MODULE III

Theory of Salient pole machine – Blondel’s two

reaction theory, phasor diagram, Slip test
Parallel operation of Alternators – necessity,
methods of synchronization
Effect of changing excitation of Alternators,
load sharing of two Alternators in parallel
 Blondel’s two reaction theory
- In a cylindrical rotor machine, air gap is uniform & therefore air gap
reactance (reluctance) remains same irrespective of rotor position
- The effect of armature reaction, fluxes & voltage induced can
therefore be treated in a simple way with concept of synchronous
reactance. It is taken as constant for all positions of field poles
- In a salient pole machine, the air gap is not uniform & therefore
reactance (reluctance) of air gap is not a constant.
- It has a minimum value along the pole axis &
a maximum value along the axis midway
between the poles
- The pole axis is called direct axis & axis midway
between the poles is called quadrature axis
- Due to non uniformity in the air gap
reluctance, the armature mmf is divided into
two components namely direct axis
component & quadrature axis component
- Since armature mmf has two components, the armature reaction has
also two components
- i.e, Direct axis armature reaction reactance (Xad) & Quadrature axis
armature reaction reactance (Xaq)
- Similarly armature current has also two components Id & Iq
- Synchronous reactance also has two components Xd & Xq
- Assume that the armature leakage reactance (XL) be constant along
both axis
- Direct axis synchronous reactance, Xd = Xad + XL
Quadrature axis synchronous reactance, Xq = Xaq + XL
- The per phase phasor diagram of a salient pole machine based on
two reactance concept is given below. Here the armature resistance
is neglected since it is very
small.
- The voltage equation is
E0 = V + IdXd + IqXq
- In a salient pole machine,
Xq = 0.6 to 0.7 times Xd
whereas in cylindrical rotor
machine, Xd = Xq
- Angle δ is called power angle
or torque angle
- From phasor diagram, Id = I Sin(δ+φ) ….. (1)
Iq = I Cos(δ+φ) ….. (2)
E0 = V Cosδ + IdXd ….. (3)
IqXq = V Sinδ ….. (4)
(3) => I d = E0 − VCosδ ….. (5)
Xd
VSinδ
(4) => Iq = ….. (6)
Xq
Power developed in a Salient pole Synchronous Generator
- The per phase power output of an Alternator is given by,
Pout = VICosφ
ICosφ = IdSinδ + IqCosδ (proof given as note)
i.e, Pout = V(IdSinδ + IqCosδ) ….. (7)
Substituting (5) & (6) in (7),
 E0 − VCosδ VSinδ  E0V 
2 SinδCosδ SinδCosδ 
Pout = V  Sinδ + Cosδ  = Sinδ + V  − 
 X d X q  X d  X q X d 
E0V V 2 Sin2δ  1 1 
Pout = Sinδ +  −  ….. (8)
Xd 2  q
X X d 

- Equation (8) gives power developed per phase. Total power
developed is three times per phase power.
- In a non-salient pole machine, Xd = Xq
E0V
∴ Pout = Sinδ
Xd
- The second term in equation (8) introduces the effect of salient poles.
This term represents reluctance power or power due to saliency (The
power obtained with zero excitation is called reluctance power)
Expression for load angle δ
- Substituting equation (2) in (4),
VSinδ = IX q Cos (δ + φ ) = IX q (Cosδ Cosφ − Sinδ Sinφ )
i.e, V = IX q (Cotδ Cosφ − Sinφ )
V + IX q Sinφ
Cotδ =
IX q Cosφ
IX q Cosφ
Tanδ = ….. (9)
V + IX q Sinφ
 Determination of % voltage regulation of a Salient pole Alternator
Step 1 – Determine Xd & Xq by conducting slip test
Step 2 – Determine V, I & φ value from given data
Step 3 – Determine load angle δ using (9)
Step 4 – Determine E0 by using equation (3)
Step 5 – Now find % regulation by using the equation
E0 − V
% Re gulation = *100%
V

Determination of Xd & Xq - Slip Test

- Xd & Xq can be determined by applying a balanced reduced external
AC voltage to an unexcited machine at running at a speed slightly less
than synchronous speed (slip < 1%)
- Applied voltage to armature, armature current & induced voltage in
field winding are measured by connecting voltmeters & ammeter
- Connection diagram is shown in figure
- Due to voltage applied to armature terminals, a current flows through
armature & a rotating magnetic field is produced in armature which
rotates at synchronous speed
- When field rotates, it will cut flux
lines & EMF induces across field
winding
- The voltmeter & ammeter connected in armature circuit show an
oscillation from a maximum value to
minimum value
- Adjust the speed of Alternator, so
that the meter shows an oscillation
with maximum amplitude
- Note down the maximum & minimum values of oscillation in voltmeter
& ammeter
Maximum Voltage Minimum Voltage
- Now, X d = Minimum Current & Xq =
Maximum Current
[When stator poles & rotor poles (d-axis) coincide, reluctance is
minimum, reactance is maximum. So armature draws minimum
current to maintain flux in the airgap. When stator poles coincide with
q-axis, reluctance is maximum, reactance is minimum. So armature
draws maximum current]
 Power Angle Characteristics
- The power output is given by
E0V V 2 Sin 2δ  1 1 
Pout = Sinδ +  − 
Xd 2  X q X d 
- Total power output = Excitation
power + Reluctance power
- The power angle characteristics is
shown in figure
- It is clear that reluctance power varies with δ at twice the rate of the
excitation power.
Parallel operation of Alternators
- In power stations, electrical power is generated by Alternators
(normally) & Alternators in different power stations are connected in
parallel to the national grid
- The total capacity of national grid is very high (thousands of MW)
compared to the capacity of a single Alternator connected to it
- Therefore the performance of a single Alternator may not affect the
voltage & frequency of the whole system
- An Alternator connected to such a system is said to be connected to
infinite busbars
- The method of connecting an incoming Alternator safely to busbar is
called synchronizing
- A typical infinite bus system is shown in figure
 Advantages of parallel operation of Alternators
1. Continuity of service - The continuity of service is one of the
important requirements of any electrical system. If one alternator
fails, the continuity of supply can be maintained through the other
healthy units. This will ensure uninterrupted supply to the consumers.
2. Efficiency - Alternators give maximum efficiency when delivering full-
load power output. The load on the power system varies during the
whole day, being maximum during peak hours (6 pm to 10 pm) &
minimum during off peak hours (10 pm to 6 am). So to get maximum
efficiency, units can be added or put off depending upon the load
requirement. This permits the efficient operation of the power
system.
3. Maintenance & repair – Alternators require routine maintenance &
repair. During maintenance & repair, continuity of supply can be
ensured from other units
4. Load growth – The load demand is increasing day by day due to the
increased use of electrical power. The load growth can be met by
adding more units in parallel, without disturbing the original
installation.
 Conditions for paralleling an Alternator to infinite bus bar
- The method of connecting an incoming Alternator safely to busbar is
called synchronizing
- For synchronizing an Alternator to an infinite busbar, the following
conditions are to be satisfied
1. The terminal voltage (r.m.s. value) of the incoming alternator must
be the same as busbars voltage.
2. The frequency of the generated voltage of the incoming alternator
must be equal to the busbars frequency.
3. The phase of the incoming alternator voltage must be identical with
the phase of the busbars voltage. In other words, the two voltages
must be in phase with each other.
4. The phase sequence (RYB or RBY) of the voltage of the incoming
alternator should be the same as that of the busbars.
- The condition 1 is indicated by a voltmeter, conditions 2&3 are
indicated by a synchronizing lamp arrangement or a synchroscope. The
condition 4 is indicated by a phase sequence indicator
 Methods of synchronization
- The equality of voltage between incoming Alternator & busbar can be
checked by using a voltmeter. If they are different, then terminal
voltage of Alternator is made equal to busbar voltage by varying its
field excitation
- The phase sequence of the alternator & the busbars can be checked by
a phase sequence indicator. If they are different, change phase
sequence of Alternator so that both are having same phase sequence
- The difference in frequency & phase of the voltages of the incoming
alternator & busbars can be checked by one of the following two
methods:
(i) By using a synchronizing Lamp arrangement
(ii) By using a synchroscope
(i) By using a synchronizing Lamp arrangement
- There are 2 type of synchronizing lamp arrangement
1. 3 dark lamp method or dark lamp method
2. 2 bright & 1 dark lamp method or bright lamp method
1. Three dark lamp method
- Figure shows the connection of lamps
for dark lamp method
- The prime mover of incoming
Alternator is started and brought up
close to rated speed
- The Alternator is then excited and its
voltage is raised to bus bar voltage by
increasing the excitation
- Now the lamps are watched closely. If
the incoming Alternator is properly
connected, all the three lamps should
become bright and dim together.
- If they bright and dim in sequence, it shows that the
incoming Alternator is not properly connected and phase sequence of
incoming Alternator must be reversed for synchronization
- The speed of the prime mover of incoming machine is further
adjusted until the lamps flicker at a very low rate (less than one dark
period per second)
- The voltage of incoming machine is again adjusted and the paralleling
switch is closed at the instant all the three lamps are dark
Disadvantage of this method
- The lamps go dark at somewhat less than half their rated voltage and
so the paralleling switch might be closed when there is a considerable
voltage exists across the switch & this may damage the machines.
- Another disadvantage is that the lamp filaments might burn out.
- Third disadvantage is that the flicker of lamps does not indicate
whether the incoming machine is slow or fast
- These difficulties are eliminated in two bright and one dark lamp
method.
2. Two bright & one dark lamp
method
- Figure shows the connection of lamps
for 2 bright & 1 dark lamp method
- Here when the incoming Alternator is
in synchronism with bus bar, lamps L1
and L3 are bright and L2 is dark
- When the three lamps are placed in a
ring, a light wave travelling in counter
clockwise direction indicates that the
incoming machine is slow and light wave
travelling in clockwise direction indicates
that the incoming machine is fast
- So by observing the sequence of brightness of lamps,
it can be determined whether incoming machine is fast or slow
- The paralleling switch is closed when the change in light are slow and
at the instant the lamp connected directly across one phase is dark
ii) By using a synchroscope
- If the phase sequence is
known to be correct, the best
method of synchronization is
by means of a Synchroscope.
- The synchroscope is an
instrument for indicating
difference of phase and
frequency between two
voltages
- It is essentially a split phase
motor which produces a torque when there is difference in frequency
between the voltages in two phase windings
- Voltages from corresponding phases of the incoming Alternator & bus bar are
applied to synchroscope.
- A pointer, which is attached to the rotating part of the instrument moves
over a dial in either a clockwise or counter clockwise direction, depending on
whether the incoming machine is fast or slow
- When the frequencies of the two Alternators are equal, no torque is exerted
on the rotating part of the instrument & so the pointer stops
- When the pointer stops in vertical position, the frequencies are equal, the
voltages are in phase, & the paralleling switch may be closed.
 Synchronizing action
- Once an Alternator is put in synchronism with another Alternator or
bus bar, after that the system will maintain the synchronism even if
one of the Alternator tries to fall out of synchronism
- Consider two Alternators connected in parallel as shown in figure
- Before connecting them in parallel, E1 = E2 in magnitude & they are in
phase
- After synchronizing, they are having same magnitude but they
oppose each other
a) Effect of change in speed
- Suppose due to any reason, speed of Alternator 2
decreases
- Now E2 falls back by α◦ & there exists a resultant
voltage Er
- Er will circulate a current between Alternator 1
& Alternator 2, this current is called
Synchronizing current (Isy)
Er Er
- I sy = ≅ (Ra is very small)
2Z s 2 X s
- From above equation it is clear that Isy lags
behind Er by θ ≈ 90◦
- From phasor diagram, Isy is almost in phase with E1 & out of phase
with E2
- Therefore, Alternator 1 is generating & Alternator 2 is motoring
- Now due to motoring action, speed of Alternator 2 will increase to
maintain synchronism
b) Effect of change in voltage
- Suppose due to any reason, EMF of Alternator 2
(E2) decreases
- Now there exists a resultant voltage Er
- This Er causes a current Isy to circulate between
Alternator 1 & Alternator 2
- Isy lags Er by 90◦
- Also, Isy lags E1 by 90 ◦ & leads E2 by 90 ◦
- Therefore, Isy causes a demagnetizing armature
reaction in Alternator 1 & magnetizing armature reaction in
Alternator 2
- As a result, terminal voltage of Alternator 1 decreases & terminal
voltage of Alternator 2 increases to maintain the synchronism
 Synchronizing power
- Consider two Alternators connected in parallel
- Suppose due to any reason, speed or EMF produced by Alternator 2
decreases
- Now a resultant voltage Er exists between the terminals of two
Alternators & this causes a synchronizing current Isy
- Isy flows from Alternator 1 to Alternator 2
- The power supplied by Alternator 1 to maintain Alternator 2 in
synchronism is called Synchronizing power
- Psy = E1 Isy Cosφ
= E1 Isy …. (1) (Since φ = α, which is very small, Cos α ≈ 1)
E1 = E2 = E …. (2)
Isy = Er/(2Xs) …. (3)
Er = E12 + E22 + 2 E1 E2Cos (180 − α ) = E 2 + E 2 + 2 E 2Cos (180 − α )
 180 − α  α α
= 2 E 2 (1 + Cos (180 − α )) = 2 E 2 2Cos 2   = 2 E Cos (90 − ) = 2 E Sin
 2  2 2
 α α …. (4) (Since α is very small, Sin(α/2) =
i.e, Er = 2 E Sin = 2E = αE
2 2 α/2)
Sub (4) in (3) => Isy = αE/(2Xs) …. (5)
αE 2
Sub (2) & (4) in (1) => Psy = …. (6)
2X s

Equation (6) gives per phase synchronizing power.

Three phase Synchronizing power = 3 Psy

Synchronizing Torque
3 phase synchronizing power, 3Psy = 2πN sTsy
60

3Psy 60
Synchronizing torque, Tsy = 2πN s
 Load sharing between two Alternators in parallel
- Consider two identical alternators
connected in parallel
- Let E1, E2 = Induced EMFs per phase
Z1, Z2 = Synchronous impedance per
phase
Z = load impedance per phase
I1, I2 = current supplied by two
Alternators
V = terminal voltage per phase
from figure, V = E1 – I1Z1 = E2 – I2Z2
E1 − V1 E2 − V2
I1 = , I2 =
Z1 Z2
E1 − V1 E2 − V2
I = I1 + I 2 = +
Z1 Z2
- V = (I1+I2)Z = IZ
 Alternator on infinite busbars
When an Alternator is synchronised to an infinite busbar,
• Any change in operating conditions of Alternator will not change the
terminal voltage & frequency of system
• Any change (increase/decrease) in mechanical power input to
Alternator cause a change in the kW output of the Alternator
• Any change (increase/decrease) in excitation of Alternator causes a
change in kVAR output of the Alternator
Effect of change of excitation of an Alternator
- Consider two Alternators connected in parallel
- Assume that they are identical &
shares one half of active (kW) &
reactive (kVAR) power
- Now power factor of Alternators
being same as load power factor
(Cosφ)
- Now let excitation of Alternator 1 increased, so that E1>E2
- It results in a resultant voltage & causes a circulating current (Isy)
- When excitation of an Alternator increases, its terminal voltage
increases, the power factor deceases. i.e, it delivers a current that is
more lagging the voltage
- This lagging current causes a demagnetizing armature reaction &
effect of increase in excitation (over excitation) is cancelled
- i.e, Power factor of Alternator 1 decreases (φ increases to φ1).
- Since mechanical power input to the Alternators remain same, kW
shared by Alternators remain same.
But kVAR shared by Alternator
changes as shown in figure
- Similarly if excitation is reduced
(under excitation), terminal voltage
decreases
- Now the Alternator delivers a leading current, so that it causes a
magnetizing armature reaction & effect of under excitation is cancelled