8-2.

TYPES OF AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHS

Aerial photography most commonly used by military personnel may be divided into two
major types, the vertical and the oblique. Each type depends upon the attitude of the camera
with respect to the earth's surface when the photograph is taken.

a.   Vertical. A vertical photograph is taken with the camera pointed as straight down
as possible (Figures 8-1 and 8-2). Allowable tolerance is usually + 3° from the
perpendicular (plumb) line to the camera axis. The result is coincident with the
camera axis. A vertical photograph has the following characteristics:

(1)   The lens axis is perpendicular to the surface of the earth.

(2)   It covers a relatively small area.

(3)   The shape of the ground area covered on a single vertical photo closely
approximates a square or rectangle.

(4)   Being a view from above, it gives an unfamiliar view of the ground.

(5)   Distance and directions may approach the accuracy of maps if taken over
flat terrain.

(6)   Relief is not readily apparent.

Figure 8-1. Relationship of the vertical aerial photograph with the ground.

 
 Figure 8-2. Vertical photograph.

a.   Low Oblique. This is a photograph taken with the camera inclined about 30° from
the vertical (Figure 8-3, and Figure 8-4). It is used to study an area before an attack, to
substitute for a reconnaissance, to substitute for a map, or to supplement a map. A low
oblique has the following characteristics:

(1)   It covers a relatively small area.

(2)   The ground area covered is a trapezoid, although the photo is square or
rectangular.

(3)   The objects have a more familiar view, comparable to viewing from the
top of a high hill or tall building.

(4)   No scale is applicable to the entire photograph, and distance cannot be

measured. Parallel lines on the ground are not parallel on this photograph;
therefore, direction (azimuth) cannot be measured.

(5)   Relief is discernible but distorted.

(6)   It does not show the horizon.

 Figure 8-3. Relationship of low oblique photograph to the ground.

Figure 8-4. Low oblique photograph.

 c.   High Oblique. The high oblique is a photograph taken with the camera inclined
about 60° from the vertical (Figures 8-5 and 8-6). It has a limited military application;
it is used primarily in the making of aeronautical charts. However, it may be the only
photography available. A high oblique has the following characteristics:

(1)   It covers a very large area (not all usable).

(2)   The ground area covered is a trapezoid, but the photograph is square or
rectangular.

(3)   The view varies from the very familiar to unfamiliar, depending on the
height at which the photograph is taken.

(4)   Distances and directions are not measured on this photograph for the
same reasons that they are not measured on the low oblique.

(5)   Relief may be quite discernible but distorted as in any oblique view. The
relief is not apparent in a high altitude, high oblique.

(6)   The horizon is always visible.

Figure 8-5. Relationship of high oblique photograph to the ground.

 
 Figure 8-6. High oblique photograph.

d.   Trimetrogon. This is an assemblage of three photographs taken at the same time,

one vertical and two high obliques, in a direction at right angle to the line of flight.
The obliques, taken at an angle of 60° from the vertical, sidelap the vertical
photography, producing composites from horizon to horizon (Figure 8-7).

Figure 8-7. Relationship of cameras to ground for trimetrogon photography (three

cameras).

e.   Multiple Lens Photography. These are composite photographs taken with one
camera having two or more lenses, or by two or more cameras. The photographs are
combinations of two, four, or eight obliques around a vertical. The obliques are
rectified to permit assembly as verticals on a common plane.

f.   Convergent Photography. These are done with a single twin-lens, wide-angle

camera, or with two single-lens, wide-angle cameras coupled rigidly in the same
 mount so that each camera axis converges when intentionally tilted a prescribed
amount (usually 15 or 20°) from the vertical. Again, the cameras are exposed at the
same time. For precision mapping, the optical axes of the cameras are parallel to the
line of flight, and for reconnaissance photography, the camera axes are at high angles
to the line of flight.

g.   Panoramic. The development and increasing use of panoramic photography in

aerial reconnaissance has resulted from the need to cover in greater detail more and
more areas of the world.

(1)   To cover the large areas involved, and to resolve the desired ground
detail, present-day reconnaissance systems must operate at extremely high-
resolution levels. Unfortunately, high-resolution levels and wide-angular
coverage are basically contradicting requirements.

(2)   A panoramic camera is a scanning type of camera that sweeps the terrain
of interest from side to side across the direction of flight. This permits the
panoramic camera to record a much wider area of ground than either frame or
strip cameras. As in the case of the frame cameras, continuous cover is
obtained by properly spaced exposures timed to give sufficient overlap
between frames. Panoramic cameras are most advantageous for applications
requiring the resolution of small ground detail from high altitudes.

8-3. TYPES OF FILM

Types of film generally used in aerial photography include panchromatic, infrared, and color.
Camouflage detection film is also available.

a.   Panchromatic. This is the same type of film that is used in the average hand-held
small camera. It records the amount of light reflected from objects in tones of gray
running from white to black. Most aerial photography is taken with panchromatic
film.

b.   Infrared. This is a black-and-white film that is sensitive to infrared waves. It can

be used to detect artificial camouflage materials and to take photographs at night if
there is a source of infrared radiation.

c.   Color. This film is the same as that used in the average hand-held camera. It is
limited in its use because of the time required to process it and its need for clear,
sunny weather.

d.   Camouflage Detection. This film is a special type that records natural vegetation
in a reddish color. When artificial camouflage materials are photographed, they
appear bluish or purplish. The name of this film indicates its primary use.
 Aerial Cameras

INTRODUCTION

The acquisition of good-quality imagery is central to the accuracy of photogrammetric mapping.  Three
issues impact on image quality: camera lens, photographic film, and optimum exposure of the film along
with the subsequent processing [Mark, et al, 1983].

AERIAL CAMERA

The aerial camera is an important and critical part of the photogrammetric process.  The camera records
the existence of phenomena at an instant in time.  For precision mapping, it is important that a number
of requirements be met [Bormann, 1969].  The aerial camera should:

 be of high optical lens quality to ensure that imagery is discernable,

 be capable of performing under extreme conditions found in the aircraft, such as

temperature and humidity,

 be simple to use during the photo mission,

 be equipped with safeguards to protect against operator blunders during the operation,

 be as automatic as possible,

 be able to preserve the elements of interior orientation so as to preserve the internal

geometric relationships existing within the camera, and

 be able to take a series of exposures or single photos with an instantaneous release of the
shutter.

 
A new demand being placed on the camera is the integration of positioning the location of the exposure
station using the global positioning system (GPS) and the integration of inertial measuring units to the
photogrammetric process.

The design of aerial cameras has significantly increased their accuracy and performance. Improvements
in lens design has been influenced by better manufacture of the lens elements, advances in applying the
anti-reflective coatings and advanced computer programs that optimize the design of the lenses
[Farrow, 1986]. Coupled with these items are better construction practices and quality control
procedures like testing.

Modern lenses are practically free of any lens distortion. It is now possible to find distortion values at
the 1μm to 2μm level or lower. In addition, the enhanced design has lead to improvements in the
resolution characteristics. Tests show that corner values of up to 40 lp mm-1 for a standard 230mm x
230mm format camera are possible. Finally, many of the camera lenses have extended their spectral
ranges to the infrared region thereby making the camera more universal in that both panchromatic and
infrared film can be used with the same camera system [Farrow, 1986].

A further development that has contributed to improved imagery is forward motion compensation
(FMC). This feature advances the film during the exposure to compensate for the forward motion of the
aircraft during the exposure. This is done by progressing the film-feed in the magazine. Theoretically,
the detail will be corrected for but this is only valid for truly vertical photography over flat terrain. Image
blurring will still occur due to [Farrow, 1986]:

            -    Geometric problems caused by the camera not being truly vertical,

            -    Residual vibrations that exist with camera mounting, and

            -    Lateral movement of the aircraft due to pitch and roll.

Different manufacturers accommodate fiducial mark imagery in diverse manners with FMC [Farrow,
1986]. Zeiss Jena, as an example, captures an image of the fiducials at the midpoint of the exposure
cycle. Zeiss Oberkochan, on the other hand, exposes the fiducial during the whole exposure resulting in
an elliptical image. The minor axis of this image is 100mm while the major axis is approximately 125mm.

While photogrammetrists have used imagery for years without FMC capabilities, the compensation of
forward motion has important economic advantages.  First, because the image is clearer, it should be
possible to use smaller scale mapping, provided that the aerial film can resolve the detail that needs to
be imaged on the film.  Smaller scale, particularly for larger projects, saves money in the mapping.  Even
if the same scale is used for mapping, there are still economic advantages of FMC, most notably in the
reduction of revising detail on the map that were hard to identify on the imagery [Mark et al, 1983].

STABILITY OF AERIAL CAMERA

Because of the large capital investment required for purchasing an aerial camera, it would be
beneficial to see if the interior orientation parameters change over time.  Hakkarainen [1984]
reported on tests performed by the ISPRS WG I/2[1]. The results are listed as follows:

 The calibrated focal length (CFL) remained stable over time.  Changes at the micrometer
level were noticed but these were about the same as the standard deviation from the
calibration of the CFL.
 The fiducial marks were found to be very stable.
 The mean radial lend distortion was also found to be stable.  Moreover, camera age did not
appear to be a factor.
 Changes in decentering distortion were noticed but their effect in a photogrammetric
solution was deemed to be insignificant.  The asymmetric distortions can be caused by
decentering distortion within the individual lens elements, tension between the lens
elements and camera cone, and some small residual effects from not having the focal plane
perpendicular to the optical axis.
 It was found that dismounting the camera or service did affect the CFL by over 15 m.

The recommendations for calibrations from this working group are:

a. After each accident or service, calibrate the camera.

b. For normal photogrammetric applications, a three-year calibration period is acceptable.

 
 DIGITAL AERIAL CAMERAS

A new trend in aerial cameras for photogrammetry is the development of digital cameras.  These are
really not new since digital imagery has been used for mapping for years.  What is new is the
development of cameras that claim to have the geometric accuracy comparable to existing film-
based cameras.  One significant problem remains.  It is not technically feasible at this time to have
one single area array that covers the entire 23 x 23 cm format of conventional aerial cameras.  Thus,
the two main mapping camera manufacturers have approached the problems in two distinctly
different manners.  Leica Geosystems use a linear array while Z/I-Imaging has looked at using a
package of area arrays to form the image.

Z/I-Imaging has introduced the Digital Modular Camera (DMC) system.  What is unique about this
system is the use of one to eight CCD area camera modules that can be mounted together in
different configurations.  This enables the user to acquire up to four high resolution panchromatic
images with the capability of adding up to four multispectral images with reduced resolution.  All
CCD cameras are mounted inside the optics frame.  Since the DMC camera is the same size as the
RMK-TOP analog camera, it will fit into the Zeiss gyro-stabilized platform.  A schematic diagram of
the component parts of the DMC are shown in figure 1.  Normally, airborne GPS is integrated with
the DMC system.  Additionally, the flight management system (FMS) is used to operate the camera
system.  Finally, an inertial measurement system can be installed in the camera frame [Hinz et al,
2001].

 
 

The electronics module provides the control for the DMC system.  It controls the camera module. 
Not only does it operate the camera shutters and collect the digital imagery, it also communicates
with the control unit.  The control unit is the heart of the electronics system.  It provides the
communications with the external components to the camera system, monitors data flow and sends
the captured imagery to the data storage RAID [Hinz et al, 2001].

CAMERA CALIBRATION

There are several different methods used in the calibration of aerial cameras.  They can be divided
into two main categories: component and system.  The component category can be divided into
three different methods of calibration: laboratory, field, and stellar calibration.

The system concept is unique in that it looks at the whole process.  For example, if a client wanted to
obtain a digital terrain model (DTM) over an area by photogrammetric means, the system approach
looks at the entire process.  In this example those phases of the project that would be evaluated
include defining the project scope of work, project planning, acquisition of ground control and
imagery, processing the imagery, measurements on the imagery, and post-processing of
measurements into the final deliverable to the client.  As one can see, the system approach involves
the integration of a myriad of steps involved in the creation of the final product.

Merchant [1982] shows how photogrammetric system calibration stems from Eisenhart’s
conceptualization.  As Merchant points out, Eisenhardt’s model involved the establishment of two
sequential phases

“-  the total operational measurement system is first defined in terms of equipment and operations,
each with allowable ranges.  The result is the ‘specification’ defining the measurement system.

 -  After the measurement system has been defined by specifications, it is exercised repeatedly and
results of its measurements are compared to a standard of higher accuracy.”

Merchant, 1982, p.179

What this means is that specifications are defined for each part of the process.  This forms the
benchmark upon which subsequent measurements will be made.

FILM

As digital imagery becomes more prevalent within the photogrammetric industry, professionals are
taking a harder look at the quality of the imagery. Film has a very unique property of high geometric
accuracy. This is due to the small grain size used to capture the image, generally in the range of tenths
of a micrometer [Diehl, 1992]. On the other hand, the radiometric quality is very poor on a grain-by-
grain analysis because an individual grain can only be black or white. No intermediate preys are
possible.

A scanned image has much different characteristics. Because the pixel is larger than the grain in a film,
usually 10 μm or larger, the geometric quality of the image is poorer. Yet, the radiometric quality is
much better because each cell can have different levels of gray values, from white to black. When
converting data, there is always a loss of quality. When scanning a photograph, the grain structure
within the film is the main contributor to the radiometric noise of the digital image. This is more
pronounced with smaller pixels [Diehl, 1992].

Film density (D) is defined as a logarithmic ratio of the transmitted to incident light. For example, a value
of D = 1.0 means that 10% of the incident light passes through the film [Diehl, 1992]. Granularity is
measured as the root mean square (RMS) error of the density. The ISO standard defines the standard
deviation (σD) of an uniformly exposed film at D=1.0. The film is exposed with a 50 μm round aperture
and the value multiplied by 1,000 and rounded to obtain an integer value. For reconnaissance film, a
typical range of granularity is 8-35.