SCIENCE 10 - Probing the Physical World
Module 8
ORIGIN OF THE ATMOSPHERE AND HYDROSPHERE
Introduction
As you know, water exists in other planetary bodies within our solar system but in the solid
phase (ice) or the gaseous phase (water vapor). It is only on Earth where water exists in liquid
form and this is because of the Earth’s distance from the sun.
This module discusses the origins of the Earth’s oceans which, together with lakes, rivers,
and streams, comprise the hydrosphere. The module also discusses where the Earth’s
atmosphere came from. More specifically, we will learn about the early condition of the
hydrosphere and atmosphere and how they changed through the early history of the Earth.
As you go through the module, you will realize that most of the changes in the atmosphere
and hydrosphere happened in the “young” Earth and they stabilized afterwards. Be sure to
read the key text or required reading and answer the study questions before going to class to
maximize your learning through discussions. If you want to delve more into the concepts and
theories behind the formation of the atmosphere and hydrosphere, a list of supplementary
readings can be found at the end of this module.
Learning Outcomes
After studying this module, you should be able to:
1. Discuss ideas on the origin of the atmosphere and hydrosphere; and
2. Explain the conditions of the early atmosphere and hydrosphere which may have been
crucial for the origin of life.
1.0 Early Atmospheric and Hydrospheric Composition and Climate
The biggest changes in the composition of the Earth’s atmosphere and hydrosphere occurred
during the Pre-Cambrian Era (4.6 billion-540 million years ago). In the beginning, these two
spheres were very different from how they are at present. The discussion that follows focuses
on the formation of oxygen, which is a key component of the atmosphere and hydrosphere.
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Activity 8-1
A. Read pp. 21-30 (Chapter 2) of Decker and van Holde’s (2011) Oxygen and the Evolution
of Life (a copy is available at the SCIENCE 10 course site on your VLE). Aside from
explaining the origins of the atmosphere and hydrosphere, this section of the text is a good
summary of what you have learned so far regarding the formation of the universe and the
elements, as well as the formation of the geosphere.
Answer the following study questions based on what you understood from the reading:
1. What was the main source of oxygen during the early years of the universe? How was
this source able to distribute oxygen throughout the universe?
2. While the early atmosphere of the Earth must have been rich in hydrogen and helium,
now these elements comprise only a small fraction of the Earth’s atmosphere. What could
have caused this change?
3. Describe the two theories on the creation of the early atmosphere as compared by
Rauchfuss (2005).
4. How did the lithosphere contribute to the evolution of the atmosphere on the early Earth?
5. What were the sources of liquid water in the early Earth?
B. Watch “The Faint Young Sun Paradox” (available at [Link]/watch?
v=qbnaes8X4iQ) and answer the question below:
6. Solar luminosity increases over geologic time. Explain how the Earth kept its surface
temperature warm in the presence of a faint sun.
Be ready to share your insights in class.
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In his 1993 paper, Kasting postulated that the atmosphere and ocean were probably formed
by outgassing from the interior. Impacts from small planetesimals would have released
volatiles, and the force of impact may have vaporized any water present at the surface of the
Earth. This caused the Earth to be enveloped in a dense steam atmosphere in which
temperatures reached the melting point for common rocks. However, the moon-forming
impact of comets and asteroids that bombarded the Earth 4.5 to 3.8 billions of years ago may
have removed this initial steam atmosphere.
We read in Decker and van Holde (2011) that most of these early insights still hold true.
Hydrogen and helium are abundant in the universe, and therefore the idea that the earliest
atmosphere of the Earth may have been made up of these elements makes sense. However,
given its size, the Earth may not have held this atmosphere for a significant period. Moreover,
abundant sources of other gases were already present at this time. At present, hydrogen
remains abundant on Earth, albeit not in free (or gaseous) form; it is trapped within
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compounds like water, methane, and ammonia. The composition of the atmosphere was
modified further after the “iron catastrophe” or the creation of the iron-rich core of the Earth.
Reports of the presence of stromatolites (fossil mats from early bacteria) as early as 3.5 to 3.8
billion years ago imply that liquid water must have existed on the Earth during this time.
Volcanic outgassing may have contributed to the formation of the atmosphere and
hydrosphere. Other exogenic sources of water may also have contributed significantly to the
formation of the world’s oceans. The presence of liquid water at that time is puzzling because
the sun then was not as bright as it is today. However, there were high CO2 levels in the early
Earth, which decreased through time with increasing solar luminosity. This kept the planet
warm during its early years, and the decreasing amount of CO2 kept the climate balance in
the Earth’s surface. This kept the Earth from freezing completely when the sun was less
luminous.
2.0 The Rise of Oxygen and the Effect of Life on the Atmosphere
The evolution of the atmosphere was not only affected by the geosphere and extraterrestrial
influences, but also shaped by the emergence and proliferation of life. Oxygen was not
immediately able to increase in concentration because of its incorporation in mineral and rock
phases (see Banded Iron Formation – BIF). Gradual evolution of life from 3.5 to 2.5 billion
years ago must have brought about changes in the metabolism of microorganisms, which
later acquired the ability to perform photosynthesis. Free oxygen began to accumulate at the
end of the Archean Eon (2.5 billion years ago), coinciding with the abundance of
photosynthetic bacteria. Hence, this discussion intersects heavily with the next module,
which is about the origin of life. It is difficult to separate the evolution of life from the
formation of the atmosphere because organisms profoundly influenced changes in the
composition of the air that we are now breathing.
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Activity 8-2
Read pp. 30-41 of Decker and van Holde’s (2011) Oxygen and the Evolution of Life, with a
particular focus on pp 38-41. This part of the text gives an introduction to the formation of
the biosphere and how it affected the composition of the atmosphere.
Answer the following study questions based on what you read:
1. Why is photosynthesis a major step in the evolution of life, as well as in in the evolution
of the atmosphere?
2. What is the significance of finding Archean “redbeds” or Banded Iron Formations (BIFs)
during the evolution of the atmosphere?
3. Describe the changes in the chemistry of the oceans after oxygen was able to exist freely
in seawater.
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Be ready to share your insights in class.
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As Decker and van Holde (2011) pointed out, we owe our existence to cyanobacteria, the first
photosynthesizers; they produced the free oxygen in the atmosphere and hydrosphere today.
We also learned that the effect of the biosphere on the Earth is enough to cause radical
changes not only in the composition of the atmosphere and hydrosphere but also in the shape
of the landscape itself.
The increase of oxygen was not straightforward as abundant oxidants in the oceans (such as
free iron ions) were ready to capture the oxygen created by the cyanobacteria. This can be
correlated to the start of the rise in oxygen levels (Stage I) as discussed by Kasting (1993).
He describes Stage I as a rarity of early Archean redbeds, which implies that oxygen was
present only in small amounts. You may think of these “redbeds” as rusted rocks, reacting
with the iron content in the material to form iron oxide. Thus, the abundance of BIFs may be
related to increased production of oxygen, causing more iron to be oxidized. It was not until
the free iron ions were depleted that oxygen began to increase in concentration. This is
correlated to Stage II of Kasting’s (1993) notion of oxygen evolution.
As the amount of oxygen increased, major changes in the biota and chemistry of the oceans
and atmosphere were recorded. It was not until this increase of oxygen that multicellular life
evolved. This is the final stage of the oxygen evolution (Stage III) as described by Kasting
(1993). In effect, the availability of certain ions changed because of the introduction of free
oxygen to the system. Notably, the early and pioneering works were in conjunction with
modern studies regarding the formation of the atmosphere and hydrosphere.
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Activity 8-3
Form two groups and argue which sphere — i.e. the hydrosphere or the atmosphere — came
first, assuming that the lithosphere had already been created. This debate should be done in
class.
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Conclusion
This module has provided an overview of how the atmosphere and hydrosphere might have
been formed. The discussion from Decker and van Holde (2011) suggests that a combination
of factors contributed to the emergence of these two spheres.
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You will notice that most of the discussion tended to be more about the formation of the
atmosphere than the formation of the hydrosphere. This is because we have a clearer picture
of the dynamics of change in the Earth’s atmosphere. Furthermore, it is very difficult to
pinpoint when water appeared on the Earth’s surface. Our understanding of the first hundred
million years of the Earth’s history is speculative and based on limited evidence. Only
isolated exposures of Hadean rocks have ever been found, and most of the information on
hand has been obtained through the study of undifferentiated meteorites. When exactly the
nonliving spheres were formed cannot be pinpointed, and the mechanisms of their formation
are the subject of much research and debate. The current models will be improved as more
data become available through scientific investigations.
To conclude, the formation of the non-living spheres provided the conditions for life to
emerge. We reiterate, however, that life, for which the atmosphere, hydrosphere, and
geosphere are prerequisites, influences to a significant degree the composition and shape of
of the non-living spheres of the Earth. The next module will introduce you to how life on
Earth began.
Required Reading
Decker, H. and van Holde, K. (2011). Chapter 2: A Brief History of Oxygen. In Oxygen and
the Evolution of Life. pp. 21-42.
Supplementary Readings
1. Kasting, J.F. (1993). Chapter 29: Evolution of the Earth’s Atmosphere and Hydrosphere.
Hadean to Recent. In: Organic Geochemistry (pp. 611-623). Springer, Boston, MA.
2. Dott, R.H. & Prothero, D.R. (2004). Chapter 6. The Origin and Early Evolution of the
Earth. In: Evolution of the Earth, 7th ed. pp. 114-116
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