as the measurement has fin- reference oxygen are displayed, since
ished, the summary of results follows: these values then become unusable)
°C FT = flue gas temperature in °C
ADDRESS/LOCATION
Wood chips °C AT = combustion air temperature
Measurement period 01:10min
in °C (only permitted with the external
temperature probe (0600 9787), since
in the case of the mini-temperature
probe the heat of the particulate mat-
ter box may have an influence on the
result). The combustion air indication
is for information purposes only. In
Germany the qA value for solid fuel
Close
systems is currently (2014) unregu-
g/m³ PM Ø = average PM value in g/ lated.
m³ over the entire measurement period ppm NO = measured NO value in
g/m³ PM U = absolute measurement parts per million (only appears if a NO
uncertainty that is deducted sensor is used)
g/m³ PM Ø U = the PM value appli- % AF = flue gas humidity in percent.
cable (to official measurements) after The flue gas humidity is calculated
deducting the associated measure- from the parameters entered in the co-
ment uncertainty efficient input. The more accurate this
ppm CO Ø = average CO value value, the more accurate the result
in ppm
mg/m³ CO Ø = average CO value in
g/m³
g/m³ CO U = absolute measurement
uncertainty that is deducted
g/m³ CO Ø U = the CO value appli-
cable after deducting the associated
measurement uncertainty
% O2 Ø = oxygen in percent (if this
value increases by more than 20%

67
Tightness tests on gas and water pipes

6. T
 ightness tests on
gas and water pipes

6.1 Gas pipe test prior to the tightness test, and is per-
In Germany the gas pipe test is speci- formed on newly laid pipes without
fied by the technical regulation for gas fittings. The pipe openings must be
installations (DVGW worksheet G 600 tightly sealed for the duration of the
TRGI). In general terms, this defines test with plugs, caps, blinds or dummy
the planning, setting up, modification flanges made of metal material. Con-
and operation of gas installations at nections to gas-conducting pipes are
an operating pressure of up to 1 bar in not permitted. The load test can also
buildings and on sites. be carried out on pipes with fittings if
It prescribes a load and tightness the nominal pressure rating of the fit-
test for new or substantially modified tings corresponds at least to the test
pipes. pressure.
A serviceability test must also be car- The load test should be carried out
ried out every 12 years for pipe sys- using air or inert (low reaction) gas
tems operating at pressures of up to (e.g. nitrogen, carbon dioxide), but not
100 mbar . with oxygen, and at a test pressure of
You can use the testo 324 to carry out 1 bar.
these tests easily and reliably, using The test pressure should not drop dur-
just one instrument. ing the test, which lasts 10 minutes.
The measurement must be carried out
6.1.1 Load test using a measuring instrument with a
The load test should be carried out minimum resolution of 0.1 bar.

68
6.1.2 Tightness test the test pressure should not drop dur-
The tightness test should be car- ing the subsequent test, which takes
ried out after the load test for pipes at least 10 minutes.
including the fittings, but without gas The temperature compensation and
appliances and associated control and the test duration depend on the pipe
safety equipment. The gas meter can volume.
be included in the main test. The measuring instrument must be so
The tightness test should be carried accurate that even a pressure drop of
out with air or inert (low reaction) gas 0.1 mbar can be registered.
(e.g. nitrogen, carbon dioxide), but not
with oxygen, and at a test pressure of
150 mbar.
Following temperature compensation,

Tightness test

Pipe volume Adjustment time Min. test duration

< 100 l 10 min. 10 min.
> = 100 l < 200 l 30 min. 20 min.
> = 200 l 60 min. 30 min.

69
Tightness tests on gas and water pipes

Sample connection drawings for load and tightness test:

With twin-pipe meter

5

7
2 3 4
1

8 6

With single-pipe meter

5

2 3 4
1
10
8 6

1 Connecting cable
2 House service connection
3 Main shut-off valve
4 Meter cock
9
5 Gas flow monitor with integrated gas
pressure regulator
6 Meter
7 Conical stopper (150 mbar test)
½“ 0554 3151 / ¾“ 0554 3155
Stage stopper (1 bar test) The gas boiler must be disconnect-
¾“ + 1¼“ 0554 0533 ed from the system being tested
½“ + 1“ 0554 3164 during the load test. The pressure
3/8“ + ¾“ 0554 3163 build-up to 1 bar is achieved via the hand
8 Y distributor 0554 0532 pump of the testo 324. A compressor can
Use the Y distributor to simultane- also be used. For the tightness test, the
ously measure the supply pressure build-up to 150 mbar is achieved
and distribution pipe. automatically via the internal pump of the
Alternatively, these can testo 324. The load test is carried out on
be measured one after the the pipe without fittings. The tightness test
other – for this, the testo is carried out with fittings, but without gas
324 is connected directly to the relevant appliances and associated control and
stopper. safety equipment.
Please also refer to country-specific
9 testo 324 connection hose
guidelines and standards!
10 Single-pipe counter cap 0554 3156

70
 In Germany, the DVGW G 5952 specifies the minimum requirements for electrical
instruments for measuring and determining the gas leakage rate, e.g. measuring range,
accuracy, resolution, adjustment time, measuring time, etc.

G 5952 differentiates between the following device classes:

Pressure drop measuring instruments (Class D)
The leakage rate is determined using the measured pressure drop in relation to the
pipe volume. The pipe volume must be determined by the instrument.
Leakage rate measuring instruments (Class L)
The gas leakage rate (l/h) is measured directly, e.g. testo 324.
Volumetric instruments (Class V)
The leakage rate is determined using the measured pressure difference while simulta-
neously supplying a defined volume to maintain constant pressure.
Measuring instruments involving other measurement methods (Class S)
Measurement methods not covered by Classes D, L and V.

6.1.3 Serviceability test ing conditions/operating pressure (no

Low-pressure pipes (operating pres- increased test pressure).
sures up to 100 mbar), whether in During this test a leakage tester, e.g.
operation or not, are tested to check testo 324, certified to DVGW G 5952,
their serviceability if leaks are suspect- detects whether gas is leaking from
ed, in response to customer request or the pipe and how much.
when recommissioned. Systems that The duration of the temperature com-
are in operation must be examined to pensation and the test time is deter-
check their serviceability at least once mined by the pipe volume.
every 12 years. For the serviceability
test or leakage measurement, the gas
pipe is always tested under operat-

Leakage measurement

Pipe volume Adjustment time Min. test duration

< 100 l 10 min 5 min
< 200 l 30 min 10 min
< 300 l 60 min 15 min
< 400 l 120 min 20 min
< 500 l 240 min 25 min

71
Tightness tests on gas and water pipes

Serviceability is divided into the Depending on the degree of service-

­following criteria: ability, the following measures must
be taken:
a) Unlimited serviceability if the gas
leakage rate at operating pressure is a) If there is unlimited serviceability,
less than 1 litre per hour. the pipes can continue to be operated.

b) Reduced serviceability if the gas b) If there is reduced serviceability,

leakage rate at operating pressure is the pipes must be sealed or replaced.
between 1 and 5 litres per hour. Leak-tightness must be restored within
4 weeks of determining reduced ser-
c) No serviceability viceability.
if the gas leakage rate at operating
pressure is more than 5 litres per hour. c) If there is no serviceability, the
pipes must be taken out of service
immediately. The specifications for
newly-routed pipes are valid for re-
paired pipeline parts and their recom-
missioning

After any repair work, a tightness test must be carried out.

72
Sample connection drawings for the serviceability test:

3 7

8
2

1 Supply line
2 Operating unit
3 Control unit with instrument
gland connection
4 Test nipple / instrument gland
5 Heat exchanger
6 Burner
7 Gas boiler connection
testo 324
8 testo 324 connection hose

The gas bladder is filled with native

gas. This prevents the formation of
a hazardous air/gas mixture.
Please also refer to country-
specific guidelines and stand-
ards!

73
Tightness tests on gas and water pipes

6.1.4 Combined load and tightness 6.1.5 Searching for gas leaks
test on gas pipes There is a risk of poisoning or explo-
In Germany, this test is prescribed sion if natural gas escapes from a pipe
in accordance with the TRGI for or heating system. Since natural gas is
pipes with an operating pressure of > normally odourless, odour is added. If
100 mbar up to and including 1 bar. you smell gas, the room must be well-
The entire pipe is measured with fit- ventilated immediately. The gas pipe
tings, but without pressure regulators, can then be checked for leaks using a
gas meters, gas appliances and as- gas leak detector or probe. For safety
sociated control and safety equipment. reasons, 20% of the lower explosion
The test is carried out at a test pres- limit should not be exceeded.
sure of 3 bar over a measuring period
of at least 2 hours following a temper-
ature compensation of 3 hours.
For a pipe volume of over 2000 litres,
the test time per 100 litres is pro-
longed by 15 minutes.
In accordance with TRGI 2008 G 600,
no drop in pressure is permitted.

Fig. 20: Leak detection on gas pipes using the

testo 316-2

74
6.2. Testing drinking water 6.2.1 Pressure test using water
installations In the event of a pressure test us-
The European standard DIN EN 806-4 ing water, in keeping with the pipe
sets out requirements with respect to material there are various pressure
the installation and commissioning of tests (methods A, B and C), which are
drinking water systems inside build- predefined by EN 806-4:
ings. A pressure test prior to com-
missioning is prescribed. This may be
carried out using water or, if national
provisions allow it, using air or inert
gas.

Type of material Method

Linear-elastic materials (i.e. metals) A
Elastic materials (PVC-U, PVC-C etc.) and multi-layer com-
A
posite materials
Viscoelastic materials (i.e. PP, PE, PE-X, PA, PB etc.) with
A
DN/OD ≤ 63
Viscoelastic materials with DN/OD > 63
B or C
(i.e. PP, PE, PE-X, PA, PB etc.)
Combined system with DN/OD ≤ 63
A
(metals and plastics)
Combined system with DN/OD > 63
B or C
(metals and plastics)

Method Test pressure Test time

A 1.1 times the highest operating pressure 10 min
B Part 1 1.1 times the highest operating pressure 30 min
Part 2 Lowered to 0.5 times the test pressure 30 min
C Part 1 1.1 times the highest operating pressure 30 min
Part 2 Based on Part 1, may be reduced by 0.6 bar 30 min
maximum
Part 3 Based on Part 2, may be reduced by 0.2 bar 2 hrs
maximum

75
Tightness tests on gas and water pipes

In Germany, pipes that include crimp connections must also be subject to a prior tight-
ness test in accordance with the ZVSHK information sheet.
Test pressure = supply pressure / max. 6 bar or in accordance with the manufacturer's
specifications
Test duration = 15 min

6.2.2 Pressure test using air or when testing with water you need to
inert gas ensure:
As well as DIN EN 806-4, national pro- • That the house or construction site
visions also need to be complied with water connection is flushed and
when testing drinking water installa- therefore approved for connection
tions. Thus, in Germany the ZVSHK and operation
information sheet applies in addition • The pipe system is filled using com-
to EN 806-4. The ZVSHK informa- ponents that are in perfect hygienic
tion sheet allows testing with air in condition
Germany. This is recommended in the • From tightness test to commission-
following cases: ing, the system remains full and
• A long period of downtime between partial filling can be prevented.
tightness test and commissioning,
particularly if average ambient tem- The test medium inert gas is only
peratures of > 25 °C are anticipated, recommended in buildings with more
in order to rule out any potential stringent hygiene-related require-
bacterial growth ments.
• If, between tightness test and com- Carrying out a pressure test using air
missioning, the pipeline cannot or inert gas requires a tightness test
remain completely full, e.g. due to a and a load test.
period of frost Due to the fact that air or gas is more
• The corrosion resistance of a mate- highly compressed than water under
rial in a partially-filled pipe is com- pressure, when testing with air or inert
promised. gas the test pressures are limited to a
maximum 3 bar for reasons of safety.
The test should be carried out using
water only if a regular exchange of
water is guaranteed between tightness
test and commissioning. In addition,

76
[Link] Tightness tests Test pressure: 150 mbar
The tightness test is carried out prior Test time: 120 min (up to a pipe vol-
to the load test and includes the com- ume of 100 l)
ponents, provided that these are de- For each additional 100 l, the test time
signed for the test pressure, otherwise is extended by 20 min
they need to be removed.

Sample connection drawings for the tightness test using air

8 9

6
12
11
4
13
10
2 3 3
1
5

1 Supply line 7 Hot water pipe

2 House service 8 Circulation
connection 9 Pump
3 Shut-off valves 10 Cold water pipe
4 Domestic water 11 Fitting connec-
meter tion
5 Filter
6 Boiler
12 High-pressure stage stopper
½“ + 1“ 0554 3164
3/8“ + ¾“ 0554 3163
Conical stopper
½“ 0554 3151
¾“ 0554 3155
13 testo 324 connection hose

Pressure builds up automatically via

the internal pump of the testo 324.
If the pipe is very large, you have
the option of connecting a compressor to
the pipe or also using the hand pump of the
testo 324.
Note: maximum pressure 1 bar – when ex-
ceeded, the pressure relief valve responds.

77
Tightness tests on gas and water pipes

[Link] Load tests Test pressure: < DN 50 = 3 bar

As previously mentioned, the load test DN 50-DN 100 = 1 bar
is carried out after passing the tight- Test time: 10 min
ness test.
The test pressure depends on the
nominal width of the pipe:

Sample connection drawings for the load test using air

8 9

4
11
12
13 15
2 3 10
1 3 14
5

1 Supply line
2 House service connection
3 Shut-off valves
4 Domestic water meter
5 Filter
6 Boiler
7 Hot water pipe
8 Circulation
9 Pump
10 Cold water pipe
11 Fitting connection
12 High-pressure stage stopper
½" + 1" 0554 3164
3/8" + ¾" 0554 3163
13 High-pressure connection
0554 3139
14 Connection option for
compressor
15 High-pressure
probe with hose
0638 1748

78
79
Measuring instruments for flue gas analysis

7. M
 easuring instruments for
flue gas analysis

The requirements for portable flue gas gas sensors that are easy for users to
analyzers pose a challenge for any replace.
measuring instrument manufacturer.
The harsh measuring environment and 7.2 How a chemical two/three-
the implementation of measurements electrode sensor works
without a mains power supply call for Two or three-electrode sensors are
a high level of technical expertise and used to determine concentrations of
customer-oriented design. Instruments toxic gases. The operation of a three-
need to be light, manageable and easy electrode sensor is explained with
to use. Other key points are the need reference to the carbon monoxide (CO)
to have readings available quickly and sensor. A typical two-electrode sensor
low energy consumption and mainte- is the oxygen sensor (O2).
nance requirements, so that the pre-
scribed qualification test for flue gas
analyzers can be accomplished.

7.1 The sensors

The requirements stipulated for meas-
uring instruments directly affect the
choice of sensors to determine gas
concentrations. Electrochemical gas
sensors have proved their worth in
practice. The rapid availability of the
readings and the small space require-
ments are the main advantages of this
type of sensor. Efforts are constantly
being undertaken in the field of re-
search and development, for example
to optimize the gas paths and the cor-
rect allowance for cross-sensitivities,
and ideally to facilitate the design of

80
7.2.1 How a chemical two- measured and electronically pro-
electrode sensor works cessed.
Figure 21 shows how an oxygen sen- • The integral resistance with negative
sor works. temperature coefficient compen-
sates for the temperature influences,
Overview of how an oxygen sensor ensuring the behaviour of the sensor
works: is temperature-stable.
• O2 molecules pass through the • The lifetime of an oxygen sensor is
gas-permeable membrane to the approx. 3 years – up to 6 years in the
cathode. case of Testo long-life gas sensors.
• Chemical reaction: OH- ions are cre-
ated (ions = charged particles) Reaction equations
• The ions migrate through the electro- Cathode: O2 + 2H2O + 4e– => 4OH–
lytic liquid to the anode. Anode: 2Pb + 4OH– => 2PbO + 2H2O
• This ion movement generates a + 4e–
current flow in the external circuit in Balance: 2Pb + O2 => 2PbO
proportion to the O2 concentration.
• This means the higher the concen-
tration, the higher the current flow.
• The voltage drop in the resistance is

Fresh air

Gas-permeable mem-
Cathode brane
“Ion migration”

Connecting line for Anode

cathode

Thermistor (negative tempera-

ture coefficient)
Aqueous electrolytic fluid

External circuit

Fig. 21: Diagram of an oxygen sensor

81
Measuring instruments for flue gas analysis

7.2.2 How a chemical three- • The reference electrode stabilizes

electrode sensor for toxic the sensor signal.
gases works • The lifetime of a carbon monoxide
Overview of how a three-electrode sensor is approx. 2 years – up to 5
sensor works (using a CO sensor as an years in the case of Testo long-life
example): gas sensors.
• The CO molecules migrate through
the membrane to the working elec- Reaction equations:
trode. Anode: CO + H2O => CO2 + 2H+ + 2e–
• Chemical reaction: formation of H+ Cathode: ½ O2 + 2H+ + 2e– => H2O
ions.
• The ions migrate to the counter-
electrode.
Frequent fluctuations in tem-
• Second chemical reaction using O2 perature and low temperatures can
in the fresh air: current flow in the shorten the lifespan of the measur-
ing cell.
external circuit. Storage in a dry environment is
recommended.

Flue gas

Gas-permeable
membrane
External circuit

Working electrode

Reference electrode

Counter-electrode

Sensor current Gas-permeable

membrane
Aqueous electrolytic fluid

Fresh air

Fig. 22: Diagram of a carbon monoxide sensor

82
7.3 H
 ow a semi-conductor sensor the sensor element, i.e. inside the
for combustible gases works sensor, they will be deposited on the
The semi-conductor sensor is used for stannic oxide coating.
measuring combustible gases such as • Their electrical resistance will then
CXHY, H2 and CO. It is used in gas leak decrease.
detection. The structure of a semi- • A visual or audible alarm is triggered.
conductor sensor is shown in Fig. 23.
Overview of how a semi-conductor
sensor works (for example used in a
gas leak detector probe):
• The sensor element is heated to a
working temperature of 300 °C.
• A high-impedance resistance de-
Contact with silicones, solvents,
velops when heated, by means of a oils and grease can result in de-
stannic oxide coating. posits on the surface of the sensor
and should be avoided.
• If there are combustible gases
(CXHY, H2, CO) in the ambient air of

Connections

Signal line Housing

Sensor element with ZnO2 layer

Heating line
Flame arrester

Fig. 23: Structure of a semi-conductor sensor

83
Measuring instruments for flue gas analysis

7.4 Particulate matter sensor in fundamental vibration by special

The particulate matter sensor involves electronics.
a combination of impactor and quartz Once the small plate is now covered
oscillator principles. with particles, its mass increases and
The quartz oscillator is the “scales”, the frequency of the sensor signal is
while the impactor ensures that the displaced.
particles suspended in the measure- From this frequency displacement (Δf),
ment gas flow get onto the “scales”. the deposited particulate mass can be
The impactor consists of a fine nozzle, inferred.
through which the measurement gas This method involves a gravimetric
flows at high speed. “online measurement method”. This
Opposite the nozzle outlet is a deflec- means you obtain the readings in real
tor plate, the quartz oscillator. This de- time and can observe them during the
flector plate forces the out-flowing gas measurement. You can also directly
to make a sharp change in direction. analyze and evaluate the measurement
Due to the inertia of the particles, result at the end.
however, these cannot completely
follow the change in direction and col- 7.5 Electronics
lide with the deflector plate, to which The trend in development and manu-
they then stick. This process is called facture is towards ever smaller meas-
impaction. uring instruments. Only with comput-
In the case of the testo 380, weigh- er-aided design (CAD) and automated
ing is carried out during the collec- production is it possible to manufac-
tion phase. The deflector plate is set ture electronic circuits in the smallest

Impactor

Δf
U R

t
Sweep Quartz oscillator f
Sensor signal

84
of spaces. The boards are designed in trap, which collects the accumulated
line with the multilayer principle and condensate, protecting the measuring
the electronic components mounted instrument.
using the latest placement technol- The flue gas is drawn through the flue
ogy (surface mounted design, SMD). gas probe by the pump. The thermo-
A test computer (in-circuit tester) tests couple built into the flue gas probe tip
the assembled boards, identifying any measures the flue gas temperature.
faults at an early stage. Faulty boards The condensate trap and built-in filter
can be cost-effectively reworked and “dry” the flue gas and retain dust and
returned to the production circuit. soot particles. The gas sample passes
Once the boards and gas measuring the pump and is forced through a
cells have been assembled inside the capillary (narrowing of the gas path)
structurally optimized housing, the into an antechamber which absorbs
instruments are tested on a computer- the pressure surge produced by the
assisted test bench to make sure diaphragm pump. On leaving the
that they are working correctly and antechamber, the gas to be measured
calibrated using test gas. DIN ISO flows to the gas sensors, which - de-
9001 certification guarantees consist- pending on the design - measure the
ent quality, and this is complemented O2, CO, NO, NO2, and SO2 concentra-
by a competent after-sales service. tions. To measure the flue draught,
This is the only way to manufacture no flue gas is drawn in. The flue gas
measuring instruments which meet the travels directly from the flue gas probe
requirement of flue gas analysis. via a dedicated gas path to the ana-
lyzer pressure sensor, where the flue
7.6 Design draught is measured. The combustion
The layout of the gas paths is a major air temperature is measured by a tem-
consideration when designing port- perature probe, which is directly con-
able flue gas analyzers. Since leaks nected to the measuring instrument.
will distort the measurement result,
connections along the gas path must
be absolutely leak-tight. Places where
condensate precipitates must be
avoided to prevent damage to the
measuring cells. Flue gas analyzers are
therefore equipped with a condensate

85
Appendix

8. Appendix

8.1 Calculation formulae

A2
Flue gas loss: qA = (FT - AT) +B - XK
(21 - O2)

FT: Flue gas temperature

AT: Combustion air temperature
A2/B: Fuel-specific factors (see table)
21: Oxygen level in the air
O2: Measured O2 value (rounded to the nearest whole number)
XK: Coefficient which expresses the flue gas loss qA as a minus value when
the dew point is not reached. Required for measurements on condensing
systems. If the dew point temperature is not reached, XK = 0.

(FT - AT)
qA = f x
CO2

Siegert formula to calculate flue gas loss. This is used when the fuel-specific fac-
tors A2 and B (cf. table) are zero.

Table of fuel-specific factors

Fuel A2 B f CO2max

Fuel oil 0.68 0.007 – 15.4

Natural gas 0.65 0.009 – 11.9

LPG 0.63 0.008 – 13.9

Coke, wood – – 0.74 20.0

Briquette – – 0.75 19.3

Lignite – – 0.90 19.2

Hard coal – – 0.60 18.5

Coke oven gas 0.6 0.011 – –

Town gas 0.63 0.011 – 11.6

Test gas – – – 13.0

86
Air volume L:

L = λ x Lmin L: Actual air volume

λ: Air ratio
Lmin: Theoretical air requirement

Carbon dioxide concentration (CO2):

CO2max x (21 - O2) CO2max: Fuel-specific maximum CO2

CO2 = value
21

Air ratio λ:

CO2max O2 CO2max: Fuel-specific maximum CO2

λ= = 1+ value
CO2 21 - O2
CO2: Calculated CO2 value in the
flue gas
O2: Measured O2 value (rounded
to nearest whole number)
21: Oxygen level in the air

Undiluted carbon monoxide concentration (COundiluted):

COundiluted = COdiluted x λ CO: Measured CO value

λ: Excess air rate

Efficiency of system η:

η = 100 - qA qA: Flue gas loss

87
Appendix

Limit values of the Ordinance on Firing Installations

Fuel ther-
Solid fuels Liquid fuels Gaseous fuels
mal output
Dust/
CO NO CO NO SO2 CO NO
Wood
800 250 150
50 – 350 kW
mg/m3 mg/m3 mg/m3
350 kW – 250 250 150
2 MW mg/m3 mg/m3 mg/m3
> 2 MW – 250 250 50
5 MW mg/m3 mg/m3 mg/m3
> 5 MW – 100 250 50
10 MW mg/m3 mg/m3 mg/m3
200 50
> 10 MW
mg/m3 mg/m3
13% O2 reference
Fuel oil
EL
100
≤ 1 MW
mg/m3
80
> 1 MW
mg/m3
50 kW – 150
50 MW mg/m3
100
> 50 MW
mg/m3
> 50 MW – 100 350
300 MW mg/m3 mg/m3
100 200
> 300 MW
mg/m3 mg/m3
Smoke
50 kW – 2 MW number
1
3% O2
reference
Natural gas

80 120
≤ 3 MW
mg/m3 mg/m3
80 100
> 3 MW
mg/m3 mg/m3
LPG
80 160
≤ 3 MW
mg/m3 mg/m3
80 130
> 3 MW
mg/m3 mg/m3
3% O2-
reference

Flue gas losses

In accordance with the fuel type used, combustion plants used only for room heating or water
heating must not exceed the following flue gas losses with rated load:
1. Automatically loaded combustion plants for solid fuels 19%
2. Combustion plants for liquid or gaseous fuels 10%

88
Limit values of the Clean Air Acts of the Federal States of Austria

Solid fuels
CO NO qA
Art. 15a B-VG 3500 mg/m3 20% manual
< 50 kW manual 19% automatic
1500 mg/m3
automatic
Art. 15a B-VG FAV FAV FAV
> 50 kW
Vienna1) 2000 mg/m3 900 mg/m3 23% 15 – 26 kW2)
2000 mg/m3 600 mg/m3 20% 15 – 26 kW
2000 mg/m3 600 mg/m3 19% 26 – 50 kW
2000 mg/m3 600 mg/m3 18% 50 – 120 kW
Lower Austria3) 18% 11 – 50 kW
18% 50 – 120 kW
18% > 120 kW
B5) 4000 ppm 21% 15 – 50 kW
< 50 kW
2000 ppm 19% > 50 kW
50 – 150 kW
Styria6) 19% 8 – 26 kW
2000 mg/m3 17% 26 – 50 kW
800 mg/m3 300 mg/m3 15% 50 – 200 kW
Upper Austria 1500 mg/m3 19%
≤ 50 kW
800 mg/m3 300 mg/m3 19%
> 50 – 400 kW
Salzburg 1500 mg/m3 19% < 50 kW
800 mg/m3 500 mg/m3 19% > 50 kW

Carinthia 4000 mg/m3 9) 21% 26 – 50 kW

20% 51 – 120 kW
19% > 120 kW
Tyrol 800 mg/m3 19%
< 400 kW
250 mg/m3 19%
> 400 kW
Vorarlberg10) 1000 mg/m3 20%
1) New systems from 01/06/2004, old systems up to 31/12/2011, see Clean Air Act
2) Individual furnaces
3) Systems prior to 23/07/1998, see Clean Air Act
5) Systems prior to 01/07/2000, see Clean Air Act
6) Systems up to 1996 and manually loaded, see Clean Air Act
9) From 01/03/1994
10) Automatically loaded

89
Limit values of the Clean Air Acts of the Federal States of Austria

Liquid fuels
CO NO qA
Art. 15a B-VG < 100 mg/m3 Smoke 10%
50 kW No. 1

Art. 15a B-VG FAV FAV FAV

> 50 kW
Vienna1) 100 mg/m3 400 mg/m3 HEL 17% 15 – 26 kW2)
100 mg/m3 150 mg/m3 HEL 15% 15 – 26 kW
100 mg/m3 150 mg/m3 HEL 14% 26 – 50 kW
100 mg/m3 150 mg/m3 HEL 12% 50 – 120 kW
Lower Austria3) 150 ppm undiluted4) 12% 11 – 50 kW
150 ppm undiluted4) 11% 50 – 120 kW
150 ppm undiluted4) 10% > 120 kW
B5) 500 ppm 100-(84+2logPn)

500 ppm 10% > 50 kW

Styria6) 100 mg/m3 150 mg/m3 HEL 16% 25 – 50 kW

100 mg/m3 150 mg/m3 HEL 14% 50 – 120 kW
100 mg/m3 150 mg/m3 HEL 12% > 120 kW
Upper Austria 100 mg/m3 10%
< 50 kW HEL
100 mg/m3 150 mg/m3 10%
50 kW – 1 MW 50 kW – 1 MW
Salzburg 100 mg/m3 < 50 kW 10%
100 mg/m3 HEL 150 mg/m3 HEL 10%

Carinthia 16% 26 – 50 kW

14% 51 – 120 kW
12% > 120 kW
Tyrol 300 ppm ÖNORM
7510-1, -2 old

Vorarlberg10) 100 mg/m3 10%

1) New systems from 01/06/2004, old systems up to 31/12/2011, see Clean Air Act
2) Individual furnaces
3) Systems prior to 23/07/1998, see Clean Air Act
4) Undiluted = CO excess air λ
x
5) Systems prior to 01/07/2000, see Clean Air Act
6) Systems up to 1996 and manually loaded, see Clean Air Act
10) Automatically loaded

90
Limit values of the Clean Air Acts of the Federal States of Austria

Gaseous fuels
CO NO qA
Art. 15a B-VG 100 mg/m3 10%
< 50 kW

Art. 15a B-VG FAV FAV FAV

> 50 kW
Vienna1) 80 mg/m3 300 mg/m3 15% 15 – 26 kW2)
80 mg/m3 120 mg/m3 13% 15 – 26 kW
80 mg/m3 120 mg/m3 12% 26 – 50 kW
80 mg/m3 120 mg/m3 11% 50 – 120 kW
Lower Austria3) 150 ppm undiluted4) 12% 11 – 50 kW
150 ppm undiluted4) 11% 50 – 120 kW
150 ppm undiluted4) 10% > 120 kW
B5) 500 ppm 100-(84+2logPn)

500 ppm 10% > 50 kW

Styria6) 80 mg/m3 120 mg/m3 8) 16/14%7) 25 – 50 kW

80 mg/m3 120 mg/m3 8) 14/13%7) 50 – 120 kW
80 mg/m3 120 mg/m3 8) 12% > 120 kW
Upper Austria

Salzburg 100 mg/m3 < 50 kW 10%

80 mg/m3 120 mg/m3 10%
160 mg/m3 FG
Carinthia 16/14%7) 26 – 50 kW
14/13%7) 51 – 120 kW
12% > 120 kW
Tyrol 300 ppm ÖNORM
7510-1, -2 old

Vorarlberg10) 100 mg/m3 10%

1) New systems from 01/06/2004, old systems up to 31/12/2011, see Clean Air Act
2) Individual furnaces
3) Systems prior to 23/07/1998, see Clean Air Act
4) Undiluted = CO excess air λ
x
5) Systems prior to 01/07/2000, see Clean Air Act
6) Systems up to 1996 and manually loaded, see Clean Air Act
7) Atmospheric burners
8) Natural gas, LPG 160 mg/m 3
10) Automatically loaded

91
Appendix

8.2 Introduction to Testo In addition to the highly qualified and

­instruments motivated staff, part of the recipe for
success is the above-average invest-
Measuring technology for the ment in the future of the company.
­environment, HVAC and industry Testo AG spends approximately 10%
“We measure it.” This motto is both of the annual turnover on Research &
a slogan and also the key to suc- Development, consolidating its posi-
cess for Testo AG, which is based in tion as the world market leader in the
Lenzkirch in the Black Forest. At the field of portable and stationary meas-
high-tech company from the vicinity uring technology.
of Freiburg, it is all about innovative
measuring technology. Whether it's Testo on location
the new thermal imager models, the In the Federal Republic of Germany,
monitoring system testo Saveris or the six service centres look after the
ground-breaking fine particle measur- customers and prospective buyers.
ing instrument testo 380 – the measur- 30 subsidiaries in Argentina, Australia,
ing technology experts excel through Belgium, Brazil, China, France, Great
their high level of innovation and broad Britain, Hong Kong, Italy, Japan,
spectrum of products. Testo measur- Korea, Netherlands, Austria, Poland,
ing instruments help the customer Switzerland, Spain, Czech Republic,
to save time and raw materials, they Turkey, Hungary and the USA among
protect the environment and human others, as well as more than 80 com-
health, and improve the quality of mercial agencies, sell precision meas-
products and services. The high-tech uring instruments from Lenzkirch to all
instruments are used, for example, in five continents and provide a service.
the storage and transport of sensi-
tive goods in the pharmaceutical and
food sectors, in the production and
quality assurance in industry or in the
monitoring of climate data in energy
production and by contractors.

92
Tried-and-tested quality ISO 9001 certificate
­measuring instruments Testo first obtained the ISO 9001 qual-
More than 100,000 Testo flue gas ity certificate in October 1992, and this
analyzers are used by our customers was reconfirmed in October 1997. This
all over the world. Users in indus- consistently applied, future-oriented
try, the trades and at the authorities quality assurance system ensures the
rightly place their trust in Testo flue customer will always receive products
gas analyzers, reflecting Testo’s own of unvarying quality. The strict assess-
complete confidence in the quality of ment and certification was carried
its products as confirmed by consider- out by an accredited, neutral author-
ably extended warranty periods. ity: Germanischer Lloyd. This society
regularly monitors application of the
Qualified all-round service ISO 9001 standard at Testo.
Even after the warranty expires, Testo Testo instruments for heating meas-
does not abandon its customers. urement technology are presented on
Its worldwide service ensures that the following two pages.
help for users is quickly at hand. In
Germany there is a 24-hour service
(with urgency fee) and 24-hour spare
parts service. Naturally, on request the
customer gets an instrument on loan
during the repair period for a small flat
fee.

93
Appendix

Flue gas analyzer testo 330 LL

• Colour display, self- • Long sensor service life

explanatory graphics and of up to 6 years, 4-year
symbols warranty
• Extended measuring menus • USB interface
for comprehensive analyses • BImSchV menu, manual CO
• Logger function switch-off, qA mean value
• °C, hPa, O2, CO2
determination, ambient CO/
CO2 measurement, gas leak
measurement, ∆T, P, Eta, qA,
gas pipe test

Highly efficient flue gas analyzer testo 320

• High-resolution colour • O2 and CO sensor and flue

display gas probe with temperature
• Fast, easy menu guidance probe
• Storage space for 500 • TÜV-tested according to EN
readings 50379, Parts 1-3
• Flue gas, draught,
differential pressure, ambient
CO, differential temperature
and gas leak detection
measurements

Particulate matter measurement system testo 380

• In combination with testo • Graphical display of all

330-2 LL, readings in real time
the innovative complete • Particularly economical
solution for solid fuel, oil and in terms of operation and
gas systems maintenance
• Unrestricted TÜV-tested for • Effortless handling and easy
limit value stages 1/2 and transport
according to VDI 4206 Sheet 2 • High-tech in a portable case:
• Parallel measurement of measurement of all relevant
particulate matter, O2 and values with just one probe
CO

94
Portable flue gas measurement system testo 350

• Max. 6 gas sensors • Measuring range extensions

(precalibrated, can be with selectable dilution
replaced by the user) factors
• Colour display (application- • Integrated Peltier gas
specific menu guidance) and preparation
helpful instrument settings
• Removable control unit

Pressure and leakage tester testo 324

• All measurements for gas • Case with gas bladder

and water pipes in one • Integrated pressure build-up
instrument to 300 mbar
• High-resolution colour • High-precision sensors
display • DVGW-compliant
• Easy-to-follow menu measurement results
guidance • 2-year warranty
• Extremely easy to operate
thanks to the single-hose
connection

Pressure gauge for gas fitters and plumbers testo 312-3

• Load and tightness tests on • Alarm indicator when

gas pipes undershooting freely
• Pressure testing of water adjustable limit values
pipes • Clear display with time
• Switchable measuring
ranges, optimum resolution

95
Appendix

Carbon monoxide monitor testo 317-3

• Warning about hazardous • CO zeroing at measuring

CO concentrations in the location
ambient air • Visual and audible alarm
• No zero phase, instrument
ready for use immediately
• Adjustable alarm threshold

Electronic gas leak detector testo 316-2

• Flexible probe for difficult- • Earphone connection for

to-access areas safe leakage detection in
• Visual and audible alarm loud surroundings
thanks to bar display of • Long service life with battery
increasing and hazardous operation
gas concentrations
• Trailing pointer indicates
maximum leakages
• Integrated pump

96
Notes

97
Appendix

Notes

98
Notes

99
100
[Link]
2981 8014/cw/I/03.2015 Subject to change, including technical changes, without notice.