Prenatal Development (p.

76) syndrome (p-FAS) and alcohol-related neurodevelopmental

disorder (ARND)—affect children whose mothers
3.1 List the three periods of prenatal development, and consumed smaller quantities of alcohol.
describe the major milestones of each.
■ Prenatal exposure to high levels of ionizing radiation,
■ The germinal period lasts about two weeks, from mercury, PCBs, lead, and dioxins leads to physical
fertilization through implantation of the multicelled malformations and severe brain damage. Low-level
blastocyst in the uterine lining. Structures that will support exposure has been linked to cognitive deficits and emotional
prenatal growth begin to form, including the placenta and and behavioral disorders. Persistent air pollution is
the umbilical cord. associated with low birth weight and impaired lung and
■ During the period of the embryo, weeks 2 through 8, the immune-system functioning.
foundations for all body structures are laid down. The neural ■ Among infectious diseases, rubella causes wideranging
tube forms and the nervous system starts to develop. Other abnormalities. Babies with prenatally transmitted HIV
organs follow rapidly. By the end of this period, the embryo rapidly develop AIDS, leading to brain damage and early
responds to touch and can move. death. Antiretroviral drug therapy dramatically reduces
■ The period of the fetus, lasting until the end of pregnancy, prenatal transmission. Cytomegalovirus, herpes simplex 2,
involves dramatic increase in body size and completion of and toxoplasmosis can also be devastating to the embryo
physical structures. High fetal activity in the middle of the and fetus.
second trimester strengthens joints and muscles. At the end
The term teratogen refers to any environmental agent
of the second trimester, most of the brain’s neurons are in
place. that causes damage during the prenatal period.
Scientists chose this label (from the Greek word teras,
■ The fetus reaches the age of viability at the beginning of meaning “malformation” or “monstrosity”) because
the third trimester, between 22 and 26 weeks. The brain
they first learned about harmful prenatal influences
continues to develop rapidly, and new sensory and
behavioral capacities emerge, including taste and odor from cases in which babies had been profoundly
preferences, pain sensitivity, and the ability to distinguish damaged. But the harm done by teratogens is not
the tone and rhythm of different voices and sounds. always straightforward. It depends on the following
Gradually the lungs mature, the fetus fills the uterus, and factors:
birth is near.
● Dose. As we discuss particular teratogens, you will
Prenatal Environmental Influences (p. 81)
see that larger doses over longer time periods usually
3.2 Cite factors that influence the impact of teratogens, have more negative effects.
and discuss evidence on the impact of known or suspected
teratogens. ● Heredity. The genetic makeup of the mother and
the developing organism plays an important role.
■ The impact of teratogens varies with amount and length
Some individuals are better able than others to
of exposure, genetic makeup of mother and fetus, presence
of other harmful agents, and age of the organism. The withstand harmful environments.
developing organism is especially vulnerable during the
● Other negative influences. The presence of several
embryonic period.
negative factors at once, such as additional
■ The most widely used potent teratogen is isotretinoin, a teratogens, poor nutrition, and lack of medical care,
drug used to treat severe acne. The prenatal impact of other can worsen the impact of a harmful agent.
commonly used medications, such as aspirin and caffeine, is
hard to separate from other correlated factors. ● Age. The effects of teratogens vary with the age of
■ Babies born to users of cocaine, heroin, or methadone are the organism at time of exposure. To understand this
at risk for a wide variety of problems, including prematurity, last idea, think of the sensitive period concept
low birth weight, brain abnormalities, physical defects, introduced in Chapter 1. A sensitive period is a limited
breathing difficulties, and infant death around the time of time span in which a part of the body or a behavior is
birth. However, negative effects of cocaine are not well- biologically prepared to develop rapidly. During that
established.
time, it is especially sensitive to its surroundings. If the
■ Infants whose parents use tobacco are often environment is harmful, then damage
born underweight, may have physical defects, and are at risk
for long-term attention, learning, and behavior problems. 3.3 Describe the impact of additional maternal factors on
Maternal alcohol consumption can lead to fetal alcohol prenatal development.
spectrum disorder (FASD). Fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS), ■ Exercise during pregnancy is linked to improved fetal
resulting from heavy drinking throughout pregnancy, cardiovascular functioning and reduction in risk of
involves slow physical growth, facial abnormalities, and pregnancy complications.
mental impairments. Milder forms—partial fetal alcohol
 ■ Prenatal malnutrition can lead to low birth weight, Medical Interventions (p. 96)
damage to the brain and other organs, and suppression of
immune system development. Vitamin–mineral 3.7 List common medical interventions during childbirth,
supplementation, including folic acid, can prevent prenatal circumstances that justify their use, and any dangers
and birth complications. associated with each.

■ Severe emotional stress is linked to pregnancy ■ Fetal monitors help save the lives of many babies at risk
complications and may permanently alter fetal neurological for anoxia because of pregnancy and birth complications.
functioning, resulting in impaired capacity to manage stress When used routinely, however, they may identify infants as
and susceptibility to later illness. Stress-related prenatal in danger who, in fact, are not.
consequences can be reduced by providing the mother with ■ Use of analgesics and anesthetics to control pain, though
social support. Rh factor incompatibility— an Rh-positive necessary in complicated deliveries, can prolong labor and
fetus developing within an Rh-negative mother—can lead to may have negative effects on newborn adjustment.
oxygen deprivation, brain and heart damage, and infant
death ■ Cesarean delivery is warranted by medical emergency or
serious maternal illness and for many babies who are in
. ■ Older mothers face increased risk of miscarriage, babies breech position. However, many unnecessary cesareans are
with chromosomal defects, and, after age 40, a rise in other performed.
pregnancy complications. Poor health and environmental
risks associated with poverty explain higher rates of Preterm and Low-Birth-Weight Infants (p. 97
pregnancy complications in adolescent mothers.
3.8 Describe risks associated with preterm birth and low
3.4 Why is early and regular health care vital during the birth weight, along with effective interventions.
prenatal period?
■ Low birth weight, most common in infants born to
■ Unexpected difficulties, such as preeclampsia, can arise, poverty-stricken women, is a major cause of neonatal and
especially when pregnant women have pre-existing health infant mortality and developmental problems. Compared
problems. Prenatal health care is especially crucial for with preterm infants, whose weight is appropriate for time
women least likely to seek it, particularly those who are spent in the uterus, small-for-date infants usually have
young, less-educated, and low-income. longer-lasting difficulties.

Childbirth (p. 92) ■ Some interventions provide special infant stimulation in

the intensive care nursery. Others teach parents how to care
3.5 Describe the three stages of childbirth, the baby’s for and interact with their babies. Preterm infants in stressed,
adaptation to labor and delivery, and the newborn baby’s lowincome households need long-term, intensive
appearance. intervention
■ In the first stage, contractions widen and thin the cervix. The Newborn Baby’s Capacities (p. 101)
In the second stage, the mother feels an urge to push the
baby through the birth canal. In the final stage, the placenta 3.9 Describe the newborn baby’s reflexes and states of
is delivered. During labor, infants produce high levels of arousal, noting sleep characteristics and ways to soothe a
stress hormones, which help them withstand oxygen crying baby.
deprivation, clear the lungs for breathing, and arouse them
■■ Reflexes are the newborn baby’s most obvious organized
into alertness at birth.
patterns of behavior. Some have survival value, others help
■ Newborn babies have large heads, small bodies, and parents and infants establish gratifying interaction, and a
facial features that make adults feel like cuddling them. The few provide the foundation for complex motor skills.
Apgar Scale assesses the baby’s physical condition at birth. ■■ Newborns experience five states of arousal but spend
most of their time asleep. Sleep includes at least two states,
Approaches to Childbirth (p. 95) rapid-eye-movement (REM) sleep and non-rapid-eye-
3.6 Describe natural childbirth and home delivery, noting movement (NREM) sleep. Newborns spend about 50
benefits and concerns associated with each. percent of sleep time in REM sleep, which provides them
with stimulation essential for central nervous system
■ In natural, or prepared, childbirth, the expectant mother development.
and a companion attend classes about labor and delivery, ■■ A crying baby stimulates strong feelings of discomfort in
master relaxation and breathing techniques to counteract nearby adults. Once feeding and diaper changing have been
pain, and prepare for coaching during childbirth. Social tried, a highly effective soothing technique is lifting the
support from a doula reduces the length of labor and the baby to the shoulder and rocking or walking. Extensive
incidence of birth complications and enhances newborn parent–infant physical contact substantially reduces crying
adjustment. in the early months. 3.10 Describe the newborn baby’s
sensory capacities.
■ Home birth is safe for healthy mothers who are assisted ■■ The senses of touch, taste, smell, and sound are well-
by a well-trained doctor or midwife, but mothers at risk for developed at birth. Newborns use touch to investigate their
complications are safer giving birth in a hospital. world, are sensitive to pain, prefer sweet tastes and smells,
and orient toward the odor of their own mother’s lactating 3. touch sensitivity extends to most of the body,
breast. and
■■ Newborns can distinguish a variety of sound patterns
4. new behavioral capacities (kicking, thumb
and prefer complex sounds. They are especially responsive
to human speech, can detect the sounds of any human sucking, mouth opening, and rehearsal of breathing)
language, and prefer their mother’s voice. appear.
■■ Vision is the least developed of the newborn’s senses. At 5. External genitals are well-formed, and the
birth, focusing ability and visual acuity are limited. In fetus’s sex is evident
exploring the visual field, newborn babies are attracted to
bright objects but have difficulty discriminating colors. 3.11 2nd Trimester : B FEV LS
Why is neonatal behavioral assessment useful?
■■ The most widely used instrument for assessing the 1. The fetus continues to enlarge rapidly.
newborn infant’s behavior, Brazelton’s Neonatal Behavioral 2. In the middle of this period, the mother can
Assessment Scale (NBAS), has helped researchers feel fetal movements.
understand individual and cultural differences in newborn 3. Vernix and lanugo keep the fetus’s skin from
behavior. Sometimes it is used to teach parents about their
chapping in the amniotic fluid.
baby’s capacities
Adjusting to the New Family Unit (p. 111) 4. Most of the brain’s neurons are in place by
24 weeks.
3.12 Describe typical changes in the family after the birth 5. Eyes are sensitive to light,
of a baby.
6. the fetus reacts to sound.
■■ The new baby’s arrival is exciting but stressful, as the
mother recuperates from childbirth and the family schedule 3rd Trimester : SSL FAUR
becomes irregular and uncertain. When parents have a
positive relationship as well as social support and adequate
1. The fetus has a good chance of survival if born
income, adjustment problems are usually temporary. during this time (age of vitality).
2. Size increases.
Revision Notes:
3. Lungs mature.
Zygote 4. Rapid brain development, in neural
connectivity and organization, enables sensory and
1. The one-celled zygote multiplies and behavioral capacities to expand.
forms a blastocyst. 5. In the middle of this period, a layer of fat is
2. The blastocyst burrows into the uterine added under the skin.
lining. Structures that feed and protect the developing 6. Antibodies are transmitted from mother to
organism begin to form— AC Y PU fetus to protect against disease.
1. amnion, 7. Most fetuses rotate into an upside-down
2. chorion, position in preparation for birth.
3. yolk sac,
4. placenta, and
5. umbilical cord

Embryo

1 B&S 2 HMR BD 3 E/I 4 P/M 5 Touch 6 Move

1. A primitive brain and spinal cord appear.

2. Heart, muscles, ribs, backbone, and digestive
tract begin to develop.
3. Many external body structures (face, arms,
legs, toes, fingers) and internal organs form, and
4. production and migration of neurons in the
brain begin.
5. The sense of touch starts to develop,
6. the embryo can move.
Fetus : S E N NT
1. Rapid increase in size begins.
2. Nervous system, organs, and muscles
become organized and connected,