UNIT – I

 SURVEY OF POLITICAL HISTORY OF ANCIENT INDIA

Political system of a country indicates the structure of organizations that constitute
the State and its Government. Ancient India is no different and it had also developed
government and political institutions to give figure and form to the fundamental
ideology. The developed political institutions in ancient India as follows:

Vedic Age[1]:  The characteristics of its government belong to the ancient Vedic age.
Ancient Indian Political System goes back to about five thousand years or more.
Ancient India is a land that has been shaping civilizations through settlement
patterns. Therefore, history of India becomes enriched with the description of the
Indus Valley civilization. The people formed urban societies with agriculture as an
occupation. Moreover this pattern gave rise to large units or clans formed by a group
of village. The circle continued with several clans forming the tribe and their leader
was Rajan or the Vedic king. He protected his people from enemies and was
accompanied with a senani or commandant, the Sabha and the Samithi in
administration. However, the invasion by the Aryans had changed the whole
scenario. Indian civilisation was again predominated by the nomadic culture[2].
Aryans Social Life[3]:  The Aryans can be identified as the pioneers in introducing the
concept of society in Indian culture. This civilization was subjected to various forms
of kingdoms with a flow of political boundaries. In the later Vedic age, the Gangetic
Valley or Aryavartha became the centre of political activity.
A different concept of society in India developed with the Aryans, in the early Vedic
period. The Early Vedic saw the rise of kingdom which was tribal in character. Each
tribe formed a separate kingdom. The basic unit of the political organization was
family and a number of families formed a Village. A reflection of the Ancient Indian
Political System can be traced in the social life of the Aryans. These villages were
headed by Gramani. Various Kingdoms like Kosala, Videha, Kuru, Magadha, Kasi,
Avanti and Panchala came into existence. The king was the highest authority and his
position was considerably supreme. Kingship became hereditary and the he was
responsible for defence and maintaining law and order of their kingdoms. Moreover,
they had vast empires and tried to extend their territories. In Manu Samhita the
history of kingship is described. In Hinduism, Manu is considered to be the first king
of the earth[4].
Concept of Dharmas[5]: In earliest Indian Political System, the king was bound by
Dharma’s or rule of law which were code of duties. Though a king, yet he had limited
powers. The king was required to take oath and loyalty of the people. The king was
not assigned with arbitrary powers and he was functional according to the approval
of the people. The king was then only a constitutional monarch and the guardian,
executor and the servant of Dharma. Besides, monarchies several republics also
evolved. After the Battle of Kurukshetra, large empire began to fade away and
several republican states emerged. The rulers were hereditary kings or sub kings
who ruled with the assistance of faithful ministers appointed by them. Ancient Indian
Political System revolved round the autocracy of the king and he was assisted by
councilors or ministers to share the multifarious activities of the state. The council
of ministers was given great power and they continued to advice the kings on their
day to day handling of administration[6].
Village and Revenue Administration: Ancient Indian village administration was a
significant part of the Political System. In the Vedic period, the Aryans had built up
small villages and the administration of the area was looked after by the village
councils. A system of giving taxes also prevailed in the ancient society. Taxes such
as Pali, Sulk and Bhaga were collected from the people. The revenue was spent for
the benefit of the subjects. Mentions of village administration are found during the
fourth century B.C. when republican federation existed in the society of India[7].
Panchayat System: At village level panchayat system is one of the essential
democratic institutions which developed in India. Panchayat system originated in
ancient India and references are found in the age of Mahabharat. This system is an
institution of the Local Self Government found at the village level. It constitutes of a
village council consisting of village elders. These local self governments perform
administrative and judicial function. The Panchayat system used to serve since
ancient times and at present it has become an integral part of Indian Administration.
At present Panchayat system is a three tier institution and continues to administer
the villages[8].
 
 
 
 
1. Concept of Kingship in Ancient Indian (Vedic age)
Meaning of Kingship: Kingship means hereditary rule i.e. rule by the members of the
same family. In other words in Kingship after the death of the king generally the
eldest son of the king becomes the king, while in republics the people choose their
representatives to rule themselves.
As we know that, of the Undecipherment of Indus valley script we can not say with
authority about Kingship and Republic in Indus valley period. Various kind of
dominance is required to govern the people, to run a society or an Institution. Rig
Vedic Aryans were semi nomadic people who probably came from central Asia
around 1500 B.C. and settled down in the north western region of India, Saptsindhu
means the area of seven rivers[9].
Aryans came to India for two causes. a. Population force b. Paucity of grazing land.
The idea of kingship not only arises after the formation of tribes or rashtra but if we
go back in time we find that the concept of kingship perhaps took birth
simultaneously with the rise of any culture and civilization. Aryan society was a rural
society and family was the basic unit of the society. Family was headed by Kulpati.
Gram was headed by gramini. Vish was headed by vishpati. Jana was headed by
Janapati.

Essential purpose of all was to protect their community. We see it was the need of
the time as mentioned in Aiterya Brahman. There was a war between gods and
demons in which gods were defeated. They realized that their defeat was because
they had no King. The god said let us elect our king. Here the institution of Kingship
created because of the situation of the gods. Prajapati installed Indra as a King
because he was strong and powerful. Kingship was normally hereditary but there are
occasional references to the selection of the ruler through their choice, but usually
from the imperial family.

Kingship in Vedic Age:  Kingdom was traditional but elective monarchy or

election of  the king was also there from, the majestic family was also there. King’s
command was checked by Sabha, council of elder people and Samiti council of
common people plus gana and vidath. King was helped by a few officials-Purohit,
Senani and Gramini. No regular taxation was th6~re but people voluntary offered Bali
(a sort of tax). The King had no right over the land. There was no officer for
administering justice and it was: discharged by the King himseij. There was no
standing army and the military functions were performed by different Trribal groups,
Vidhth, Gana etc.
Kingship in Later Vedic Age: Traditionaly monarchy continued Sabha, Samiti lost
their importance. The term Rashtra which indicates territory first appeared in this
period. Now the wars were fought for territories not for cows. The term Rashtra
appears for the first time in this period. The King’s influence was strengthened by
rituals like Ashwamedha[10], Rajasuya[11], Vajapeya[12] etc.
 

1. Kingship in Ramayana Period

Ramayana was written by Balmiki in that Lord Rama of Ikshwaku family (Dynasty)
son of king Dashratha has been explained in detail. The king Dashartha Kingdome
belonged to Awadh state.  His capital was Ayodhya and Rama’s rule is well-known
for the golden age.  In Ramayana we obtain a reasonable idea about their rule and
the ruling policy. In Ramayana we see that relevance of a state depends upon the
existence of the king and the expansion of a state depends upon the power of the
king. A strong king would have a large area and a weak king would have a small area.
It seems that the source of the state depends upon the theory of survival of the
fittest. Existence of the state depends upon the power of the king. That is why on the
death of the King Dashrath the priests asked Vashisth that on the same day there
must be a new King of Ishwaku family. In the absence of a new king, the state could
not continue to exist even a single day. Guru Vashisht says that people should
always be aware of the seven parts of the state[13]. After the death of king Dashrath
there arose the question who would be the king and this question was placed in front
of Vashist. Generally the eldest son in succession would become the King, who was
well versed in Vedas, far sighted respected by people, popular in the entire three
worlds, indulged in religious ceremony and rituals, strong, brave and who was always
ready to protect his people. In Ramayana fine and accountable of Kings are follow
the religious practices, moral values and patronage to knowledge.
According Ramayana there were two kinds of state a. Sovereign state b. Dependent
state.

1. Sovereign State: Sovereign were those which where strong, prevailing and used to
collect taxes and gifts from the reliant states. In Ramayana, King and state were
two sides of a single coin and the existence of the state lay in the existence of a
king. To enlarge their area of influence they acted according to religion and moral
values. And there was also control and power on the position of the king who used
to rule according to the desires of the people and there are instances when an evil
King was disposed by public.
2. Dependent state:  A dependent state does not exercise the full range of power
over external affairs. The controlling or protecting state may also regulate some of
the internal affairs of the dependent state. Formal treaties and the conditions under
which the status of dependency has been recognized by other states govern the
balance of sovereign powers exercised by the protecting state and the dependent
state.
1. Balkand: Balkand is first chapter of Ramcharitra Mans which is written by Tulsi
das, in this chapter of Balkand Vishvamitra advises Ram to kill Tarka because to
kill her would be a victory of good over evil and to kill demons (mischief sprite) to
defend general people or community is not a sin but a decent act and above all it’s
the obligation of the King to protect his public.
2. Ayodhya Kand: Ayodhya Kand is second chapter of Ramcharitra Mans, in
Ayodhya kand make out how a king should run his administration when Ram says
to Bharat his younger brother, that an emperor should be pious and regimented
(disciplined). Valmiki[14] said that relation between the King and his subject was
not of a master and slave but, which followed parental principle. Public protested
when Bharat was being coronated as the King instead of Ram, which shows that
people had influence in royal affairs and even the opinion of the representative of
people was measured.
III. Kishkindaha Kand:  Kishkandaha Kand is another chapter of Ramcharitra Mans,
in this chapter when Rama hurt Bali with an arrow, Bali says to Ram that he is from a
dignified family, pious who acted according to time, need and religion, helpful to
needy and he has all the required character of an emperor.
1. The Lanka kand: In this chapter Ramcharitra Mans gave idea how was kingship
of Ravana in Lanka. Ravana was great king and Ravana’s ten heads represent the
ten crowns he wore as a result of his being the sovereign of ten countries.
According to Ramayana, ‘Sone ki Lanka’ or Golden Lanka was the place where
the demon king Ravana dwelled in the “Treta yuga.” Lanka flourished under his
rule and Ravana had proceeded on a series of campaigns conquering humans,
celestials and demons. It is said that Ravana ruled Lanka for several hundred years
prior to the times of Ramayana, when he was killed by prince Rama for kidnapping
his wife Sita. he pushpaka vimana or the aeroplane which he flew is held as an
example of great scientific achievements made during his regime while Ravana
also holds a high position as a physician and there exists, to this day, seven books
on Ayurveda in his name. He is also believed to have authored Ravana Sanhita, an
anthology of Hindu astrology and his description as a ten-headed person,
Daśamukha or Daśagrīva, is believed to be a reference to his vast knowledge and
intelligence. His Kingdom had mainly concentrated around the Eastern and
 Southern corners of the country and believed to have been lost to the sea with the
years[15].
Conclusion:  After going through different chapters of Ramayana and Ramcharitra
mans like Kishkindakand, Ayodhyakand, Balkand, lankakand etc. in Vedic Age, I bring
to a close that Hereditary Monarchy was generally famous there. The impious king
was removed by the people. King was controlled by sabha and Samiti and helped by
Senani, Gramini, and Purohit. But in later Vedic age, Sabha and Samiti lost
importance. Hereditary Monarchy was there besides this there was an important
factor the spirituality of the King was added in which King was assumed as the God
himself. After observation of different chapters it’s can say that King would rule
accordingly to religion, moral values welfare of the people and state punished the
wicked to protect the common people. In other word, it can say that the benefit of
King existed in the benefit of the state and people and lord Rama left no stone
unturned in establishing his state as an ideal state, through his character of
Kingship.
 

1. KINGSHIP DURING MAHABHARAT PERIOD

Mahabharata consists of eighteen chapters and about one lakh couplets and
consists of twenty thousand slokas or verses. Mahabharata written by Ved Vyas[16].
According to the orthodox view, Mahabharat belongs to Dwapar Age[17]. But the
modern historians believed that it was written in 950 B.C. According to a tradition
view Krishna passes away at the commencement of the Kalyug after the lapse 36
years from the Mahabharat War. During this there were a large number of states in
India and normal form of government was Kingship but there were republics also
which got developed form in Buddha age. The King was compulsory to act according
to rule of fairness and ethics.
Mahabharata is related to the feud between the Kauravas (the hundred sons of
Dhitrastra) with their capital at hanstinapur and the pandavas (the five sons of
Pandu).the Pandvas became the heirs to kuru throne, since Dhritrastra was blind and
therefore not eligible to rule. The Pandvas were resented by the Kauravas, who
plotted against them and finally forced them to leave the country. Dhritrashstra
divided the kingdom and gave half to the pandvas, who rulled from indraprashta. But
this arrangement did not satisfy the Kauravas and they invited Pandvas to a
gambling match. Pandvas lost their kingdom. Pandavas went into exile for thirteen
years as a compromise to get back their kingdom. The Kauravas refused to give
back not only the kingdom but even five villages. A famous struggle at Kurukshetra
lasted eighteen days and fuslulted in the annihilation of the Kuravas. We find all the
tribes and people of the sub-content participated in the battle[18].
Mahabharat believes the divine theory of kingship i.e. the King is an ambassador of
God. In the Mahabharat Shantiparv, Bhishm says that kingship is of divine source
and the king as a God is come in person form. The King should not at all be insulted,
because Agni, Aditya, Vayu and Kuber all exist in inside the King. The King should
forever indulge in interests and prosperity of citizens. The importance of a king
depends upon the value of administration. A King who is not competent of fulfilling
his duties is liable to be deposed by public or even could be killed by the people, for
example a emperor named Ven, father of Venya, was killed by seers because he was
not able to rule efficiently. In brief, it can say that during this period the king was not
an autocrat but an ambassador of the people. The people played an important role in
appointing or deposing King.

Administration:  The King was head of the government or state who was the head of
justice and military department. In Shantiparv of Mahabharata Bhishm says that
basically it is riot possible to have all the character in a single person. That why
require of a council of ministers i.e. Sabha arose. In Mahabharat there is refer to of
appointment of Brahamans who skilled in medicine, scholars, and of fine moral
principles, and character, eighteen & shatriyas’ who are versed in war affairs and
twenty one vaishyas who are economically sound and three Shudra who are
well versed in serving and a scholar of mythology. These forty seven members of
sabha perform the administrative purposes but the ultimate authority was vested in
the Rashtra.
It can state that in monarchical shape of government the King would be the center of
and power and the common people have personally no right in the appointment and
deposition of the King but this right was enjoyed by members of royal family and
people of upper strata of the society. In the administration, Amatya, Sabha, Rashtra,
Janpad all played important role and Brahaman played a chief role.

Law and Justice:  In Shantiparv of Mahabharat, Bhishm says that the safety of the
state and his people is stranded on the rule of law that’s means state should be
governed according bylaw and fairness. Fountain head of was justice King, in the
administration of justice punishment of Dand always played an essential role. And
the purpose of punishment was to punish the guilty and to save from harm the
innocent without any
prejudice, so that crime should be restricted. In brief, it can say that during
Mahabharat age position of law and justice was satisfactory.

1. Republic State in Ancient India

Character of Republics: In Chapter 107/108 of the Shantiparv of Mahabharat,
Yudhishtar asked to Bhishm “Your Excellency, I want to have facts about the
character of republics, is how they come in existence, how one could save them from
inner confliction and how they should over come their opponenties”. Bhishma said,
voracity, desire and anger among the emperors of the republics produce confliction
among them and after that they usually leave no stone unturned in getting satisfied
their selfish means. Republics split mainly because of disunity between the
republics. That is why republics ought to try to unite themselves in the confederation
of republics by which they get the monetary prosperity and maintain of other
republics. They could development only if they pursue the path of Dharma. The rulers
of the republic should keep their Kings under their control by following the path of
Dharma and religion. Republic should follow the diplomatic policy to settle issues
with their enemies. As soon as the conflictions emerge among the republics their
heads and other elders should find the solutions at once”. That is why he laid
importance on the unity of the republics for their continued existence. Bhishm in
Shantiparv favours the thought of unity and this idea of unity is definitely relevant to
present time history too[19].
Concept of Republic in Vedic period:  In relation to republic in Vedic Age, different
academics have given views. Some academics articulate that monarchy was the
only form of government known to the public of earliest India. And what are
maintained to be republics, were nothing more than tribal states. But this view was
not accepted by famous scholars Dr. A. S. Altekar and Dr. R. Sharma Shastri who are
of the observation that there were some types of republic in the Vedic Age.
According to Dr. R. S. Sharma Vedic Gana was prevailing, Tribal republic and the
Vedic Gana were self active armed organizations and were forerunners of the
Ayudhyajivi Sangh of Panini and Vedic Gan was primarily in a tribal republic (state).
The view of Shyam Shastri is that when the Aryans invaded India, they were
separated in number of gana and Jans and during the Vedic and Brahaminic period a
number of Jans passed into elective monarchy while a few retained their republic
form as late as Buddhist time. There were individual republic and confederation of
republics. Gana was the individual republics, and confederation of republics was
sanghatangan. Lack of unity was there between individual republics, but not among
the sanghthan republics. The republics of Yadav, Kukara, Bhoj, Andhakas and
Vrishinis formed themselves into a sangh presided over by Lord Krishna. The village
was the unit of administration. It was under a Gramani (Headman).
Republics during buddha period: The Buddhist literature, particularly the Anguttara
Nikaya[20] lists the sixteen mahajanapadas given as Kashi, Kosala, Anga, Magadha,
Vatsa, Avanti, Gandhara, Kamboja, Matsya, Kurus, Panchala, Surasena, Chedi, Vajjis,
Mallas, and Assaka[21].
1. Kashi: its capital was Banaras; among the sixteen states Kashi was at first the
most powerful state and Kashi played a vital part in the subversion of the Videhan
monarchy. Eventually it had to submit to the power of Kosala and later annexed to
Magadh by Ajatasatru.[22]
2. Kosala: It embraced the area occupied by eastern Uttar Pradesh and has its capital
at Shravasti, which is identical with Sahet – Mahet in the borders of Gonda and
Bahraich districts in Uttar Pradesh. Kosala was bounded on the west by the river
Gomati, on the south by the Sarpika or Syandika (Sai), on the east by the Sadanira
(Gandak) which separated it from Videha and on the north by the Nepal hills.
3. Anga: Anga in the east of Magadha roughly corresponds to the modern districts of
Monghyr and Bagalpur. Its capital Champa, situated on the bank of the river of the
same name, was noted for its wealth and commerce. It was annexed to Magadha in
the time of Bimbisara.
4. Magadha: Between Anga and Vatsa there lay the kingdom of Magadha,
corresponding to modern Patna and Gaya districts, bounded on the north and west
by the rivers Ganga and Son, on the south by the Vindhya outcrop and on the east
by the river Champa. Rajagriha or Girivraja, rendered impregnable by a perimeter
 of five hills, was the Magadhan capital. The earliest dynasty of Magadha was
founded by Brihadratha. However, Magadha came into prominence under
Bimbisasra and Ajatsatru.
5. Vatsa: The Vatsa country had a monarchical form of government. Its capital was
Kausambi (identified with the village of Kosam, 38 miles from Allahabad.
Kausambi, a very prosperous city was the most important entre pot of goods and
passengers from the south and the west. Udayana, the ruler of this country in the
sixth century B.C. had to struggle against king Ajatasatru of Magadha and king
Pradyota of Avanti.
6. Avanti: The state of Avanti roughly corresponded to modern Malwa. The river
Vetravati divided Avanti into north and south. Terrirorially, it was a big kingdom
and its capital was Ujjayini or modern Ujjain. The ruler of Avanti in the time of
Buddha was Chanda Pradyota. He was a contemporary of Udayana of Kausambi.
Although he was given the nickname of Chanda on account of his ferocity, he
became a convert to Buddhism. Avanti became a very important centre of
Buddhism. The kingdom of Avanti was finally annexed to Magadhan Empire by
Sishunaga.
7. Gandhara: The state of Gandhara roughly corresponded to modern Kashmir and
extended upto the Kabul valley. Its capital was Taxila which was a famous seat of
learning where scholars came from all over the world. According to the Buddhist
tradition, the Gandhara King Pukkusati exchanged gifts with Bimbisara in
Magadha and went on foot to see the Buddha. Later it formed the twentieth
province of the Achaemenid Empire (Persian) according to the Greek historian,
Herodotus.
8. Kamboja: It was the country adjoining Gandhara in the extreme North-West with
Dwarka as its capital. A little before 530 B.C. Cyrus, the Achaemenid emperor of
Persia, crossed the Hindukush and received tributes from the people of Kamboja,
Gandhara and the trans-Indus area. During Kautilya’s time, Kamboja transformed
from a monarchy to a republic.
9. Matsya:The Matsyas were to the south of the Kurus and west of the Yamuna. The
Matsya country corresponded roughly to the former state of Jaipur in Rajasthan.
10. Kurus: The Kuru state approximately to the modern Delhi and the adjoining doab
area. It was the very important kingdom of the later Vedic age but during the sixth
century B.C. the Kurus did not occupy the same position. They set up their capital
at Hastinapur located in the district of Merrut in Uttar Pradesh.
11. Panchala: The Panchala Empire, which covered the modern districts of Bareilly,
Badaun and Farukhabad of Uttar Pradesh state, lost its well-known position as in
the Vedic period. The Panchala capital was at Kampilla, perhaps modern Kampil
in Farrukhabad district in Uttar Pradesh.
12 Surasena: The Surasena was situated at the south east of Matsya state with
capital at Mathura. The capital also knows at the time of Megasthenes as the centre
of Krinshna worship. Later on the kingdom became an integral part of the Maghadh
Empire.
13 Chedi: The .kingdom of the Chedis corresponded roughly to the eastern parts of
Bundelkhand and adjoining areas, and their king lists occur in the Jatakas.
14. Vajjis: The Vajji region lay north of the Ganga and expanded as far as the Nepal
hills. Its western limit was the river Sadanira (Gandak), which separated it from the
Malla and Kosalan cities. The Vajji state is said to have been a union of eight clans
 (atthakula), of whom the Videhans, the Lichchhavis, the Jnatrikas and the Vrijjis
were the most essential place.
15. Mallas: The region of the Mallas, a republican, was divided into two parts, both
having its own capital. The two principal cities were Kushinara (known with Kasia
in the Gorakhpur district), and Pava (present Padrauna). The importance of these
two cities is very great in the history of Buddhism as Buddha took his last meals
and was taken ill at Pava, and at Kusinara, he died.
16. Assaka: The Empire of Assaka (Asmaka) was located nearthe river Godavari in
the South, and it became commercially significant in course of time. Its capital was
Patlia or Potna. All the 16 Mahajanapadas did not play the same role in
contemporary politics, Kashi, which was most important at first, lost its situation to
Kosla and Magadha. These two empires vied with each other for manage of the
Ganga basin, which, owing to the riverine commercial traffic, had certain clear
strategic and economic reward.
Conclusion – In short we can say the existence of the republic cannot be definitely
proved during Rigvedic period: There is reference in Vedic literature which referred to
democratic system of govt. The kings mentioned here are probably the heads of
Kshatriya family assembling probably at the time of the coronation of the king. The
sovereign powers thus did not belong to the masses but to the few leaders of the
aristocratic classes. Public opinion had attained importance shown by the existence
of sabha and samiti. Samiti some times elected their king also. The presence of the
king in it was considered to be essential. From these examples we come to the
conclusion that public opinion was sufficiently important.
 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
UNIT – II
 (A)  KAUTILYA
Brief Introduction of Kautilya: Kautilya[23] is estimated to have lived from 350 – 283
B.C. He was an Indian political thinker in ancient India Chanakya is hyped as the
economist of India”. Kautilya was the adviser and Prime Minister of Emperor
Chandragupta. Kautilya was a professor at the University of Takshila (located in
present time in Pakistan) and was an expert in commerce, warfare, economics, etc.
His well-known works contain Chanakya Neeti, Arthashastra and Neetishastra.
At time of Kautilya birth he had a full set of teeth, which is a symbol that he would
become a king or ruler. But since Chanakya was born in a Brahmin family, it was well
thought-out improper. Consequently, his teeth were broken and it was forecasted
that he would make another person an emperor and rule by him. During in child age,
Chanakya had the qualities of a born leader. His level of awareness was beyond
children of his time.
Chanakya was thrown out of the court of King Nanda who was Magdh emperor as he
was a blunt man and spoke his mind clearly. Chanakya swore he would take
revenge.  He comes across Chandragupta as a young child. Yet at that age, he was a
born leader and showed the qualities of a talented ruler. He was the guiding force
behind Chandragupta and the crucial person who made him a capable ruler.

Kautilya puts in poison in little amounts daily in Chandragupta’s food in order to

make him immune to poisonous, lest some rival tries to toxic emperor
Chandragupta’s. Though Chandragupta was unknown this fact and once gave a little
parts of food to his wife after eaten that food she died she was in the ninth month of
pregnancy also. After that Chanakya cut open her belly and took out the baby. This
baby grew up to turn into capable emperor and famous named Bindusara.

In Bindusara emperor had a minister Subandhu who dislike Chanakya. He misguides

Bindusara that Chanakya had killed his mother. Without evaluating real facts,
Bindusara confronted Chanakya. After some time knowing the whole and real story,
he felt embarrassed at his speedy actions and begged for forgiveness. He ordered
Subandhu to go and apologize and make Chanakya come back. Subandhu was very
cunning and on the pretext of going to apologize to Chanakya, he killed him.
Theirefore ended the life of a great person like Chanakya just because of political
jealousy.

 Kautilya’s Arthashtra, a book on statecraft was written tin the Maurya period in
4th century B.C. the text was divided into 15 chapters, 380 Shlokas and 4968 Sutras
known as books. Different books deal with different subject matters concerning
polity, economy and society, the king’s duties, the code of conduct of officers,
agriculture and industry, the inter-state relations[24].
Kautilya was the chief advisor of the king Chandra gupta maurya, in his rule the
biggest Hindu empire came into being. Kautilya’s wish was for his king to triumph
over the world. In his book Chankaya focused on king diplomacy related to Peace,
War, Neutrality, Marching, Alliance, Double Policy war, diplomacy and various parts of
life. His book is still being analysed and discussed in the strategic society[25].
SEVEN ESSENTIAL ELEMENTS
In book Arthashastra, Kautilya lists seven pillars for an organisation. “The king, the
minister, the country, the fortified city, the treasury, the army and the ally are the
constituent elements of the state” namely[26]:
1. The King (The leader): All great organisations have great leaders. The leader is
the visionary, the captain, the man who guides the organisation. In today’s
corporate world we call him the Director, CEO, etc. Without him we will loose
direction.
2. The Minister (The manager): The manager is the person who runs the show – the
second-in-command of an organization. He is also the person whom you can
depend upon in the absence of the leader. He is the man who is always in action.
An extra ordinary leader and an efficient manager together bring into existence a
remarkable organization.
 3. The Country (Your Market): No business can exist without its market
capitalization. It is the area of your operation. The place from where you get your
revenue and cash flow. You basically dominate this territory and would like to
keep your monopoly in this segment.
4. The Fortifid City (Head Office): a place from where all planning and strategies
are made. It’s from here that your central administrative work is done. It’s the
nucleus and the center of any organization.
5. The Treasury: Finance is an extremely important resource. It is the backbone of
any business. A strong and well-managed treasury is the heart of any organization.
Your treasury is also your financial hub.
6. The Army (Your Team): When we go to war, we need a well-equipped and
trained army. The army consists of your team members. Those who are ready to
fight for the organization. The salesmen, the accountant, the driver, the peon – all
of them add to your team.
7. The Ally (Friend / Consultant): In life you should have a friend who is just like
you. Being, in the same boat, he can identify with you and stay close. He is the one
whom you can depend upon when problems arise. After all, a friend in need is a
friend in deed.
CHANAKYA SUGGESTION FOR A COUNTRY
 Chanakya in his book Arthashatras suggested idea of a country reaching the
following levels of development in terms of ideologies and social and economic
development[27]:
 A self sufficient economy which is not dependent on foreign trade.
 An egalitarian society where there are equal opportunities for all.
 Establishment of new colonies for the augmentation of resources. He also
advocated the development of the already annexed colonies. His imperialistic
views can be interpreted as the development of natural and man made resources.
 According to Chanakya, the efficient management of land is essential for the
development of resources. It is essential that the state keeps an eye on the
occupation of excess land by the landlords and unauthorized use of land. Ideally
the state should monitor the most important and vital resource – Land.
 The state should take care of agriculture at all times. Government machinery
should be directed towards the implementation of projects aimed at supporting and
nurturing the various process; beginning from sowing of seeds to harvest.
 The nation should envisage constructing forts and cities. These complexes would
protect the country from invasions and provide internal security. The cities would
act as giant markets increasing the revenue of the state.
 Internal trade was more important to Chanakya than external trade. At each point
of the entry of goods, a minimal amount of tax should be collected. The state
should collect taxes at a bare minimum level, so that there is no chance of tax
evasion.
 Laws of the state should be the same for all, irrespective of the person who is
involved in the case. Destitute women should be protected by the society because
they are the result of social exploitation and the uncouth behavior of men.
 Security of the citizens at peace time is very important because state is the only
savior of the men and women who get affected only because of the negligence of
the state. Antisocial elements should be kept under check along with the spies who
may enter the country at any time.
  Chanakya envisioned a society where the people are not running behind material
pleasures. Control over the sense organs is essential for success in any endeavor.
Spiritual development is essential for the internal strength and character of the
individual. Material pleasures and achievements are always secondary to the
spiritual development of the society and country at large.
(B)  Manu
Manu is a term found with various meanings in different mythologies of Hinduism. In
early texts[28], it refers to the representative man, or to the first man (progenitor of
humanity). In later texts[29], Manu is the title or name of mystical sage-rulers of
earth, or alternatively as the head of mythical dynasties that begin with each cyclic
kalpa (aeon) when the universe is born anew. The title of the text Manusmriti uses
this term as a prefix, but refers to the first Manu Svayambhuva, the spiritual son of
Brahma. On the the other hand in some Puranic mythology, each kalpa consists of
fourteen Manvantaras, and each Manvantara is headed by a different Manu. The
current universe, in this mythology, is asserted to be ruled by the 7th Manu named
Vaivasvata. In Vishnu Purana, Vaivasvata, also known as Sraddhadeva or Satyavrata,
was the king of Dravida before the great flood. He was warned of the flood by the
Matsya (fish) avatar of Vishnu, and built a boat that carried the Vedas, Manu’s family
and the seven sages to safety, helped by Matsya. The myth is repeated with
variations in other texts, including the Mahabharata and a few other Puranas. It is
similar to other flood myths such as that of Gilgamesh and Noah[30].
Manusmriti, translated “Laws of Manu” or “Institutions of Manu,” is the most
important and authoritative Hindu Law Book (Dharmashastra), which served as a
foundational work on Hindu law and jurisprudence in the ancient Indian society. Until
the modern times it was the standard reference for both the rulers who patronized
Vedic faith and the people who practiced it[31].
According to Hindu tradition Manu is considered to be the first sons of Brahma’s and
a progenitor of human race, so it is very difficult to decide the period of Manusmriti.
It considered to that law of Manu might have been identified to the Vedic people for
a long time before they were codified into their present form sometime during the
post Vedic period. In ancient India the people believed in the order and regularity of
the world as the manifestation of God’s will and intent, and the clear victory of the
divine forces over the demonic. Therefore, the laws governing the perform of
individuals and the order and regularity of Hindu society were prepared by many
scholars and sages in ancient India since the primitive times.

Manusmriti schemes an ideal society and best human conduct as the basis to
establish a systematically society and divine centered life. To support those
principles and implement divine will, it offers numerous laws to minutely govern
human life and conduct as applicable to each individual according to her or his
society category, responsibilities and functions. Their object is to maintain control,
provide a basis for the rulers to enforce lawful conduct, and ensure the orderly
progression of the world through righteous conduct and observation of obligatory
duties by individuals. The power to implement the laws is carefully circulated among
the rulers and the guardians of society who support him in taken decision.
The laws that were proposed by Manu to govern human conduct and society reflect
the conditions, needs and values of the times in which they were formulated. Most of
them do not fit into the present day value system. They acknowledge prevailing
social and gender inequalities as natural conditions of human existence, and
propose laws to govern the behavior of individuals without providing scope for any
changes that time may bring in the conditions of society or the lives of people.
Hence, today you may find many laws of Manu archaic, outdated, and even primitive.
The laws favor a paternalistic society and family system, vesting the authority to
regulate them with men, and proposing rather a subordinate status and subservient
role to women. They also betray a clear lack of trust in the integrity and sexual
choices of women, thereby suggesting that they should always be guarded by men
and should never be left alone in the presence of men outside their families. At the
same time, they do not ignore or undermine the role of women in family and
domestic matters, and urge men to treat them with honor and respect and not let
them suffer[32].
Manusmriti recognize and validate the caste system as the foundation of order and
regularity of society. It identifies four classes of people like Brahmanas, Kshatriyas,
Vaisyas and Sudras, and their own roles in the protection of dharma. Brahmanas and
Kshatriyas are given many civil liberties and superior leniency in matters of sentence
for misbehavior, whereas Sudras are given the least number of civil liberties but the
harshest of punishments even for minor misdemeanors. Thus, it is important to
study Manusmriti with an open mind to understand its historical and religious
importance in the development of Hinduism from its early days to its current shape.

 
UNIT – III
CONCEPT OF STATE AND GOVERNMENT IN ANCIENT INDIA
India is a federal state with a parliamentary form of government. It is governed under
the 1949 constitution (effective since Jan., 1950). The president of India, who is
head of state, is elected for a five-year term by the elected members of the federal
and state parliaments; there are no term limits. The kingdom of Magadha, ruled by
Bimbisara, is the most powerful state in India. The Indian epic the Ramayana is
composed by the sage Valmiki. The life of Siddhartha Gautama according to modern
scholar consensus. Life of Indian Emperor Chandragupta, first ruler of the Mauryan
Empire.

The three theories of origin of state in ancient India are as follows: 1. Social Contract
Theory 2. Divine Origin Theory 3. Organic Theory. The core issues in the study of
political science are the state and the government. The institution of state is studied
in relation to its origin, nature, aims and functions of the state in ancient India. The
dawn of civilization was stated to have marked the beginning of the origin of state.
The state in ancient India was considered necessary, for it ensures peace, order and
happiness. It was a social organization with political power. However, ancient
scholars were not unanimous in their opinion with regard to the origin of the state.
According to some, state was the outcome of a contract mainly political in nature
between the rulers and the ruled. They opine that prior to the origin of state there
was something called a golden age, wherein the people enjoyed a life of peace,
order, self-discipline and happiness. Similarly, several theories like force theory,
patriarchal theory, matriarchal theory, divine origin theory and finally the evolutionary
theory advanced the origin of the state[33].
1. Social Contract Theory: The social contract theory, one of the common theories
of the origin of state, believes that state is a result of a contract between the king
and his subjects or representatives. The king, thus appointed, was expected to save
the state and the subjects from external aggression and establish order and security
within the state. However, the earliest Vedic works never stated that state was the
result of a contract. But, they clarified that king was elected to wage a successful
war against the demons[34].
2. Divine Theory: The Divine theory of origin of kingship as well as the state was
not widely acclaimed in the ancient Indian polity. The emperor, according to this
theory, was a subordinate to law, which was made by the community and not him.
The society as a whole was given greater importance than the king. The king was
not allowed to act indiscriminately and was expected to act as a father to his
subjects, and treat them with affection and kindness[35].
The Divine theory holds the vision that state is like an organism and that each
department has a specific function to perform. The theory believes that the healthy
functioning of the whole organism depends upon the healthy conditions of each part
of the body or organism and its efficient performance.

The seven parts of the body, that is, state are the king or the sovereign, the minister,
the territory and population, the fortified city or the capital, the treasury, the army, the
friends and the allies. Among all the seven elements or parts, it is the king who is
most important.

It was also stated in Manusamhita that ‘when the world was not without a king and
dispersed in fear in all directions, the lord created a king for the protection of all. And
because, he’s formed of fragments of all those gods, the king surpasses all other
beings in splendor’.

3. Organic Theory: Organic theory deals the view that state is like an organism and
that each department has a definite role to execute. The theory deals that the
healthy functioning of the whole organism depends upon the healthy conditions of
each part of the body or organism and its efficient functioning. The seven parts of
the body, likes state are the king or the sovereign, the minister, the territory and
population, the fortified city or the capital, the treasury, the army, the friends and
the allies. Among all the seven elements or parts, it is the king who is most
significant.
 
                    CONCEPT OF JUSTICE AND LAW IN ANCIENT IN INDIA
Administration of justice was not a part of the state’s duties in early times. We do not
find references to any judicial organizations in Vedic literature. The aggrieved party
in order to get its wrong redressed used to sit before the accused house and not
allow him to move till his (aggrieved party) claims was satisfied or wrong righted.
Later justice was administered by the tribe and clan assemblies and the judicial
procedure was very simple. But with the extension of the functions of the state and
the growth of the royal powers, the king came gradually to be regarded as the origin
of justice and a more or less elaborate system of judicial administration came into
existence. The Dharma Shastras, Niti Shastras and the Arthashastra provide us
information about the well-developed judiciary. According to these literatures the
king is the fountain head of all justice and he was required to spend every day about
a couple of hours in adjudication. The paramount duty of the king is the protection of
his subjects which involves the punishment of the wrongdoer. The law to be
administered is the Dharma Shastras subject to local and other usages which are not
inconsistent with the shastras[36].
TYPES OF COURTS
According to Brihaspati[37] there are four types of courts likes
1. Movable courts
2. Stationary courts
3. Courts deriving authority from the king and
4. Courts presided by the king himself.
Brihaspati also mentioned three types of nomadic courts as following:
First: For the promote toforest dwellers.
Second: For the profit of caravan serai merchants.
Third: For the advantage of military men.
According to Bhrighu rishi[38]: There were some of the prominent courts for justice
as follows:
1. The Kings Court: At the head of the judicial system stood the kings court at the
capital and presided by the king himself. But more often a learned Brahmana was
appointed for the purpose and he was known as Adhyaksha or Sabhapathi. Earlier
the Adhyaksha was selected for each particular occasion and in course of time
became a permanent officer of state and held the position of the Chief Justice
(Pradvivaka). Apart from the king, this court consisted of the Pradvivaka and three
or four jurors.
2. Court presided by the Chief Justice: The court presided by the chief justice
appointed by the king called Pradvivaka was the second type of court.
3. Principal Courts: Another court of importance were the principal courts in large
town where royal officers assisted by learned person administered justice. They
were presided by Adhyakshas appointed by the central government.
4. Popular Courts: One special feature of ancient Indian judicial system is the
existence of popular courts.
According to Yajnavalkya[39] for the first time refers to three types of popular courts.
1. Kula: The Kula has been defined by the Mitakshara[40]as consisting of a group of
relations, near or distant. The Kula or joint families were often very extensive in
ancient India. If there was a quarrel between two members the elders used to
attempt to settle it. The Kula court was this informal body of family elders.
2. 2. Sreni: When the effort at family arbitration failed, the matter was taken to Sreni
court. The term Sreni was used to denote the courts of guilds which became a
prominent feature of the commercial life in ancient India from 500 B.C. Sreni had
 their own executive committees of four or five members and it is likely that they
might have functioned as the Sreni court also for settling the disputes among their
members. This was an assembly of persons following a particular profession like
betel sellers, weavers, shoe makers and such like.
3. 3. Puga: Puga was an association of persons drawn from various castes    and
following different professions but staying in the same village or town. The Sabha
or the village assembly of the Vedic period and Gramavriddha court of the
Arthasastra were the forerunner of the Puga court.
 

CONCEPT OF DAND IN ANCIENT INDIA

Danda: The word Danda is derived from the words Dam and Dand, which refer to
tame, subdue, to conquer or to restrain and the like. This term also means a stick.
Danda, in fact, is one of the elements of a state. The main reason for institution of
Danda is to bring about discipline in the lives of human beings who by nature are evil
and corrupt. According to Manu, it is only the king who can protect the entire
mankind and for this protection, the king uses Danda as a means or as an
instrument. In the ancient Indian political system, it was the responsibility of the king
to maintain Dharma by means of Danda. It was widely believed that it is only through
fear of punishment that the mankind can be made more disciplined. It is this
punishment that keeps a check on their actions consciously or subconsciously[41].
The Purposes of Punishment: Punishment has five recognized purposes as
follows[42]:
1. Deterrence: Deterrence prevents future crime by frightening the defendant or
the public. The two types of deterrence are specific and general deterrence.
Specific deterrence applies to an individual defendant. When the government
punishes an individual defendant, he or she is theoretically less likely to commit
another crime because of fear of another similar or worse punishment. General
deterrence applies to the public at large. When the public learns of an individual
defendant’s punishment, the public is theoretically less likely to commit a crime
because of fear of the punishment the defendant experienced. When the public
learns, for example, that an individual defendant was severely punished by a
sentence of life in prison or the death penalty, this knowledge can inspire a deep
fear of criminal prosecution.
2. Incapacitation: Incapacitation prevents future crime by removing the defendant
from society. Examples of incapacitation are incarceration, house arrest, or
execution pursuant to the death penalty.
3. Rehabilitation: Rehabilitation prevents future crime by altering a defendant’s
behavior. Examples of rehabilitation include educational and vocational programs,
treatment center placement, and counseling. The court can combine rehabilitation
with incarceration or with probation or parole. In some states, for example,
nonviolent drug offenders must participate in rehabilitation in combination with
probation, rather than submitting to incarceration (Ariz. Rev. Stat., 2010). This
lightens the load of jails and prisons while lowering recidivism, which means
reoffending.
4. Retribution: Retribution prevents future crime by removing the desire
for personal avengement (in the form of assault, battery, and criminal homicide,
 for example) against the defendant. When victims or society discover that the
defendant has been adequately punished for a crime, they achieve a certain
satisfaction that our criminal procedure is working effectively, which enhances
faith in law enforcement and our government.
5. Restitution: Restitution prevents future crime by punishing the
defendant financially. Restitution is when the court orders the criminal defendant
to pay the victim for any harm and resembles a civil litigation damages award.
Restitution can be for physical injuries, loss of property or money, and rarely,
emotional distress. It can also be a fine that covers some of the costs of the
criminal prosecution and punishment.
 
 

Unit-4
A Brief survey of the Political History of Medieval India
Medieval period refer to the phase of Indian history that stretches from the fall of the
Gupta Empire and advent of Islam into India in other words the beginning of the
Sultanate period in the 13th century. Numeral Delhi Sultanates were in power from
1210 AD to 1526 AD. The Delhi Sultanate was established Muhammad Ghori by
defeating Prithviraj Chuhan (Rajput king) in the battle of Tarain-II in 1192 AD. In 1206
death of Muhammad Ghori, Qutb ud-Din became himself sultan of Delhi and
established the Slave dynasty; it came to an end in 1290 AD. The sultanate of Delhi
was in regular change as five dynasties (families) as follows:

1. Slave dynasty (1206 AD to 1290 AD)

2. Khalji dynasty (1290 AD to 1320 AD)
3. Tughluq dynasty (1320 AD to 1413 AD)
4. Sayyid dynasty (1414 AD to 1451 AD)
5. Lodi dynasty (1451 AD to 1526 AD).
THE SLAVE DYNASTY (1206-1290)
Muhammad Ghur or Muhammad Gori left his Indian empire in the care Qutb-ud-din
Aibak. Qutb-ud-din Aibak was his trusted former slave. On Muhammad’s death, Qutb-
ud-din severed his ties with Ghazni. Muhammad Ghur dynasty referred to as the
‘mameluks’ or slave dynasty. The founders of these dynasties were Qutb-ud-din
Aibak, Iltutmish and Balban who did not descend from a common ancestor. This
dynasty ruled over Delhi during the period 1206 to 1290.

QUTB-UD-DIN AIBAK (1206-1210): after Muhammad Ghur, Qutb-ud-din Aibak

received title of Sultan of Delhi from Ghiyas-ud-din Mahmud, nephew and successor
of Muhammad of Ghur. He reinforced his position by political matrimonial coalitions.
He was very religious Muslim, his devotion to Islam is known by the two mosques,
Quwwat-ud-Islam built at Delhi and Arhai Din ka Jhonpara built at Ajmer. He also
started the construction of Qutub Minar. He died in 1210, from the effects of a fall
from his horse while playing polo. He was known as lakh bazirs or ‘giver of
lakhs’[43].
ILTUTMISH (1210-1236): Qutb-ud-din Aibak son was Aram Shah but incompetent
for post of sultan. Aram Shah challenged to Qutb-ud-din Aibak’s. After defeated
Aram Shah in 1211 and Iltutmish made himself secure as the Sultan. His full name
was Shams-ud-din Iltutmish. He was Aibak’s son-in-law also. On his accession to the
throne he had to face many complexities. But I1tutmish proved himself equal to the
every situation. After defeated all rivals, and was honoured with the patent of
investiture from the Caliph of Baghdad in 1229. He was the first ruler to adopt a
monetary standard the silver ‘tanka’, the ancestor of modern rupees. Iltutmush built
other three more stories, and in 1368, Firoz Shah Tughlak constructed the fifth and
the last storey[44].
RAZIYA SULTAN (1236-1240): Razia Sultan, a brave sultan belonged to slave
dynasty and was the first mulim women to rule India and only women to occupy the
throne of Delhi. She succeeded her father Shams-ud-din Iltutmish to the Sultanate of
Delhi in 1236. She was talented, wise, brave, excellent administrator, and a great
warrior that attracted her father which resulted that she became the next sultan of
Slave dynasty. Though her reign was just for three years, her bravery, her struggle
and her undaunted spirit has been preserved in the treasures of history. Razia
Sultan’s Tomb in Delhi is one of those places, which relives the uncharted spirit of
the brave woman who ruled Delhi once and for all[45].
 
 
 
 
 
THE TUGHLAQ DYNASTY
The Tughlaq Dynasty (1320 AD to 1413 AD): Ghyasuddin Tughlaq, who was the
Governor of Punjab during the reign of Ala-ud-din Khilji, ascended the throne in 1320
A.D. and founded the Tughlaq dynasty. He conquered Warrangal and put down a
revolt in Bengal. Muhammad-Bin-Tughlaq succeeded his father and extended the
kingdom beyond India, into Central Asia. Mongols invaded India during Tughlaq rule,
and were defeated this time too[46].
Muhammad-Bin-Tughlaq: First shifted his capital from Delhi to Devagiri in Deccan.
However, it had to be shifted back within two years. He inherited a massive empire
but lost many of its provinces, more particularly Deccan and Bengal. He died in 1351
A.D. and his cousin, Feroz Tughlaq succeeded him[47].
Feroz Tughlaq: The invasion of Delhi by Timur in 1398 may be said to mark the end
of the Tughlaq Empire. When ascended to the throne of Delhi, Firoz was a man of 45
years. His mother was a Hindu princess of Dipalpur, who gave herself to his father
Razzab (the younger brother of Ghazi Malik) to save her people from the demands
and oppressions of the half-breed Turks. Firoz was trained in the art of the
administration under his late cousin, the “man of ideas” Muhammad bin Tughlaq.
Muhammad kept him with himself like his son. Once becoming Sultan, he reversed
every order of his predecessor. Firuzshah Kotla (in Delhi) is the city established by
him. It was destroyed by the later rulers. The empire which was broken during his
cousin Muhammad’s reign was to be recovered back. He campaigned against
Bengal for two times, planned a new city Jaunpur in memory of Muhammad Bin
Tughlaq. General administration Since he was half Muslim, got a religious
temperament, probably to prove himself equal to the Pure Muslims. He started
seeking advice of the Ulemas and ruled as per the Shariat. All the taxes which were
unlawful as per Shariat were abandoned by him[48].
 

The Sayyid Dynasty (1414-1451)

It was the fourth dynasty of the Delhi Sultanate and ruled the Sultanate from 1414 AD
to 1451 AD. Khizr Khan was the founder of Sayyid Dynasty. After Timur invasion in
1398 AD, the Tughlaq Dynasty became extremely weak. After the massacre, people
lived a completely chaos life without a central powerful authority for more than one
decade. In 1414 AD Khizr Khan acquired the Delhi Sultanate and founded the Sayyid
Dynasty[49].
Khizr Khan (1414-1421): Timur’s nominee captured Delhi and was proclaimed the
new Sultan and the first of the Sayyid Dynasty. They ruled over Delhi and
surroundings districts.
Mubarak Shah (1421-1434): He succeeded Khizr Khan at the throne after his
successful expeditions against Mewatis, Katehars and the Gangetic Doab area. He
was killed by the nobles in his own court.
Muhammad Shah (1434-1443): The nobles put Muhammad Shah on the throne, but
could not survive the in-fighting among the nobles in the court. He was authorized to
rule a meagre area of around 30 miles and rest of the Sultnate was ruled by the
nobles.
Alam Shah (1443-1451): The last Sayyid king descended in favour of Bahlol Lodhi and
himself retired. Thus began the Lodhi dynasty, which confined to Delhi and a few
surrounding areas.
Lodi Dynasty was the last dynasty of Delhi Sultanate and ruled from 1451 AD to 1526
AD. The Lodi Dynasty was of Afghan origin and Bahlul Lodi was the founder of Lodi
Dynasty. In 1451 AD, Alam Shah, the last ruler of Sayyid Dynasty voluntarily
abandoned the throne of Delhi Sultanate in favour of Bahlul Lodi. In 1526 AD, the
Lodi Dynasty came to end after the first Battle of Panipat and marked the beginning
of Mughal Empire.

 
The Lodhi Dynasty (1451-1526 AD)
Bahlol Lodhi (1451-88 AD): Bahlul Lodi was the first ruler of the Lodi Dynasty. He
ruled the Delhi Sultanate from 1451 AD to 1489 AD. He was first Afghan dynasty of
India. He also knew as Pathans sultans. Sikandar Lodi established himself in Punjab
after invasion of Timur founded of Lodhi dynasty. He tried to restore the glory of
Delhi by conquering territories around Delhi. Extending his authority over Jaunpur,
Rewail, Itawah, Mewar, Sambhal, Gwalior etc. Though he was himself illiterate, he
extended his patronage to art and learning[50].
Sikandar Lodhi (1489-1517 AD): His real name was Nizam Khan. After the death of
Bahlul Lodi, his son Sikandar Lodi succeeded him and ascended the throne of Delhi
Sultanate in 1489 AD. He ruled the Delhi Sultanate from 1489 AD to 1517 AD.
Sikandar Lodi was a good and caring ruler for his Muslim subjects but he was
extremely strict and harsh for Hindus. He founded Agra in 1504 AD as his second
capital after Delhi. In 1504, he founded the city of Agra and made it his capital.  Set
up an efficient spying system and introduced the system of auditing of accounts. He
was a poet himself and wrote verses in Persian under the pen-name of Gulrukhi. He
also repaired Qutab Minar. He was a fanatical Muslim and he broke the sacred
images of the Jwalamukhi Temple at Naga Kot and ordered the temples of Mathura
to be destroyed.
Ibrahim Lodhi (1517-26 AD): Ibrahim Lodi, the youngest son of Sikandar Lodi
succeeded his father in 1517 AD and ruled the Delhi Sultanate till 1526 AD. He was
the last Sultan of Lodi Dynasty as well as the Delhi Sultanate. At last Daulat Kan
Lodhi, the governor of Punab invited Babur to overthrow Ibrahim Lodhi. Babur
accepted the offer and inflicated a crushing defeat on Ibrahim Lodi. Defeated & killed
by Babur in the first battle of Panipat in 1526.  In 1526 AD, the Mughal Emperor
Babur defeated him in the first Battle of Panipat and established the Mughal Empire.
Ibrahim Lodi died in the battle. He was the only Sultan who had killed in battle. This
battle is considered as ending of Lodi Dynasty and beginning Mughal Empire in
India[51].
 
 
KHILJI DYNASTY (1290-1320)
After the decline of the Slave reign, the Sultanate became even more fragile and
instable due to the numerous revolts and internal aggression. The Khilji dynasty
started with the crowning of Jalaluddin Khilji by the nobles. This was around the year
1290 A.D. But within a few years, he was killed by his nephew Alauddin Khilji under a
conspiracy hatched by the latter. The Khilji dynasty is also known by the name of
Khalji dynasty. The history of Khilji dynasty is marked by brutal wars and internal
conflicts among the rulers. Read on about the history of the Khalji dynasty. The next
territory that Alauddin Khilji conquered was that of Gujarat. Around 1301 A.D, he
captured Ranthambhor and murdered the Rajput Hamir Deva. Then, he killed Rana
Rattan Singh and captured Chittor. By 1305, he had captured territories like Malwa,
Ujjain, Mandu, Dhar and Chanderi but couldn’t capture Bengal. He had conquered
almost entire north India by the year 1311 A.D. and established his kingdom
successfully. Read about the main Khilji dynasty rulers of India[52].
JALAL UD-DIN FIRUZ KHILJI: The founder of the Khilji dynasty was Jalal-ud-din
Firuz Khilji, who ruled from 1290 – 1294. He attacked India and built his empire
which was capital in Delhi, however he never really ruled from Delhi. He builds
another capital at Kilokhri, and reigned from there for around 6 years. At the time
Mongols attacked the on country, Jalal-ud-din Khilji confront very bravely due to his
daring Mongols depart. They came back after, five years later and attack once again
when his nephew ascended on the throne. Jalal-ud-din Khilji was murdered by his
own nephew which known as Ala-ud-din Khilji, when he was going to visit in Kara.
ALA-UD-DIN KHILJI: After Jalal-ud-din Khilji throne ascended by the second ruler
Ala-ud-din Khilji, whose real name was Juna Khan. He reigned in India from 1296-
1316. He was the nephew and son-in-law of the first Khilji ruler. Jalal-ud-din Khilji
killed the first Khilji ruler (or his father-in-law) and proclaimed himself as the ruler of
Delhi. Ala-ud-din extended his territory into the peninsular India very rapidly. Due to
an acute health condition Jalal-ud-din Khilji died on January 1316 A.D.
QUTB-UD-DIN MUBARAK SHAH: The last and third ruler of the Khilji dynasty in
India was Qutb-ud-Din Mubarak Shah.  The third ruler of the Khilji dynasty was the
weakest ruler, during his reign, all taxes and penalties were eradicated. He released
all prisoners of war. Qutb-ud-Din Mubarak Shah killed by Khusru Khan, hence ended
the Khilji dynasty in India.
 

ADMINISTRATIVE SYSTEM OF ALAUDDIN KHILJI

Alauddin Khilji was a stern despot and exercise complete authority over his vast
empire. Alauddin combined efficiency with sternness. He suppressed rebellions with
a strong hand. To prevent future troubles he enacted various laws by which he put a
ban on the consumption of wine, prohibited social meetings among the nobility, and
even forbade inter-marriage among them without his special permission. He
employed many spies who kept him informed of the doings of his subjects. He
burdened his subjects with heavy taxes. Naturally, the wealthier classes were
subjected to more taxes. Sultan Alauddin Khilji realized the need of keeping
an efficient army. This could only be done at heavy expenses. To reduce heavy
military expenditure the Sultan fixed a price of every article and attempted to make
goods available in cheap rates[53].
1. Fountain head of administrative system:The Sultan was the fountain head of the
administrative system. The earlier Muslim rulers carried on their administration by
the Koranic principles and the Ulemas or Muslim divines had a large say in the
formulation of policies. However, Alauddin Khilji differed from that of his
predecessors in this respect. He did not allow the Ulemas to lay down the
principles of administration. As he used to say, “I do not know what is lawful and
what is unlawful; whatever I consider to be for the good of my kingdom I do.”
These words sum up his attitude towards government and its objects[54].
Ibn Batuta describes Alauddin Khalji as one of the best Sultans. This observation,
however, is not justified either by the manner in which he came to power or by the
way he carried on the government. However, when the vastness of his conquests is
taken into consideration, then only perhaps the remark that he was a great Sultan
can be justified.

Sir Wolseley Haig has remarked, “With the reign of Alauddin begins what may be
called the imperial period of Sultanate which lasted about half a century.”

2. Central Administration: Sultan Alauddin Khalji established a strong central

government during his reign in which the Sultan was the head of the administra-
tion. AH executive”, legislative and judicial powers were centred in the hands of
the “Suttan and he had the supreme power in all the three departments. K. M.
Ashraf remarks, “The Sultan of Delhi was in theory an unlimited despot bound by
no law, subject to no material check and guided by no law or will except his own.”
There were two powerful classes—nobility and ulema in the Sultanate throughout the
13th century. Alauddin snatched all the powers from the nobility and deduced them
to the position of mere servants. He also minimized the powers of Ulema in the
affairs of State and religion.

Dr. Ishwari Prasad writes, “Alauddin was opposed to the interference of the Ulema in
matters of State and in this respect, he departed from the tradition of the previous
Sultans of Delhi. The law was to depend upon the will of the monarch and had
nothing to do with the laws of the prophet. This was the guiding maxim of the new
monarch.”

3. Ministers: A powerful ministry was organized by the Sultan for the smooth
running of administration. Each minister was attached to one Particular
department. Their duties were to tender advice to the Sultan but there was not
bound to act according to their counsel. The post of minister was not reserved for
any class. It was the privilege of the Sultan to appoint or suspend a minister. The
ministers had to work in their respective departments according to the will of the
Sultan. The following were the notable ministers during the reign of Aluddin
Khalji.
4. Wazir: Wazir was the most powerful minister of the Sultan. His position was next
to the Sultan in the Sultanate. He was both a civil and military officer. He was in
charge of revenue department and he had a right to inspect the departments of
other ministers.
Various appointments were made by the Sultan in consultation with the Wazir. He
used to command the royal forces at the time of war.

1. Diwan-i-Ariz – This was a department pertaining to the army and war and the
incharge of this department was named Ariz-i- Mamalik. He assisted the Sultan in
recruitment of soldiers, organization of the army and expeditions.
2. Qazi-ul-Quzat – He was incharge of judicial department. He was expected to
administer justice according To Islamic law.
3. Mir Arigf – He was the lord of petitions. People could not approach the Sultan
directly. They could only send their petitions to the Sultan through the Mir Ariz.
4. Diwan-i-Ashraf – He was the accountant general. He used to maintain the
accounts of the Sultanate.
 5. Mustaafi -The auditor general was known as Mustaufi. He audited the accounts of
the Sultanate.
G. Bakshi-i-Fauj -He was the pay master of the royal army.
I. Amir-i-Kohi -He was in charge of the agriculture department.
J. Diwan-i-Riyasat and Shahana-l-Mandi – They looked after the
affairs of the market. They used to keep close watch on the prices.
K. Kotwal – During pre-Mughal period the post of Kotwal was very
significant. The person who worked on it had to maintain law and
order in the city. He was also expected to check thefts and
robberies. To provide peaceful life to the citizens was the first and
foremost duty of the Kotwal.
Besides the above referred officials, there were several other officers who looked
after the affairs of administration, out of which the following were significant: a.
Vakil-l-Dar (Incharge of the keys of the gates of palace. b. Amir-i-Hajib (Incharge of
festivals). c. Amir-i-Akhur (In charge of royal stables). d. Amir-i-Shikar (Lord of the
Hunts). e. Sar-i-Jandar (Head of the bodyguards).

4. Provincial Administration – The empire of Alauddin was divided into several

provinces due to its large extent. The incharge of each province was known as
governor. They were almost kings in miniature but they had to obey the orders of
the Sultan. They had all executive, legislative and judicial powers. People could
prefer appeal against their decisions to the Sultan or to Qazj-ul-Quzat. They had
independent army and ‘hey made use of it in realizing revenue. At the time of war,
they sent their army for assistance of the royal army.
The vast empire of Alauddin Khalji was divided into eleven Provinces: I. Gujarat, II .
Mlultan and Sehwan, [Link], IV. Samana and Sunam, V. Dhar and Ujjain, VI.
Jhain, VII. Chittor, VIII. Chanderi, IX. Badaun, X. Avadh, XI. Kara.

Besides these provinces there were some States which accepted supremacy of the
Sultan. The rulers of these States were more independent than the Governors. Owing
to strong monarchy of Alauddin veteran governors like Ghazi Malik, Malik Kafur and
others dared not disobey the commands of the Sultan.

Towns were the lower units. The administration of the towns was in the hands of
separate officers. Villages were the smallest units of administration. Alauddin used
to keep a close watch over local and village administration.

5. Judicial System – Alauddin Khalji was a lover .of justice. Dr. K. S.

Lai has remarked, “The Sultan was as relentless and unflinching in
administering justice as Balban.” He was the fountainhead of
justice. He listened to the appeals and gave his judgements.
Qazi-ul-Quzat was next to him. Justice was administered by Qazis (junior officers) in
the provinces. Panches and Panchayats used to settle the disputes in the villages.
Alauddin was in favour of awarding impartial and immediate justice’.

Severe punjshmeala were in vogue during the reign of Alauddin. Mutilation of limbs
was very common. Nobody could escape justice on the basis of his piety or wealth.
The criminals were tortured to accept their crimes. Contemporary historian, Barani
has written that owing to cruelty of Alauddin and his barbarous justice thefts and
dacoities were not heard of in his reign.

6. Police and Intelligence System – Alauddin established a strong

and effective police and intelligence system in his territories. The
Kotwal was the chief police officer and it was his first and foremost
duty to establish law and order in the Sultanate. Alauddin is also
known for establishing a strong spy system in the country.
Intelligence department was the base of his strong autocratic rule.
Without an effective espionage system, he might not have achieved success in
establishing control over the Amirs and nobles. Barani has also written, “No one
could stir without his (Alauddin’s) knowledge and whatever happened in the houses
of Maliks and Amirs, officers and great men, was communicated to the Sultan. The
fear of spies led barons to cease speaking anything aloud in the Hazur Sultan and if
they had to say anything they said through gestures. Day and night did they tremble
in their own houses on account of the activity of the patrol? Neither did they do
anything nor did they utter a single word which could subject them to reproof or
punishment.”

MARKET REFORMS OF ALAUDDIN KHALJI[55]:  The market reforms of

Alauddin Khalji were oriented towards administrative and military necessities.
Medieval rulers believed that necessities of life, especially food grains, should be
available to the city folk at reasonable prices. But few rulers had been able to control
the prices for any length of time. Alauddin Khalji was more or less the first ruler who
looked at the problem of price control, in a systematic manner and was able to
maintain stable prices for a considerable period. It has been pointed out that
Alauddin Khalji instituted the market control because after the mongol seige of Delhi,
he wanted to recruit a large army. All his treasures would have soon exhausted if he
was to spend huge resources on army. With low prices the sultan could recruit a
large army with low expenses. Whatever may be the reason for the market reforms,
elaborate administrative arrangements were made to ensure that the market control
was followed strictly.
Alauddin fixed the prices of all commodities from grain to cloth, slaves, cattles etc.
He also set up three markets at Delhi, the first for food grains, the second for cloth of
all kinds and for expensive items such as sugar, ghee, oil, dry fruits etc. and the third
for the horses, slaves and cattle. For controlling the food prices, Alauddin tried to
control not only the supply of food grains from the villages, and its transportation to
the city by the grain merchants, but also its proper distribution to the citizens. A
number of measures were taken to see that prices laid down by the Sultan were
strictly observed.

Market for cloth, dry fruits, ghee etc. was called Sarai-i-adl. All the clothes brought
from different parts of the country and also from outside were to be stored and sold
only in this market at government rates. To ensure an adequate supply of all the
commodities, all the merchants were registered and a deed taken from them that
they would bring the specified quantities of commodities to the Sarai-i-adl every year.
The Merchants who, brought commodities from long distances including foreign
countries were given advance money on the condition that they would not sell to any
intermediaries. In cases of costly commodities an officer was to issue permits to
amirs, maliks etc. for the purchase of these expensive commodities in accordance
with their income. This was done to prevent any black marketing of these expensive
products. The third market dealt with horses, cattle and slaves. The supply of horses
of good quality at fair prices was important for the army.

 
 
SHER SHAH SURI
Farid Khan to Sher Khan: On the death of Ibrahim Lodi, Bahar Khan had proclaimed
himself as the Sultan of Bihar, assuming the title of Muhammad Shah Nuhani. Farid
joined the service of Sultan Muhammad Shah, who rewarded him the title of Sher
Khan, for killing a tiger with his bare hands during a hunting expedition. Impressed by
his service, Muhammad Shah made him the deputy to his minor son, Jalal Khan.
After some time, Sher Khan took leave to visit his Jagirs. During his absence,
Muhammad Sur poisoned the Sultan’s ears that Sher Khan was planning to join
Mahmud Lodi, a brother of the late Sultan Ibrahim Lodi, and requested him to confer
his Jagirs on Suleiman. Muhammad Sur sent a force to occupy the Jagirs and
defeated Sher Khan’s army. Thus Sher Khan was once again deprived of his paternal
Jagir[56].
During the Service of Babur, with the intention of recapturing his Jagirs, he joined the
services of Junaid Birlas, the Mughal governor of Jaunpur. Junaid was much pleased
with Sher Khan and gave him troops to recover his parganas. Unable to resist,
Muhammad Sur and Sulaiman fled; Sher Khan got possession of his own parganas
as well as Muhammad Sur’s. He then befriended Muhammad Sur and returned him
the possession of Chaundh. After leaving Nizam (his own brother) in charge of the
Jagirs, he went to Junaid Birlas and was presented to Emperor Babur at Agra in
1527. He accompanied Babur in the siege of Chanderi. He remained for some time
among the Mughals, where he had the opportunity to observe their military
arrangements and the character of their nobles. Once he said to his Afghan fellows,
“if luck and fortune favour me, I will very shortly expel the Mughals from Hind, for the
Mughals are not superior to the Afghans in battle or single combat; but the Afghans
have let the empire of Hind slip from their hands, on account of their internal
dissensions. Since I have been amongst the Mughals, and know their conduct in
action, I see that they have no order or discipline, and that their kings, from pride of
birth and station, do not personally superintend the government, but leave all the
affairs and business of the State to their nobles and ministers, in whose sayings and
doings they put perfect confidence. If fortune extends a hand to me, the Shaikh shall
soon see and hear how I will bring the Afghans under my control, and never permit
them again to become divided”[57].
ADMINISTRATION OF SHER SHAH SURI
Sher Shah Suri, also known as Sher Khan or the Lion King, was one of the greatest
administrators of medieval Indian. The Sher Shah Suri administration was based on
the old institutions in a new spirit, and in this task attained to much success that he
almost transformed the medieval Indian administration and made it serve the
interest of the people. He created no new ministry and his administrative divisions
and sub-divisions were borrowed from the past, and so also the titles of his
officer[58].
The Central administration: Like all rulers of the Sultanate of Delhi, Sultan Sher Shah
was a despot and was at the top of the Central administration. But unlike his
predecessors, he was a benevolent despot, exercising power for the benefit of the
people. Still, all the strings of policy and civil and military powers were concentrated
in his hands. His ministers were in charge of the daily routine work of administration
and had no authority to initiate policy or to propose radical changes in the mode of
transacting business or in the administrative setup[59].
The Empire assisted by ministers. Thus, Sher Shah had four ministers after the
model of the Sultanate period. They were as such:

1. Diwan-i-Wazarat,
2. Diwan-i-Ariz,
3. Diwan-i-Risalat, and
4. Diwan-i-Insha.
Thus, there were minor officers, two of whom (the chief qazi and the head of the
news department) enjoyed quite high rank and are placed by some writers in the
group of minister. Hence it may be said that the machinery of the central government
under Sher Shah Suri was just the equal as under earlier Slave dynasty.

Ariz-i-Mamalik (Army Ministry): after central administration second category

ministry was Ariz-i-Mamalik.  Who was the army minister. He was not the
commander-in-chief of the army. He was in charge recruitment cell and maintains
discipline. He had to make planning for payment of salaries of the army and their
officers and to look after the disposition of army on the field of battle. However, in
the military department Sher Shah was personally interest, he generally interfered
with the work of Diwan-i-Ariz. Sher Shah fixed the salary of individual soldiers and
looked their welfare also.
Foreign minister: The third category ministry was the Diwan-i-Risalat or Diwan-i-
Muhtasib (Foreign minister). He was in charge of not only diplomatic
correspondence, but also the charity and endowment department. His work was
related to ambassadors and representatives.
Diwan-i-Insha: The fourth types of ministry were known as Diwan-i-Insha. The heads
of Diwan-i-Insha had to draft imperial announcement and dispatches. His
responsibility was also to communicate with governors and other local executive
officers. He maintained Government record also.
Diwan-i-Qaza and Diwan-i-Barid: The other departments which were sometimes
reckoned as ministers were Diwan-i-Qaza and Diwan-i-Barid. The chief qazi was the
head of the first. He had to supervise the administration of justice besides deciding
cases, whether in the first instance or appeals from the courts of provincial
qazis[60].
The Barid-i-Mamalik: was the head of the Intelligence department, and it was his
duty to report every important incident to the king. He had a host of news writers and
spies who were posted in towns, markets and in every important locality. He also
made arrangements for the posting of new-carriers at various placed to carry the
royal dak[61].
There seems to have been a high official in charge of the royal household and the
various workshops attached to it. His duty was to administer the king’s household
department and to keep watch over crowds of servants attached to it. He was very
near the royal person and therefore, enjoyed a high prestige.

Provincial administration of Sher Shah[62]: Dr. Saran maintains that Sher Shah did
have large military governorship. Throughout the Sultanate period, including the reign
of Sher Shah and his son Islam Shah, there were administrative divisions
corresponding to provinces, but they were not uniform in size or income. They were
not called subas or provinces, but were known as iqtas which were assigned to
important chiefs. Besides these, there were numerous of vassalage under the
sultans of Delhi. Such states and the iqtas did not enjoy a uniform political status
and were not governed by the same system of administration. But while during the
reign of earlier sultans of Delhi the control of the central government over them was
nominal, under Sher Shah it was substantial and strict. It will, thus, be seen that there
were military governorships in the time of Sher Shah, such as those of Lahore, the
Punjab, Malwa and Ajmer. The officials in charge of these provinces were
commanders of large armies. Sher Shah established a new type of provincial
administration in Bengal, which he divided into a number of sarkars, placing each in
charge of an Afghan officer. At the head of the entire province he placed a civilian
with a small army under his command. His principal duty was to supervise the work
of the officers of the sarkars and to settle their disputes. This was done to guard
against rebellions.
All other provinces had governors and a few other officers who seem to have
enjoyed the same designation in various provinces, barring which there was no
uniformity in their administrative machinery or method. In fact, we have not means of
ascertain the names and number of officers appointed to various provinces; nor do
we know whether the governor was authorized to appoint his colleagues or they
were appointed by Sher Shah himself. In short, the provincial administration under
Sher Shah was not so much organized as that under Akbar. But it was definitely a
good step forward.

Land Revenue System of Sher Shah[63]: Before Sher Shah, the land rent was realized
from the peasants on the basis of estimated produce from the land but this system
did not seem to be faultless as the produce was not constantly the same. It
increased or decreased year after year. Sher Shah introduced a number of reforms in
the fields of revenue. These are as follows.
1. Sher Shah was the first Muslim ruler who got the whole of the land measured and
fixed the land-tax on it on just and fair principles.
2. The land of each peasant was measured first in “bighas” and then half of it was
fixed as the land tax. According to More land in certain portions of the empire
such as Multan the land tax was however one-fourth of the total produce.
3. The settlement made between the Govt. and the peasant in respect of the land
revenue was always put in black and white. Every peasant was given as written
document in which the share of the Govt. was clearly mentioned so that no
unscrupulous officer might cheat the innocent peasant. This is known as ‘Patta’.
4. Each and every peasant was given the option to pay the land-tax either in cash of
in kind. The subjects of Sher Shah used to Kabul (Promise) that they should pay
taxes in lieu of Patta.
5. The peasants were required to credit the land-tax direct into the Govt. treasury, to
be on the safe side, so that the collecting officers might not charge them any extra
money.
6. Strict orders had been issued to the revenue authorities that leniency might be
shown while fixing the land tax, but strictness in the collection thereof should be
the inevitable rule.
7. But suitable subsidy was granted to the farmers in the time of drought, famine or
floods from the royal treasury.
8. Special orders were issued to soldiers that they should not damage the standing
crops in any way. According to Abbas Khan, the cars of those soldiers, who
disregarded these orders, were cut off. Even when Sher Shah led an expedition to
the territory of his enemy, he was very particular about it that no harm shall come
to the farmers in any way from the excesses of his soldiers.
9. In case of damages compensation was granted to the former by the Govt. This
arrangement of Sher Shah was as reasonable as was adopted not by Akbar only but
was followed by the British Govt. also. The well-known ‘Ryatwari System’ which
has been in vague till now, was not founded by Akbar but by Sher Shah.
 

BRIEF HISTORY OF THE MUGHALS EMPIRE

Babur (reign – 1526 to1530 AD) The founder of the Mughal Empire in India,was the
descendant of as Changez Khan. Ousted by his cousins, he came to India and
defeated Ibrahim, the last Lodi Sultan in 1526 at the First Battle of Panipat. There
was a brief interruption to Mughal rule when Babur’s son Humayun (reign – 1530
to1540 AD) was ousted from Delhi, by Sher Shah, an Afghan chieftain. It was Babur’s
grandson Akbar (reign – 1556 to1605), who consolidated political power and
extended his empire over practically the whole of north India and parts of the south.
Jahangir (reign- 1605 to 1627 AD) who succeeded Akbar was a pleasure loving man
of refined taste. Shah Jahan (reign 1628 to 1658 AD) his son, ascended the throne
next. Shah Jahan’s fame rests on the majestic buildings he has left behind – the Taj
Mahal, the Red Fort and the Jama Masjid. Aurangzeb (reign – 1658 to 1707 AD) was
the last Great Mughal ruler.

ADMINISTRATION OF AKBAR
The administrative machinery of the Mughuls, which functioned during the Mughul’s
rule, was launched by Akbar. ‘Mughul Administration means Akbar’s Administration.
Akbar was not only a brave warrior, a successful leader and a great religious
reformer but also a great administrator. He initiated various reforms in every parts of
the administration.

Central Administration: Akbar was the overall in-charge of the central government.
All the executive, judicial and legislative powers of the state were combined in him.
There were no limitations on his despotism and his word was law. But Akbar had
always the welfare of his people in his mind and so his was a benevolent despotism.
He himself supervised all the branches of his administration and worked hard to
discharge his manifold duties. He would hold an open court, listen to the complaints
of his subjects and try to pacify them[64].
Akbar administration was assisted by a numerous ministers. The most important
ministers were Vakil, Diwan, Mir Bakshi, Sadar-i-Sadur, Khan-i-Saman, Muhtasib
Daroga-i-Dak ,Chowki. There works were as follows:

1. The Vakil – He maintained a general control over all the central departments and
acted as the chief adviser of the King, who was in-charge of finance and revenue
also.
2. Mir Bakshi – He maintained the records of all the Mansabdars and distributed pay
among the high officials.
3. Sadar-i-Sadur – He acted as a religious adviser to the king, disbursed royal
charity and discharged the function of the Chief Justice of the empire.
4. Khan-i-Saman – Beside these ministers, there were other ministers of lower
rank- Khan-i-Saman, who was in-charge of the royal household; Muhtasib, who
saw that the people (Muslims) led a highly moral life according to the Muslim law.
5. Daroga-i-Dak Chowki – Daroga-i-Dak Chowki an officer who was in-charge of
the postal and intelligence department.
Provincial Administration: Akbar divided his vast empire into fifteen Subas or
provinces. In each suba or province there was a Subedar, a Diwan, a Bakshi, a Sadar,
a Qazi, a Kotwal, a Mir Bahr and Waqa-i-Nawis.
 1. The Subedaror Governor – He was the head of the provincial administration. He
enjoyed vast powers and was in-charge of the provincial military, police, judiciary
and the executive.
2. The Diwan- was in-charge of the provincial finance and all bills of payments were
signed by him.
3. The Bakshi – He looked after the management of the provincial army.
The Sadarwas in-charge of the judicial charity department.
4. The Qazi – He was in-charge of the judicial department of his province. He
supervised the work of Qazisin the districts and towns.
5. The Kotwal– Was the supreme administrator of all the ‘thanas’ of the province
and was responsible for the maintenance of law and order in all the cities. The Mir
Bahr was in-charge of customs and taxation department.
6. The Waqa-i-Nawis – Was in-charge of the secret service of the province.
The provinces were further divided into Sarkars and Sarkars into Parganas. The head
of the Sarkar was Faujdar who kept his own small force and maintained law and
order in his area. He was assisted by a number of other officials who collected the
revenue, maintained the accounts and deposited the money into the state treasury.
The head of the Parganas was called Shikdar whose functions were the same as
those of the Faujdar in a Sarkar. Each Pargana comprised several villages. Each
village was under the charge of a Muqaddam, a Patwari and a Chowkidar who carried
on the work of administration with the help of the village panchayat.
Military Administration: Akbar paid much attention towards the organization,
equipment and discipline of the army. For efficient military administration he
introduced a new system known as the Mansabdari System. The Mansabdars had to
maintain soldiers according to his grade or rank. There were thirty three grades of
these Mansabdars who maintained soldiers ranging from 10 to 10,000. They were
paid salaries in cash and the system of assignments of lands was discouraged. They
were directly under the charge of the emperor and were promoted, degrade or
dismissed at his will. He also revived the practice of taking the descriptive rolls of
the soldiers and branding the horses. A large number of troops were, no doubt,
supplied by these Mansabdars but Akbar had maintained a standing army of his
own. The Mughul army consisted of infantry, cavalry, artillery, elephants, and navy.
The cavalry was the most important wing of the army and special attention was paid
towards its organization and equipment[65].
Land Revenue Administration: Land Revenue was the chief sources of income of the
Government. So, Akbar paid special attention towards the organization of the land
revenue administration. With the help of his Diwan (Revenue Minister), Raja Todar
Mal, Akbar introduced many reforms in his revenue department. First of all, the land
was measured into ‘bighas’, secondly, all the cultivated land was classified into four
divisions – Polaj, Parauti,Chachar and Banjar. The Polaj land was always cultivated
and was never allowed to fallow; the Parauti land was allowed to fallow for a year or
two to recover its strength; the Chachar land had to be left uncultivated for three or
four years and Banjar land had to be left fallow for five years or more. Thirdly, the
total produce of each land was determined separately. Fourthly, the share of the
state was fixed at one-third of the total produce. Land revenue was paid in cash or in
kind, but cash payment was preferred. Loans with small interest were advanced to
the cultivators. In case of famine, drought or another unexpected calamity, remission
was granted and even loans were advanced for purchase of seeds and animals. The
revenue collectors were asked to be friendly towards the cultivators and not to
oppress them on every account. As a result of these measures the revenue of the
state greatly increased, the cultivators became better off and the country became
prosperous. The abundance of food also made the life of the common man better
and happier than before[66].
Judicial Administration (Judicial Reforms): Akbar set up various reforms in the
administration of justice. Previously to Akbar almost all the cases were decided
according to the Islamic law. For the first time, Hindu law was administered in
deciding the cases where the parties Hindus, but Islamic law continued to function
where the parties involved were Muslims. The emperor was the highest court of
appeal. Capital punishment was given only in severe cases[67].
Social Reforms: Despite his multifarious activities Akbar found time to undertake
several social reform measures for wedding out the evils of both the Muslim and
non-Muslim societies. His principle of religious toleration did not, however, make him
blind to certain evils in the Hindu society. In 1563, the Pilgrim Tax, which was a great
burden on the Hindus, was abolished. In 1564, Jaziya, a tax which was imposed on
non-Muslims, was also abolished. Akbar tried to stop the practice of Sati. Child
marriage was discouraged and female-infanticide was forbidden. Widow-marriage
was encouraged. in 1582, an order was passed appointing a number of officers to
regulate the transactions of sale and purchase of a certain number listed articles. In
the same year (1582) a very important proclamation was made liberating all the
slaves in the empire[68].
From the above account it is quite clear that Akbar was a great administrator and the
administrative machinery that he set up continued to function throughout the Mughul
period.

 
SHIVAJI
Introduction of Shivaji: Shivaji was born in 1627. He was the son of Shahji Bhonsle
and Jija Bai. Shahji Bhonsle acted as the king maker in Ahammednagar. After its
extinction, transferred his service to Bijapur. Shivaji spent his childhood under the
protection of a Brahmin official called Dadaji Kondadev. While Jija bai built up the
character of Shivaji, Kond Dev trained him in the art of fighting and administration.
Shivaji aimed to create an independent kingdom of his own right from the beginning
of his career. His primary aim was to carve out an independent kingdom for himself
in Maharashtra. At the age of 20 years he started his adventures on a wider scale.
Many courageous Maratha leader gathered round him. In 1643 Shivaji captured the
fort of the singhgarh from Bijapur and then gradually the forts of Chaken, Purandar,
Varanati, Torna, Supa, Tikona, Lohgarch, Rairi were taken over. Shivaji had won over
many of his officers of Bijapur to his side by bringing them. The conquest of Javli
made him in disputed master. Shivaji came into conflict with the Mughals first in
1657. Aurangazeb had attacked Bijapur, which sought his help Shivaji could realize
that it was in his interest also to check the power of the Mughals from penetrating in
the Deccan. Therefore he helped Bijapur and attacked south west territory of the
Mughals. He looted Junar and troubled the Mughals at several places. But when
Bijapur made peace with the Mughals, he also stopped raids on Mughals territory.
With Aurangazeb away in the north, Shivaji resumed his career of conquest at the
expense of Bijapur. He captured Konkan. Bijapur now decided to take stern action
Afzalkhan who was a reputed commander of Bijapur was deputed for his task in
1659. With a large army, He tried to terrify Shivaji by wholesale destruction of
temples, agriculture and populace with in his territories Afzalkhan assured Shivaji
that if he would come to meet him in person and agreed to accept the suzerainty of
Bijapur he would so given the a additional territory as Jagir. Shivaji got scant of
Afzalkhan and decided the pay him in the some coins. He agreed to meet Afzalkhan
after a solemn promise of his personal safety. Shivaji went prepared and murdered
khan in cunning but daring manner, Shivaji put his leaderless army to rout captured
all goods and equipment including his artillery. Flushed with victory, the Maratha
troops overran the powerful fort of Panhala and poured in to south Konkan and
Kolhapur districts making extensive conquest. Shivaji’s exploits made him a
legendary figure. His name passed from house to house and was credited with
magical powers. People flocked to him from the Maratha areas to join his army.
Meanwhile, Aurangazeb was anxiously watching the rise of a Maratha power so near
the Mughal frontier. Aurangazeb instructed the new Mughal governor of Deccan,
Shiasta Khan to invade Shivaji dominion. At first the war went bodly for Shivaji
Shaista Khan occupied Poona and made it his headquarter. He sent army to capture
Konkan from Shivaji. Mughal secured their contest on north Konkan. Driven into a
corner Shivaji made bold [Link] infiltrated in to the camp of Shaista Khan at
Poona and at night attacked Khan, killing his son, and one of his captains and
wounding khan. This daring attack put the Khan in to [Link] anger Aurangazeb
transferred Shaista Khan to Bengal. Meanwhile Shivaji made another bold move. He
attacked Surat and looted it in to his hearts content, returning home laden with
Treasure. After the failure of Shaista Khan Aurangazeb deputed Raja Jai Singh of
Amber to deal with Shivaji[69].
In 1670 AD Shivaji again started fighting against the Mughals and succeeded in
capturing many farts from among those which he had surrounded to by the treaty of
Purandar. He conquered forts like singhgarh, Purandar, Kalyan Mahuli etc. and
successfully raided to the territories of the Mughals in Deccan. He also plundered
Surat in 1670 for the second time. Thus within a few years; Shivaji captured many
farts and territories from the Mughals and Bijapur. In 1674 Shivaji held his
coronation, assumed the title Chatrapathi and made Raigarh his [Link] 1677-78
AD Shivaji attacked east Karnatak on the pretext of getting share of his fathers jagir
from his brother. He then conquered the forts of Jinji and vollore and the territory
between rivers Thungabhadra and Kaveri in Karnataka. The Karnatak expedition was
the last major expedition of Shivaji. Shivaji died in 1680 shortly after his return the
Karnatak expedition[70].
Shivaji Administration System
Shivaji had laid the foundation of a sound system of administration. His
administrative system was largely borrowed from the administrative practices of the
Deccan [Link] all other medieval rulers, Shivaji was a despot with all powers
concentrated in his [Link] possessed all executive and legislative power. ‘Shivaji’
was a great organizer and constructive civilian administrator. The one of the novelty
of Shivajis administration was the introduction of Maratha language as the state
language.

(i) Central Administration: The administration was divided into eight departments

headed by ministers who are sometimes called Ashta pradhan. The eight ministers
were (1) Peshwa who looked after the finances and general administration. (2) Sari-
Naubat who was the Senapati. (3) Majumdar looked after the accounts. (4) Waqai
navis looked after the intelligence, post and household affairs (5) Surnavis or Chitnis
looked after official correspondence (6) Dabir looked after foreign affairs (7)
Nyayadhish looked after justice and (8) Pandit Rao looked after ecclesiastical
affairs. The ashtapradhan was not a creation of Shivaji. Many of these officers like
Peshwa, Majumdar, Waqai navis, Dabir and Surnavis had existed under the Deccani
rulers also. All the members of the astha pradhan except Pandit Rao and Nyaydhish
were asked to lead military campaigns. Under Shivaji these offices were neither
hereditary nor permanent. They held the office at the pleasure of the king. They were
also frequently transferred. Each of the ashta pradhan was assisted by eight
assistants’ diwan, Majumdar, Fadnis, Sabnis; Karkhanis, Chitnis, Jamadar and
[Link] dealt with all diplomatic correspondences and wrote all royal letters.
The Fadnis used to respond to the letters of commanders of the forts. The potnis
looked after the income and expenditure of the royal treasury[71].
(ii) Provincial and Local Administration: The provincial administration was also
organized on the Deccani and Mughal [Link] the provincial units already existed
under the Deccani rulers. Shivaji reorganized and in certain cases renamed them.
The provinces were known as Prants. The Prants were under the charge of subedar.
Over a number of Subedar there were Sarsubedar to control and supervise the work
of subedar. Smaller than prant were Tarfs which were headed by a [Link]
there were Mauzas or villages which were the lowest unit of administration. At the
level of village, Kulkarni used to keep accounts and maintained records while Patil
had legal and policing power. At the level of Pargana, Deshpande used to keep
account and maintain records while Deshmukh had legal and policing powers. The
Police officer in rural area was called Faujdar and in urban area was called Kotwal.
The Maratha polity did not have unified civilian-cummilitary rank. Under the Marathas
performance based Brahmin elites manned the central bureaucracy and the local
administration. In this capacity they were called Kamvishdar who enjoyed wide
powers of tax assessment and collection. They adjudicated cases, provided
information about local conditions and kept records. Later on, the British District
collector was modelled on this Maratha officer only[72].
III. Army: Cavalry and infantry constituted the primary part of the army of Shivaji.
The paga cavalrymen were called the bargirs. They were provided horses by the
state while the silahdars purchased their armies and horses themselves. The paga
cavalry was well organized. Twenty five horsemen formed a unit which was placed
under a havildar. Shivaji preferred to give cash salaries to the regular soldiers, though
some time the chief received revenue grants strict disciplines was maintained in the
army. The plunder taken by each soldiers during compaign was strictly accounted
for, farts and security occupied an important place in the army organization of
Shivaji. Shivaji maintained a navy as well. Shivaji had 400 ships of different kind. The
navy was divided in to two parts and each part was commanded by darive Nayak and
mai Nayak respectively.
10. Finance and Revenue: The revenue system seems to have been patterned on the
system of Malik Ambar land revenue; Trade Tax etc. were the primary source of
the fixed income of Shivaji. But income from these sources was not sufficient to
meet the expenditure of the state. Therefore Shivaji collected the chauth and
Sardeshmukhi from the territory which was either under his enemies or under his
own influence. The chauth was 1/4 part of the income of the particular territory
while the Sardeshmukhi was 1/10. Shivaji collected these taxes simply by force of
his army. These taxes constituted primary source of the income of Shivaji and after
wards helped in the extension of the power and territory of the Marathas. The
revenue system of Shivaji was Rytowari in which the state kept direct contact with
peasants. Shivaji mostly avoided the system of assigning Jagir to his officers and
whenever he assigned Jagir to them, the right of collecting the revenue was kept
with state officials.
 

UNIT – V

SOCIETY IN MEDIEVAL INDIAN SPECIAL EMPHASIS ON THE CONDITION OF

WOMEN
Medieval India was not women’s age it is supposed to be the ‘dark age’ for them.
Medieval India saw many foreign conquests, which resulted in the decline in
women’s status. When foreign conquerors like Muslims invaded India they brought
with them their own culture. For them women was the sole property of her father,
brother or husband and she does not have any will of her own. This type of thinking
also crept into the minds of Indian people and they also began to treat their own
women like this. One more reason for the decline in women’s status and freedom
was that original Indians wanted to shield their women folk from the barbarous
Muslim invaders. As polygamy was a norm for these invaders they picked up any
women they wanted and kept her in their “harems”. In order to protect them Indian
women started using ‘Purdah’, (a veil), which covers body. They were not allowed to
move freely and this lead to the further deterioration of their status. These problems
related with women resulted in changed mindset of people. Now they began to
consider a girl as misery and a burden, which has to be shielded from the eyes of
intruders and needs extra care. Whereas a boy child will not need such extra care
and instead will be helpful as an earning hand. Thus a vicious circle started in which
women was at the receiving end. All this gave rise to some new evils such as Child
Marriage, Sati, Jauhar and restriction on girl education[73].
Sati: The ritual of dying at the funeral pyre of the husband is known as “Sati” or
“Sahagaman”. According to some of the Hindu scriptures women dying at the
funeral pyre of her husband go straight to heaven so it’s good to practice this ritual.
Initially it was not obligatory for the women but if she practiced such a custom she
was highly respected by the society. Sati was considered to be the better option then
living as a widow as the plight of widows in Hindu society was even worse. Some of
the scriptures like ‘Medhatiti’ had different views it say that Sati is like committing
suicide so one should avoid this.
Jauhar: It is also more or less similar to Sati but it is a mass suicide. Jauhar was
prevalent in the Rajput societies. In this custom wives immolated themselves while
their husband were still alive. When people of Rajput clan became sure that they
were going to die at the hands of their enemy then all the women arrange a large
pyre and set themselves afire, while their husband used to fight the last decisive
battle known as “Shaka”, with the enemy. Thus protecting the sanctity of the women
and the whole clan[74].
Child Marriage: It was a norm in medieval India. Girls were married off at theage of
8-10. They were not allowed access to education and were treated as the material
being. The plight of women can be imagined by one of the shloka of Tulsidas where
he writes [r1] “Dhol, gawar, shudra, pashu, nari, ye sab tadan ke adhikari”. Meaning
that animals, illiterates, lower castes and women should be subjected to beating.
Thus women were compared with animals and were married off at an early age. The
child marriage along with it brought some more problems such as increased birth
rate, poor health of women due to repeated child bearing and high mortality rate of
women and children.
Restriction on Widow Remarriage: The condition of widows in medieval India was
very bad. They were not treated as human beings and were subjected to a lot of
restrictions. They were supposed to live pious life after their husband died and were
not allowed entry in any celebration. Their presence in any good work was
considered to be a bad omen. Sometimes heads of widows were also shaved down.
They were not allowed to remarry. Any woman remarrying was looked down by the
society. This cruelty on widows was one of the main reasons for the large number of
women committing Sati. In medieval India living as a Hindu widow was a sort of a
curse.
Pardah System: The veil or the ‘Pardah’ system was widely prevalent in medieval
Indian society. It was used to protect the women folk from the eyes of foreign rulers
who invaded India in medieval period. But this system curtailed the freedom of
women.
Girl Education: The girls of medieval India and especially Hindu society were not
given formal education. They were given education related to household chores. But
a famous Indian philosopher ‘Vatsyayana’ wrote that women were supposed to be
perfect in sixty four arts which included cooking, spinning, grinding, knowledge of
medicine, recitation and many more. Though these evils were present in medieval
Indian society but they were mainly confined to Hindu society. As compared to Hindu
society other societies such as Buddhism, Jainism and Christians were a bit lenient.
Women in those societies enjoyed far more freedom. They had easy access to
education and were more liberal in their approach. According to these religions
gender was not the issue in attaining salvation. Any person whether a man or a
woman is entitled to get the grace of god. During the time of king Ashoka women
took part in religious preaching. According to Hiuen Tsang, the famous traveler of
that time, Rajyashri, the sister of Harshavardhana was a distinguished scholar of her
time. Another such example is the daughter of king Ashoka, Sanghmitra. She along
with her brother Mahendra went to Sri Lanka to preach [Link] status of
women in Southern India was better than the North India. While in Northern India
there were not many women administrators, in Southern India we can find some
names that made women of that time proud. Priyaketaladevi, queen of Chalukya
Vikramaditya ruled three villages. Another women named Jakkiabbe used to rule
seventy villages. In South India women had representation in each and every field.
Domingo Paes, famous Portuguese traveler testifies to it. He has written in his
account that in Vijaynagar kingdom women were present in eachand every field. He
says that women could wrestle, blow trumpet and handle sword with equal
perfection. Nuniz, another famous traveler to the South also agrees to it and says
that women were employed in writing accounts of expenses, recording the affairs of
kingdom, which shows that they were educated. There is no evidence of any public
school in northern India but according to famous historian Ibn Batuta there were 13
schools for girls and 24 for boys in Honavar[75].
Devadasis: ‘Devadasis’ means servant of God. In Southern India Devadasis custom
was prevalent. In Devadasis system girls were dedicated to temples in the name of
gods and goddesses. These Devadasis were supposed to live the life of celibacy. All
the necessities of Devadasis were fulfilled by the grants given to the temples.
Devadasis used to spend their full life in worship of god and by singing and dancing
for the God.  After some times Devadasis converted to Rajadasis (palace dancers)
prevalent in some tribes of South India, for example Yellamma cult.
 
 
 
SATI PRATHA IN INDIA
Sati literally means ‘a pure and virtuous (worthy) woman’. Sati Pratha or tradition of
widow burning at the funeral pyre of her husband has been a shameful social evil
and an age old practice in Indian society. A widow was burned either with her tacit
consent (implied) or most of the times forcefully by her in-laws after the death of her
husband. This practice shows a dark and evil side of Hindu society, especially of
ancient and medieval India.
The practice of Sati or self-immolation by the widow was associated with a kind of
virtue. The ‘virtue’ of this practice was defined by a religious logic that it was
inauspicious for widow to live after the death of her husband. A widow who agreed
to self-immolate herself at the funeral pyre of her husband was considered to be very
virtuous and attained to the status of Sati Mata or Sati Goddess. We can still find
Temples of Sati Mata in some States of India such as in Rajasthan and M P[76].
ORIGIN OF SATI PRATHA
The root of this inhuman practice lies in the patriarchal traditions of Hindu society
where women are always considered as subservient and inferior to men.  Origin of
sati pratha as follows[77]:
1. Mythological Story: about the origin of Sati Pratha says that Sati was the wife of
Shiva and she self-immolated herself in protest against her father who had
disrespected Shiva. Though in this story, Sati immolated herself while her
husband, Shiva was still alive.
2. Historical Reality: the practice took a different form and women were being
forced to die by sitting on their husband’s funeral pyre. How this transformation
took place is not clear from historical sources but one thing is clear that the evil
practice somehow became part of Hindu society. The earliest literature of Hindus
such as Vedas does not mention the practice of Sati.
3. According to Hindu Texts: It is only in the later Hindu texts such as Puranas, one
finds the mention of Sati. Furthermore, the practice was mainly associated with the
so-called high castes (Brahmin and Kshatriya) in the early history.
4. During the Muslim Period: According to one version it became fairly wide
spread during the muslim period when invasions and conquests played its role and
it was considered necessary to preserve the honor of Hindu women. However,
there are evidences to show that the practice of Sati was also there in western and
southern India even before the advent of Muslims.
5. Customs and Rituals: Gradually, the practice was adopted by the so-called Lower
Castes in their quest to aspire for higher ranking in social order by emulating the
customs and rituals of higher castes. The practice of Sati was not, therefore,
peculiar to one caste or one region of the country and we find evidences across the
spectrum of the contemporary Hindu society.
ELIMINATION OF SATI
Attempted In Muslims Period – As far as stopping or banning this evil practice is
concerned, it was tough a task as it had been given a religious sanction by the
conservative religious pundits of the time. But some enlightened Indian rulers had
taken steps to curb the cruel practice; for instance, Akbar attempted to restrict it, the
Marathas had forbidden it in their dominions. However, the East India Company,
early in their rule over India, stays to its policy of non-interference into socio-religious
customs of the people of India.
British India: But in the early Nineteenth-century-British India, the English view about
India’s socio-religious aspects began to change. This change of view was mainly for
two reasons. Firstly, there was a genuine concern among some good-hearted English
officials that the social conditions especially of women were in urgent need of
reforms; and secondly, the English rulers wanted to get a moral sanction of their
illegal and unethical exploitation of the native people by maintaining that it was a
moral duty and ‘Whiteman’s burden’ to civilize the uncivilized people of the country.
Therefore, the British began to depart from their earlier stand of non-interference.
Some serious efforts were made in 1813 when a Circular was issued which
prohibited the burning of women in all cases where the widows was below 16 years
of age or pregnant or intoxicated or in any other way coerced. But these measures
proved inadequate and unsuccessful.
Raja Ram Mohan Roy – The real change occurred during the time of Governor-
General Lord William Bentinck when he took charge in 1828. He tried to tackle
several social problems facing the society such as abolition of Sati and suppression
of infanticide and crushing the gangs of Thugs. Several sane and educated Indians also
began to question this inhuman practice of Sati despite the opposition and pressure from the
religious leaders. Prominent among them was Raja Ram Mohan Roy. Roy is rightly
considered to be the first leader of the Indian social enlightenment in the early
Nineteenth century. It was Raja Rammohan Roy who urged and pressed Bentinck to
take necessary steps and declare the practice of Sati illegal. Due to his great efforts
and work through publication of pamphlets and newspaper reports etc, he was able
to awaken the conscience of the masses. In December 1829, Regulation No- XVII
was issued by the Governor-General declaring the practice of Sati or burning or
burying alive of widows illegal and punishable by the criminal courts as culpable
homicide. The Regulation of 1829 was initially applicable to Bengal Presidency alone
but in 1830 it was extended in different forms to Madras and Bombay Presidencies
also[78].
Thus, after the Regulation of 1829, the inhuman practice of Sati was more or less
abolished from the customary practices of Hindu society; though opposition was
made from some quarters of orthodox Brahmins but overall the abolition proved
successful.
In recent past one notable incidence came into light when in September 1987, in
Rajasthan village of Deorala, 17-year-old Roop Kanwar, a bride of eight months
immolated herself on her husband’s funeral pyre. Thousands were present at the
venue. This shocking incident once again brought into light the fact that still in the
sub-conscious memory of traditional Hindu society people consider the practice
of Sati  as some kind of virtuous act.
But apart from this infamous exception no other such event came into light
anywhere in the country. Therefore, it can be said that the inhuman practice now has
no place in the modern outlook of Twenty-first-century society of India.

 
UNTOUCHABILITY AND PROBLEMS IN INDIA
Untouchability is major problem of India. It is basically a rural problem. Its seeds are
only found in rural soils. Untouchability is an ancient concept traditionally. Indian
society was broadly divided into four groups such as Brahmin, Kshatriya, Vaishya
and Sudra. In the caste hierarchy the lowest place was given to the Sudras and they
were regarded as untouchables by the rest members of Hindu Caste. Since
untouchability is a very old concept, therefore, the untouchables were identified by
the different names in different periods[79].
In Vedic period – they were known as ‘Chandala’.
In Medieval age – they were addressed as ‘Achhuta’.
In the British period– they were known as ‘Exterior Caste’.
In the present time – they were generally known as the ‘Scheduled Caste’ by the
Indian Constitution.
Though the untouchables are theoretically considered as a part of Varna
organisation, they are closely linked with the Hindu Social Life. The presence of
untouchables is very indispensable for the smooth functioning of Hindu Society
because they perform certain polluting occupations like scavenging, removal of the
dead cattle and so on.

MEANING AND DEFINATION OF UNTOUCHABILITY

It is extremely difficult to define untouchability. Therefore, it is usually defined in
terms of disabilities suffered by define untouchability those who are considered to
be the untouchables. Thus it may be said that suffering from all kinds of disabilities
is the sign of untouchability. Vradharita Smiriti says that persons belonging to
different Non-Vedic religions or semi-religions sects are to be treated as
untouchables[80].
According to Manu Smritis: The people who follow the lowest kind of occupations
include scavenging, leather work, removal of the carrion etc, are to be regarded as
untouchables.
According to Mahatma Gandhi: the father of nation says “Untouchability is the hate
fullest expression of Caste System and it is a crime against God and man”. Further
he lovingly called the untouchables as Harijan means the people of God.
According to G. S. Ghurye: Defines Untouchability as “ideas of purity whether
occupational of ceremonial or ceremonial, which are found to have been a practice
of untouchability.
According to Dr. D. N. Majumdar: “Untouchables castes are those who suffer from
various social and political disabilities many of which are traditionally prescribed and
socially enforced by higher castes.”
According to K. M. Pannikar:  The system of communal slave-holding contrasted
with individual owning slaves. No social or personal consideration was there to relax
the rigors of the evil system. The untouchables lived within their own system. Thus
they formed a parallel society to Hindu social system. They had the lowest ritual
position in the society. They also had the lowest socio-economic position in society.
These exterior castes were a depressed community who were subjected to all kinds
of social and civic discriminations.
Thus, untouchables are those castes which are subject to all kinds of disabilities in
every walk of life such as social, economic, religious and political in other words, the
persons who have no right to enjoy any privilege, who do not touch the shadow of
higher caste, who follow the lowest kind of occupations, who have occupied the
lowest place in the caste hierarchy and deprived from all sorts of things are called to
be the untouchables.
TYPES OF UNTOUCHABLES
1) Social untouchables: From the social point of view, the untouchables suffered
following disabilities[81].
1. i) Lower Social Status: Since social status was fixed for different castes,
therefore, the untouchability was placed at the lowest place in the caste hierarchy
and enjoys lowest status in the society. Their social status was just like a golden
zero. Moreover, they were considered as the symbol of pollution by the higher
caste people. Consequently, the untouchables are deprived of all kind of
commercial contacts.
2. ii) Educational untouchables: Traditionally, the untouchables were forbidden
from receiving any education. They were not entitled to acquire the knowledge of
Vedas. Even if they were not permitted to touch the religious books. The
untouchables were not allowed to get education from the public institution. Only
recently they have given educational facilities.
iii) Disabilities relating to Social habits: Till recently, the untouchables are faced many
problems in various social habits like food, drink and social intercourse. They are not
permitted to take food or drink from the house of high caste people. They are eating
only ‘Kachha’ foods which are prepared by the ordinary things. In the social
intercourse, they are also faced the same problem.
1. iv) Prohibition in the use of public places: In fact, the untouchables were not
allowed to use village wells, ponds, public hospitals, roads and so on. They were
not permitted to live in those places where the higher caste people reside. The
untouchables were forced to live in the worst type of village slums. Moreover, they
were leading a life just like the domestic animals.
2) Economic untouchables:  Economically, to the position of untouchable’s castes
was very pitiable. They were deprived from all kinds of economic privileges in the
society following are the main economic disabilities of untouchables.
1. i) No right to property: Traditionally, the untouchables were not allowed to have
any land or property of their own. They were prevented from entering in various
types of enterprises. They were not permitted to acquire wealth or to buy land in
village. Even if, the untouchables have no right to sell their landed property to any
one. Moreover, they were deprived from all sorts of right to property.
2. ii) No right to choose occupation: In the past, the untouchables were not allowed
to engage themselves in occupations which were reserved fro the members of
higher castes. They were compelled to struck to their traditional occupations. They
were largely engaged in agricultural and other associated works as wage-earners.
The untouchables were traditionally associated with such lower occupations like
scavenging, leather works, basket making and so on.
iii) Landless labourer: The untouchables were traditionally known as landless
laborers because they have no land in the village. They were leading a landless
laborer life. Before the abolition of zamidari system, their primary duty was to work
for a landlord without any remuneration. Thus their position was just like a slave and
in certain circumstances worst than a slave. In this context, Gandhiji has said that,
“the untouchables performed the most essential service of society yet at the same
time they were the lowest paid ones. Only such amount of wages is given to them
that are necessary to unite, their cursed soul and their physical frames.
3) Religious untouchables: Though, the untouchables are known as the Hindus by
religion, yet they were not permitted to enter into the Hindu temple and pilgrimages
nor were they allowed to use public bathing Ghats. The untouchables were not
allowed to study religious books. They were also deprived from the Jajman of
Brahmin priests. For example, a Brahmin never accepts to perform the religious
ceremony of an untouchable. Only recently, efforts have been made by the
Government for removing these religious disabilities by legislators.
4) Political untouchables: In the past, the untouchables were also deprived from all
kinds of political privileges. They were not allowed to participate in political
administration and general election of the traditional India. They were also not
permitted to hold any public post. Only during the British rule, they for the first time
got the right to vote[82].
But, now-a-days, they have enjoy maximum political rights on the ground that some
seats in Parliament and State Assemblies are reserved constitutionally for them, but
it is doubtful, weather they can properly utilise this political rights without their
economic development. It means without their economic improvement, they cannot
utilise the political rights which they have got.

[1] The Vedic period (or Vedic age) (c. 1500 – c. 500 BCE) was the period in Indian
history during which the Vedas, the oldest scriptures of Hinduism, were composed.
During the early part of the Vedic period, the Indo-Aryans settled into northern India,
bringing with them their specific religious traditions.
[2]Available at [Link]
political-system-pdf/ visited on 05.12.2016.
[3] For more detail see, Social life of Aryans during Vedic period. Available at
[Link]
history/social-life-of-aryans/ visited on 08.10.2016.

[4] For more detail see, early Vedic age: origin, social life, economic life, culture and
religion. Available at [Link]
social-life-economic-life-culture-and-religion/ 3013, visited on 09.10.2016.
[5] Dharma is the path of righteousness and living one’s life according to the codes
of conduct as described by the Hindu scriptures.
[6] Available at [Link]
visited on 09.11.2016.
[7] For more detail see,
[Link] visited on
098.10.2016.
[8] For more detail see the legal system in ancient India Available at
[Link] article/article/the-legal-system-in-ancient-india-
[Link].
[9] For more detail see Vedic period, available at
[Link] visited on 21.12.2016.
[10] The Ashvamedha is a horse sacrifice ritual followed by the Śrauta tradition of
Vedic religion. It was used by ancient Indian kings to prove their imperial sovereignty:
a horse accompanied by the king’s warriors would be released to wander for a period
of one year.
[11] Rajasuya Imperial Sacrifice or the king’s inauguration sacrifice, is a Śrauta ritual
of the Vedic religion. It is a consecration of a king. It is described in the Taittiriya
corpus, including Apastamba Srauta Sutra 18.8–25.22.
[12] Vajapeya is a soma yajna basically (though certainly involves minor animal
sacrifice too) done by Brahmins, Kshatriyas, and one of the greatest Soma yajnas of
its kind. The surname of some Brahmins “Bajpai” or “Vajpayee” derives from this
yajna.
[13] Seven parts of the state is king, amatya, janpad, treasury, fort, punishment and
friends.
[14] Valmiki is revered as the first poet or Adi Kavi and Ramayana, the first kavya
(poem). His first disciples to whom he taught the Ramayana were Kusha and Lava,
the sons of Rama.
[15] Available on, [Link] visited by 11.10.2016.
[16] Literally “Compiler is a central and revered figure in most Hindu traditions. He is
also sometimes called Veda Vyāsa or Krishna Dvaipāyana (referring to his
complexion and birthplace). He is generally considered the author of the
Mahabharata, as well as a character in it.
[17] Yuga in Hinduism is an epoch or era within a four age cycle. A complete Yuga
starts with the Satya Yuga, via Treta Yuga and Dvapara Yuga into a Kali Yuga. Our
present time is a Kali Yuga, which started at 3102 BCE with the end of the
Mahabharata war.
[18] Myneni S.R. “Indian History for Pre-Law First Year”, Allahabad Law Agency,
Faridabad, second edition 2006, at p.61.
[19] Available at, [Link]
in-ancient-india/,visited on, 13.10.2016
[20] The Anguttara Nikaya, the fourth division of the Sutta Pitaka, consists of several
thousand suttas arranged in eleven books (nipatas) according to numerical content.
For example, the first nipata the Book of the Ones  contains suttas concerning a
single topic; the second nipata the Book of the Twos contains suttas concerning
pairs of things (e.g., a sutta about tranquillity and insight; another about the two
people one can never adequately repay (one’s parents); another about two kinds of
happiness; etc.); the third nipata contains suttas concerning three things (e.g., a
sutta on the three kinds of praiseworthy acts; another about three kinds of offense),
and so on. For more detail see, [Link]
[21]Available at [Link]
by-buddhist-angauttara-nikaya-16-names/5706, visited on 09.11.2016.
[22]Available at [Link]
monarchies-and-republics-during-the-post-vedic-period/569, visited on 09.11.2016.
[23] Chanakya is also known by the name of Kautilya and Vishnugupta. Rishi Canak
named his son as “Chanakya”. He was an Indian teacher, philosopher, economist,
jurist and royal advisor. He assisted the first Mauryan emperor Chandragupta in his
rise to power. He is widely credited for having played an important role in the
establishment of the Maurya Empire. Chanakya served as the chief advisor to both
Emperors Chandragupta and his son Bindusara.
[24] For more detail see at, Myneni S. R. “Indian History for pre law first
year” Allahabad Law Agency, Faridabad (Haryana) 2006, p.93.
[25]For more detail see at, [Link]
strategic-thinking-a-reflection-of-kautilyas-six-fold-policy-analysis/ visited on 29.12.
2016.
[26] Available at,
[Link] visited on
12.01.2017.
[27] For more detail see at, [Link]
[Link], visited on 11.01.2017.
 

[28] Rigveda, 1500 – 1100 BCE, Samaveda, 1500 – 500 BCE, Yajurveda, 1500 – 500
BCE, Atharvaveda 1500 – 500 BCEUpanishads, 1200 – 500 BCE,Mahabharata, 400
BCE – 400 CE, Bhagavad Gita, 400 BCE – 300 CE, Ramayana, 400 BCE – 400 CE,
Samkhya Sutra, Mimamsa Sutra, 300-200 BCE.
[29] Nyaya Sutra, 2nd century BCE, Vaiseshika Sutra, 2nd century BCE, Yoga Sutras of
Patanjali, 100 BCE – 500 CE, Brahma Sutra, Puranas, 3rd – 16th century CE, Shiva
Sutras, 8th century CE, Abhinavabharati, 950 – 1020 CEYoga Vasistha, 10th – 14th
century CE
[30] Available at [Link] visited on 11.01.2017.
[31]Manusmriti the Laws of Manu, Available
at [Link] visited
on 15.01.2017.
[32] Ibid
[33]For more detail see, [Link]
origin-of-state-in-ancient-india/40149/ visited on 12.02.2017.
[34] For more detail see, [Link] visited on 13.02.2017.
[35] For more detail see,
[Link]
visited on 10.02.2017
[36]Available at [Link]
in-ancient-india/ visited on 10.02.2017
[37] In the Vedic literature and other ancient texts, sage Brihaspati is also called by
other names such as Brahmanaspati, Purohita, Angirasa (son of Angiras) and Vyasa;
he is sometimes identified with god Agni (fire). His wife is Tara (or goddess who
personifies the stars in the sky).
[38] Bhrigu. Maharishi Bhrigu was one of the seven great sages, the Saptarshis, one
of the many Prajapatis, created by Brahma, the first compiler of predictive astrology,
and also the author of Bhrigu Samhita, the astrological (Jyotish) classic.
[39] Yajnavalkya is a revered Vedic sage of Hinduism. He is mentioned in the oldest
Upanishadic scriptures, and likely lived in Videha kingdom of northern Bihar around
the 8th century BCE, or 7th century.
[40] The Mitākṣarā is a vivṛti (legal commentary) on the Yajnavalkya Smriti best
known for its theory of “inheritance by birth.” It was written by Vijñāneśvara, a
scholar in the Western Chalukya court in the late eleventh and early twelfth century.
[41] Available at [Link]
dandaneethi-dharma-and-raja-dharma/40148/ , visited on 12.02.2017.
[42] [Link]
[43] For more detail see at, [Link]
visited on 16.02.2017.
[44] For more detail see at, [Link]
[Link], visited on 16.02.2017.
[45]For more detail see at,
[Link] visited on
17.02.2017.
[46] Available at [Link] visited on
13.022017.
[47] Available at [Link] visited on 13.022017.
[48] For more detail see at [Link] visited on
13.022017.
[49]Available at, [Link]
[Link], visited on 20.02.2017
[50]For detail see on, [Link] visited on
20.02.2017.
[51] For detail see on, [Link]
visited on 20.02.2017.
[52] For more detail see on, [Link]
sultunate/[Link], visited on 11.02.2017.
 

[53] [Link]
[54] [Link]
[55]For more detail see on [Link]
alauddin-khalji/ visited on 13.02.2017.
[56] Available at, [Link]
[Link], visited on 22.02.2017
[57] Ibid
[58]Available at [Link]
visited on 13.02.2017.
[59] Available at
[Link]
13.02.2017.
[60] Available at [Link]
14.02.2017.
[61] Ibid.
[62] For detail at [Link]
central-government-during-the-delhi-sultanate-period/3050visited on 14.02.2017.
[63]Available at, [Link]
suri/visited on 13.02.2017.
[64] For detail see [Link]
akbar, visited on 14.02.2017.
[65] For more detail see at [Link]
Akbar, visited 14.02.2017.
[66]For more detail see at [Link]
india/administration-system-in-the-different-periods-of-indian-history/678, visited on
14.02/2017
[67] For more detail see at
[Link]
visited on 01.02/2017
[68] For more detail see at [Link]
akbar/ visited on 02.02/2017
 

[69]For more details see

at, [Link] visited on
10.02.2017
[70]
[71] For more detail see at [Link]
%20material/T.Y.B.A.%20History%20
Paper%20-%20IV%20-%20Medival%20India%20(1000%20-%201707%20A.D.)
%20(Eng).pdf visited on 02.02.2017

[72] Ibid
[73]For more detail see at [Link]
visited on 13.02.2017.
[74] For more detail see
at [Link] visited
15.02.2017
[75] Ibid.
[76] For details see at, [Link]
pratha-the-burning-of-widows/,visited on 17.02.2017.
[77] For details see at, [Link] on
17.02.2017.
[78] For more details see at, [Link] visited on
17.02.2017.
[79] For more detail see at, [Link]
[Link], visited on 17.02.2017.
[80] For more detail see at, [Link]
paragraph-on-untouchability-in-india/250, visited on 17.02.2017.
[81] For more details see on, [Link] visited
17.02.2017.
[82] For more see at, [Link]
of-untouchables-religious-social-economic-and-political-disabilities/47438/, visited
on 17.02.2017.