AUTOMATIC LED FOR STAIRCASE

A Mini project report submitted to

JAWAHARLAL NEHRU TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY

ANANTHAPUR, ANANTHAPURAMU
in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the award of degree of
BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
IN
ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING
Submitted by
ANJURU SURYA TEJA (189X1A0421)

DEVARAKONDA SHANTHI (189X1A0414)

KURUVA GADDE SARATH CHANDRA (189X1A0447)

Under the esteemed guidance of

Smt. M. Chaitanya, [Link].,

Assistant Professor, ECE Department

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

G. PULLA REDDY ENGINEERING COLLEGE (AUTONOMOUS): KURNOOL

(Accredited by NBA of AICTE and NAAC of UGC with A+ grade)

(AFFILIATED TO JNTUA, ANANTHAPURAMU)

2020-2021
 G. PULLA REDDY ENGINEERING COLLEGE (Autonomous),

Kurnool (Accredited by NBA of AICTE and NAAC of UGC with A+

grade) (Affiliated to JNTUA, Anantapur)

Kurnool-518007

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the mini project work entitled

AUTOMATIC LED FOR STAIRCASE

is the bonafide record of work carried out by

Anjuru Surya Teja 189X1A0421

Devarakonda Shanthi 189X1A0414

Kuruva Gadde Sarath Chandra 189X1A0447
Under my guidance and supervision in fulfilment of the requirements for the award of
degree
BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
IN
ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNCATION ENGINEERING

HEAD OF DEPARTMENT PROJECT GUIDE

Dr. S. NAGARAJA RAO [Link], Ph.D. Smt. M. Chaitanya , [Link].,

Professor and Head of the Department, Assistant Professor,
Department of ECE, Department of ECE,
G. Pulla Reddy Engineering College, G. Pulla Reddy Engineering College,
(Autonomous), Kurnool. (Autonomous), Kurnool.
 AKNOWLEDGEMENT
We are extremely grateful to our project guide Smt. M. Chaitanya garu, Assistant
Professor, ECE Department, G. Pulla Reddy Engineering College, who has been a source of
inspiration throughout the course and for extending all support to us in the form of the technical
literature and excellent guidance.

We would like to express our sincere thanks to [Link] Rao garu, Head of the
Electronics and Communication Engineering Department, G. Pulla Reddy Engineering College
for providing requisite facilities and helping us providing such a good environment.

We express our sincere thanks to our principal [Link] Reddy garu, for providing
for the facilities extended to work on the project during the project sessions.

We also extend our sincere thanks to entire faculty and staff members of ECE Department,
who have been a source of information throughout the course and for extending all support to us
in the form of technical literature and excellent guidance.
 DECLARATION

We hereby declare that the mini project titled “AUTOMATIC LED FOR STAIRCASE”
is an authenticated work carried out by us as the students of [Link] REDDY ENGINEERING
COLLGE(Autonomous), Kurnool, during 2020-2021 and has not been submitted elsewhere for
the award of any degree or diploma in part or in full to any institute.

ANJURU SURYA TEJA

(189X1A0421)

DEVARAKONDA SHANTHI
(189X1A0414)

KURUVA GADDE SARATH CHANDRA

(189X1A0447)
 ABSTRACT

Going up or down a staircase can be a challenging task at night, especially for kids
and elderly people. Sometimes they may fall down from heights. This not only effects the
family economically but also emotionally. This problem can be easily addressed by
designing automatic LED staircase light. This automatic LED staircase light glows when
a person passes nearer to it. This Automatic LED Staircase Light circuit lights up two
LEDs, one at each end of the staircase, for a couple of minutes. The IR sensor in this
device detects the motion of the person and produces a pulse. This pulse is responsible for
glowing of LED. The LEDs switch off automatically thereafter. In this way the person
can easily go up without switching on the lights.
 CONTENTS
CHAPTERS [Link]
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.2 ACCIDENT STATISTICS 1
1.3 OBJECTIVE OF THE PROJECT 2
1.4 ORGANISATION OF THE PROJECT 2
2. LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 LITERATURE REVIEW 1 3
2.2 LITERATURE REVIEW 2 3
3. PROJECT METHODOLOGY
3.1 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM 5
3.2 METHODOLOGY 5
3.3 CONSTRUCTION & TESTING 6
4. DESCRIPTION OF ON-BOARD HARDWARE COMPONENTS
4.1 COMPONENTS REQUIRED 7
4.1.1 BC 547 NPN TRANSISTOR 7
[Link] FEATURES 8
[Link] BC 547 AS A SWITCH 8
[Link] BC 547 AS AN AMPLIFIER 9
[Link] APPLICATIONS 9
4.1.2 BC 557 PNP TRANSISTOR 9
[Link] FEATURES 10
 [Link] BC 557 AS A SWITCH 11
[Link] BC 557 AS AN AMPLIFIER 11
[Link] APPLICATIONS 11
4.1.3 RESISTOR 12
4.1.4 CAPACITOR 14
4.1.5 LED 15
4.1.6 9V BATTERY 16
4.1.7 PCB/BREAD BOARD 17
4.1.8 IR SENSOR 18
4.1.9 RELAY 19
[Link] WORKING 21
[Link] APPLICATIONS 21
5. RESULT
5.1 WORKING 22
6. ADVANTAGES & APPLICATIONS
6.1 ADVANTAGES 24
6.2 APPLICATIONS 24
7. CONCLUSION & SCOPE
7.1 CONCLUSION 25
7.2 SCOPE 25
7.3 REFERENCES 26
APPENDIX
LIST OF FIGURES [Link]
FIGURE 3.1 AUTOMATIC LED FOR STAIRCASE 5
FIGURE [Link] BC 547 NPN TRANSISTOR 8
FIGURE [Link] BC 557 PNP TANSISTOR 10
FIGURE [Link] FOUR BAND RESISTOR COLOR CODE 13
FIGURE [Link] COLOR CODE FOR RESISTOR 13
FIGURE [Link] RESISTOR OF 330-ohm 14
FIGURE [Link] RESISTOR OF 10K-ohm 14
FIGURE 4.1.4 CAPACITOR OF 0.1 micro farad 15
FIGURE 4.1.5 ARRAY OF LED’s 15
FIGURE 4.1.6 9V BATTERY 16
FIGURE [Link] PCB 17
FIGURE [Link] BREAD BOARD 18
FIFURE 4.1.8 IR SENSOR 19
FIGURE 4.1.9 RELAY 20
FIGURE 5.1.1 AUTOMATIC LED WITHOUT OBSTACLE 22
FIGURE 5.1.2 AUTOMATIC LED WITH OBSTACLE 23
LIST OF TABLES [Link]
TABLE [Link] BC 547 PIN DESCRIPTION 8
TABLE [Link] BC 557 PIN DESCRIPTION 10
 Automatic LED for Staircase

1. INTRODUCTION

Whether at work, at home or out in public, falling down the stairs is a

significant worry for many people. As an accident that can result in life-changing
injuries, it’s important to know how we can prevent these from happening as soon as
possible.

1.1 INTRODUCTION

Stairway safety should always be at the forefront of our mind every time we
use stairs. Stair safety products, such as handrails, non-slip stair treads, stair nosing,
and anti-slip coatings, provide users with the peace of mind that the environment is
as safe as possible from the get-go.

1.2 ACCIDENT STATISTICS

Stair accident statistics are some of the highest injuries listed each year – both
in the USA and abroad. In a 2017 study written in The American Journal of
Emergency Medicine, it was found that every year, there is an average of over one
million injuries that come as a result of falling down the stairs. As the second leading
cause of accidental injury in the country, it’s a statistic that can’t be ignored.

Reviewing falling down stairs injury statistics uncovers even scarier

information: every year there is an average of 12,000 deaths as a result of a stairway
accident. Showcasing just how dangerous stairs can be in every environment, it
indicates the importance of following the correct practices.

Interestingly, many believe that it’s only older individuals that primarily fall
down the stairs. And although a high portion of those in the study were older adults,
the highest statistic (67.2%) found that it was a combination of these people, along
with younger children.

COMMON INJURIES FROM FALLING DOWNSTAIRS:

 Sprains and strains (32.3% according to the above study)

 Fractures (19.3%) – such as to the face, hands and wrists

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 Automatic LED for Staircase

 Spinal cord damage

 Deep lacerations
 Head and neck injuries (21.6%)
 Injury to the brain
 Injuries to the back or neck
 Broken bones
 Internal bleeding
 Lower extremity injuries (e.g. dislocations or organ damage)

1.3 OBJECTIVE OF THE PROJECT

The main objective of our project is to avoid falling of older and younger
people from stairs. By this project we not only save lives but also the major issues
like power consumption. There are many other similar projects like this. But we
opted this method as it has simple hardware. We can use this anywhere at home,
office, industries, and many more. As if we further increase the potential and values
we can extend it up to street lights.

1.4 ORGANISATION OF THE PROJECT

The first chapter deals with introduction of Automatic LED for staircase,
objective of the project. The second chapter deals with literature review. The third
chapter deals with the project methodology and circuit of the project. The fourth chapter
deals with hardware components and detail description of the components required.
The fifth chapter shows the working and the results of the project. The sixth chapter
shows the advantages and applications of the project. The final chapter shows the
conclusion and the future scope references.

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 Automatic LED for Staircase

2. LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 LITERATURE REVIEW 1 [8]

With the advancement of sensor technologies and sensor networks being implemented in
IoT and Home Automation projects, it is advisable to learn the various types of sensors available
and their classification. These sensors are used to sense indoor environments such as office spaces,
rooms, staircases, hallways to detect the presence of objects, and also human beings. Such sensors
can be used in synchronization to determine a person’s location within room and be aware of the
person’s surroundings and adapt to it. Accordingly, indoor tracking and localization is one of the
key technologies for providing activity-aware services in a smart environment. Occupancy/vacancy
sensors, which can automatically turn lights on when you enter a room and off when you leave, are
a smart and easy way to save energy in commercial applications. According to the U.S. Department
of Energy, lighting accounts for an average of 38 percent of electricity used in commercial
buildings—more than any other building system.[8] Utilizing occupancy/ vacancy sensors is a key
strategy for saving lighting energy. In fact, occupancy sensors can typically save 30 percent—and
up to 60 percent—of lighting energy in a building. In addition, sensors add convenience by
eliminating the need to manually turn lights on or off. And because occupancy sensors
automatically turn lights on, a person never has to enter a dark room.

2.2 LITERATURE REVIEW 2 [9]

In this renowned era of science and technology, there are many inventions and
innovations to support life, humanity, and day to day activities. The technology is
employed so as to be safe, and conserve energy. It is common knowledge that it is a very
difficult task and risky to move around in darkness without stumbling. Therefore, light is
needed to easily move around when there is darkness. Light is needed to ascend or descend
a staircase when it is dark. A stair can be said to be one or more flights of steps, with or
without landings or platforms, installed between two or more floors of a building to bridge
a vertical distance. The part of the building occupying the stair is known as the staircase.
As harmless as staircases may seem, stairways present many chances for accidents to
occur. A number of accidents have resulted from no/inadequate staircase lighting. Many
of such accidents have resulted in permanent disability, damage to properties and even
death. In 2015, the National

Safety Council’s statistics ranked stairway injuries second only to motor vehicle accidents

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 Automatic LED for Staircase
among the leading causes of accidents. Therefore, in the aspect of safety, staircase lighting
is needed to safely man oeuvre the way, when staircases are used. Staircase lights however,
ought to be ON when necessary. Unfortunately, most staircase lights are turned ON and
left ON forgetfully, or due to a busy schedule, for very long periods which lead to waste
of energy and economic waste as well. It is therefore important to have the staircase
lighting ON, only when necessary, to save energy and energy costs. Since manual switches
for controlling of lighting are being embedded to history, sensors and detectors can now
be used to automatically illuminate our staircase environs and these lights can equally be
switched ON/OFF with the aid of these detectors. For better control of the staircase lights,
automatic staircase lighting systems can be used. The automatic staircase lighting system
is a very simple circuit that could come in different versions. It can be a simple
motion/human detector circuit, a light detector circuit, etc. In whatever form, the bottom
line is that the staircase lighting system functions to automatically switch ON/OFF the
staircase light when and where necessary

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 Automatic LED for Staircase
3. PROJECT METODOLOGY

3.1 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

Figure 3.1 Automatic LED for staircase.

3.2 METHODOLOGY

The circuit diagram of staircase light is shown in Fig. 1. It is built around

transistor BC547 (T1) and BC557 (T2), two 5mm white LEDs (LED1 and LED2),
and few other components.

Firstly, the IR sensor in the working model detects the motion of the person who
wants to go upstairs or downstairs. It produces a pulse. The pulse produced by IR
sensor is given to capacitor C1, which charges through resistor R1. This raises
voltage at the base of transistor T1, which enters into saturation. Meanwhile,
capacitor C1 starts discharging through resistors R2 and R3 and the base-emitter
terminals of T1. Now, since T1 is conducting, the base of transistor T2 gets grounded,
and hence it also starts conducting. This causes current to flow through transistor T2
and LED1 and LED2 turn on.

Since the capacitor is constantly discharging, once its voltage goes below the cut-

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 Automatic LED for Staircase
in voltage of transistor T1, the transistor turns off, and hence T2 also turns off. This
makes LED1 and LED2 switch off. The values of capacitor C1 and resistor R3
determine the discharge time of capacitor C1. So, if you want to keep the lights
(LED1 and LED2) on for a longer period of time, increase the values of C1 and R3.

This circuit works on a 9V battery/power adaptor. It can also be designed to work

on 5V or 12V.

3.3 Construction and Testing

You can assemble the circuit on a breadboard and experiment with different
capacitor (C1) and resistor (R3) values for proper delay time as per your requirement.
Once done, solder everything onto a PCB and place the PCB inside a suitable
enclosure. Extend wires of the LEDs (LED1 and LED2) from the PCB to appropriate
locations for installation in the staircase.

An actual-size PCB layout for the staircase light is shown in Fig. 2 and its
components layout in Fig. 3. After assembling the circuit on PCB, connect a 9V DC
supply across CON1.

The light-on duration can be extended up to 7.5 minutes by increasing the value
of capacitor C1 to 2200µF. To use a higher wattage LED/LED strip-like
arrangement, use transistor T2 with a higher collector current or use a power
transistor.

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 Automatic LED for Staircase

4. DESCRIPTIONOF ON-BOARD HARDWARE COMPONENTS

4.1 Components required

1. BC 547 NPN Transistor
2. BC 557 PNP Transistor
3. Resistor
4. Capacitor
5. LED
6. 9V Battery
7. PCB Board
8. IR Sensor
9. Relay

4.1.1 BC 547 NPN Transistor

BC547 is a NPN transistor hence the collector and emitter will be left open
(Reverse biased) when the base pin is held at ground and will be closed (Forward
biased) when a signal is provided to base pin. BC547 has a gain value of 110 to 800,
this value determines the amplification capacity of the transistor. The maximum
amount of current that could flow through the Collector pin is 100mA, hence we
cannot connect loads that consume more than 100mA using this transistor. To bias a
transistor, we have to supply current to base pin, this current (IB) should be limited
to 5mA.
When this transistor is fully biased then it can allow a maximum of 100mA to
flow across the collector and emitter. This stage is called Saturation Region and the
typical voltage allowed across the Collector-Emitter (VCE) or Base-Emitter (VBE)
could be 200 and 900 mV respectively. When base current is removed the transistor
becomes fully off, this stage is called as the Cut-off Region and the Base Emitter
voltage could be around 660 mV.

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 Automatic LED for Staircase

Figure [Link] BC 547 NPN Transistor

Pin Number Pin Name Description

1 Collector Current flows in through collector

2 Base Controls the biasing of transistor

3 Emitter Current Drains out through emitter

Table [Link] BC 547 Pin Description

[Link] Features:

1. Bi-Polar NPN Transistor

2. DC Current Gain (hFE) is 800 maxima
3. Continuous Collector current (IC) is 100mA
4. Emitter Base Voltage (VBE) is 6V
5. Base Current (IB) is 5mA maximum
6. Available in To-92 Package

[Link] BC 547 as a Switch:

When a transistor is used as a switch it is operated in the Saturation and Cut-Off

Region as explained above. As discussed, a transistor will act as an Open switch during
Forward Bias and as a Closed switch during Reverse Bias, this biasing can be achieved

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 Automatic LED for Staircase

by supplying the required amount of current to the base pin. As mentioned, the biasing
current should maximum of 5mA. Anything more than 5mA will kill the Transistor;
hence a resistor is always added in series with base pin. The value of this resistor (RB)
can be calculated using below formulae.
RB = VBE / IB
Where, the value of VBE should be 5V for BC547 and the Base current
(IB depends on the Collector current (IC). The value of IB should not exceed mA.

[Link] BC 547 as an Amplifier:

A Transistors acts as an Amplifier when operating in Active Region. It can

amplify power, voltage and current at different configurations.

Some of the configurations used in amplifier circuits are

1. Common emitter amplifier

2. Common collector amplifier
3. Common base amplifier

[Link] Applications:

1. Driver Modules like Relay Driver, LED driver etc.

2. Amplifier modules like Audio amplifiers, signal Amplifier etc.
3. Darlington-pair

4.1.2 BC 557 PNP Transistor:

BC557 is a PNP transistor hence the collector and emitter will be closed (Forward
biased) when the base pin is held at ground and will be opened (Reverse biased) when
a signal is provided to base pin. This is where a PNP transistor differs from a NPN
transistor, a Logic state (blue colour) is used to toggle between Ground and Signal
Voltage (Emitter-Base Voltage VBE) BC557 has a gain value of 110 to 800, this value
determines the amplification capacity of the transistor. The maximum amount of
current that could flow through the Collector pin is 100mA, hence we cannot connect
loads that consume more than 100mA using this transistor. To bias a transistor, we have
to supply current to base pin, this current (I B) should be limited to 5mA.
When this transistor is fully biased then it can allow a maximum of 100mA to
flow across the collector and emitter. This stage is called Saturation Region and the
typical voltage allowed across the Collector-Emitter (VCE) or Base-Emitter (VBE) could

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 Automatic LED for Staircase

be 200 and 900 mV respectively. When base current is removed the transistor becomes
fully off, this stage is called as the Cut-off Region and the Base Emitter voltage could
be around 660 mV.

Figure [Link] BC 557 PNP Transistor

Pin Number Pin Name Description

1 Collector Current flows in through collector

2 Base Controls the biasing of transistor

3 Emitter Current Drains out through emitter

Table [Link] BC 557 Pin Description

[Link] Features:

1. Bi-Polar PNP Transistor

2. DC Current Gain (hFE) is 300 maxima
3. Continuous Collector current (IC) is 100mA

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 Automatic LED for Staircase
4. Emitter Base Voltage (VBE) is 6V
5. Base Current (IB) is 5mA maximum
6. Available in To-92 Package

[Link] BC 557 as a Switch:

When a transistor is used as a switch it is operated in the Saturation and Cut-Off

Region as explained above. As discussed, a transistor will act as an Open switch during
Forward Bias and as a Closed switch during Reverse Bias, this biasing can be achieved
by supplying the required amount of current to the base pin. As mentioned, the biasing
current should maximum of 5mA. Anything more than 5mA will kill the Transistor;
hence a resistor is always added in series with base pin. The value of this resistor (RB)
can be calculated using below formulae.
RB = VBE / IB
Where, the value of VBE should be 5V for BC557 and the Base current
(IB depends on the Collector current (IC). The value of IB should not exceed mA.
[Link] BC 557 as an Amplifier:
A Transistors acts as an Amplifier when operating in Active Region. It can
amplify power, voltage and current at different configurations.
Some of the configurations used in amplifier circuits are

1. Common emitter amplifier

2. Common collector amplifier
3. Common base amplifier

Of the above types common emitter type is the popular and mostly used
configuration. When uses as an Amplifier the DC current gain of the Transistor can be
calculated by using the below formulae
DC Current Gain = Collector Current (IC) / Base Current (IB)

[Link] Applications:

 Driver Modules like Relay Driver, LED driver etc.

 Amplifier modules like Audio amplifiers, signal Amplifier etc.
 Darlington pair

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 Automatic LED for Staircase
4.1.3 RESISTOR

A resistor is a passive two-terminal electrical component that implements electrical

resistance as a circuit element. In electronic circuits, resistors are used to reduce current
flow, adjust signal levels, to divide voltages, bias active elements, and terminate
transmission lines, among other uses. High-power resistors that can dissipate many
watts of electrical power as heat may be used as part of motor controls, in power
distribution systems, or as test loads for generators. Fixed resistors have resistances that
only change slightly with temperature, time or operating voltage. Variable resistors can
be used to adjust circuit elements (such as a volume control or a lamp dimmer), or as
sensing devices for heat, light, humidity, force, or chemical activity.

Resistors are common elements of electrical networks and electronic circuits and are
ubiquitous in electronic equipment. Practical resistors as discrete components can be
composed of various compounds and forms. Resistors are also implemented within
integrated circuits.

The electrical function of a resistor is specified by its resistance: common

commercial resistors are manufactured over a range of more than nine orders of
magnitude. The nominal value of the resistance falls within the manufacturing
tolerance, indicated on the component.

In the below shown figure [Link] the resistor’s colors are Brown, Black, Orange and
Gold colors. By using values present in the table [Link] we can its resistance value is
10*1000 = 10000Ω or 10KΩ with a tolerance of ±5.
Using the below figure and table [Link] the first two colors represent the digits, third
color represents digit which is equal to the number of zeros to be included (i.e, decimal
multiplier) and four color represents the tolerance value. (we have only two colors for
tolerance and again with no color).

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 Automatic LED for Staircase

Figure [Link] four band resistor

color code

Figure [Link] color code for resistor

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 Automatic LED for Staircase

Figure [Link] Resistor of 330ohm

Figure [Link] Resistor of 10kilo ohm

4.1.4 CAPACITOR

A capacitor is a device that stores electrical energy in an electric field. It is a passive

electronic component with two terminals.

The effect of a capacitor is known as capacitance. While some capacitance exists

between any two electrical conductors in proximity in a circuit, a capacitor is a
component designed to add capacitance to a circuit. The capacitor was originally known
as a condenser or compensator. This name and its cognates are still widely used in many
languages, but rarely in English, one notable exception being condenser microphones,
also called capacitor microphones.

The 3-digit code 104 written over ceramic capacitor indicates its value. The first two
digits (10) of this code are first two digits of capacitor value and third digit (4) gives
the number of zeroes to be added so as to get capacitor value in Pico farads which is
10,000pF or 0.1microfarads.

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 Automatic LED for Staircase

Figure 4.1.4 Capacitor of 0.1Microfarad

4.1.5 LED’s
A light-emitting diode (LED) is a semiconductor light source that emits light
when current flows through it. Electrons in the semiconductor recombine with
electron holes, releasing energy in the form of photons. The color of the light
(corresponding to the energy of the photons) is determined by the energy required
for electrons to cross the band gap of the semiconductor. White light is obtained by
using multiple semiconductors or a layer of light-emitting phosphor on the
semiconductor device.

Appearing as practical electronic components in 1962, the earliest LEDs

emitted low-intensity infrared light. Infrared LEDs are used in remote-control
circuits, such as those used with a wide variety of consumer electronics. The first
visible-light LEDs were of low intensity and limited to red. Modern LEDs are
available across the visible, ultraviolet, and infrared wavelengths, with high light
output.

Figure 4.1.5 Array of LED's

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 Automatic LED for Staircase
4.1.6 9V BATTERY:

The nine-volt battery, or 9-volt battery, is a common size of battery that was
introduced for the early transistor radios. It has a rectangular prism shape with
rounded edges and a polarized snap connector at the top. This type is commonly used
in walkie- talkies, clocks and smoke detectors.

The nine-volt battery format is commonly available in primary carbon-zinc

and alkaline chemistry, in primary lithium iron disulfide, and in rechargeable form in
nickel- cadmium, nickel-metal hydride and lithium-ion. Mercury-oxide batteries of
this format, once common, have not been manufactured in many years due to their
mercury content. Designations for this format include NEDA 1604 and IEC 6F22
(for zinc-carbon) or MN1604 6LR61 (for alkaline). The size, regardless of chemistry,
is commonly designated PP3—a designation originally reserved solely for carbon-
zinc, or in some countries, E or E-block.

Most nine-volt alkaline batteries are constructed of six individual 1.5 V LR61
cells enclosed in a wrapper. These cells are slightly smaller than LR8D425 AAAA
cells and can be used in their place for some devices, even though they are 3.5 mm
shorter. Carbon-zinc types are made with six flat cells in a stack, enclosed in a
moisture- resistant wrapper to prevent drying. Primary lithium types are made with

three cells in series.

9-volt batteries accounted for 4% of alkaline primary battery sales in the

United States in 2007, and 2% of primary battery sales and 2% of secondary battery
sales in Switzerland in 2008.

Figure 4.1.6 9V Battery

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 Automatic LED for Staircase
4.1.7 PCB/BREAD BOARD:

A printed circuit board (PCB) mechanically supports and electrically

connects electrical or electronic components using conductive tracks, pads and other
features etched from one or more sheet layers of copper laminated onto and/or
between sheet layers of a non-conductive substrate. Components are generally
soldered onto the PCB to both electrically connect and mechanically fasten them to
it.

Printed circuit boards are used in all but the simplest electronic products.
They are also used in some electrical products, such as passive switch boxes.

Figure [Link] PCB

A breadboard is a construction base for prototyping of electronics. Originally

the word referred to a literal bread board, a polished piece of wood used for slicing
bread.[1] In the 1970s the solder less breadboard (a.k.a. plug board, a terminal array
board) became available and nowadays the term "breadboard" is commonly used to
refer to these.

Because the solder less breadboard does not require soldering, it is reusable.
This makes it easy to use for creating temporary prototypes and experimenting with
circuit design. For this reason, solder less breadboards are also popular with students
and in technological education.

Older breadboard types did not have this property. A strip board (Vero board)
and similar prototyping printed circuit boards, which are used to build semi-
permanent soldered prototypes or one-offs, cannot easily be reused. A variety of
electronic systems may be prototyped by using breadboards, from small analog and
digital circuits to complete central processing units (CPUs).

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 Automatic LED for Staircase

Figure [Link] Bread Board

4.1.8 IR SENSOR:

An infrared (IR) sensor is an electronic device that measures and detects infrared
radiation in its surrounding environment. Infrared radiation was accidentally discovered
by an astronomer named William Herschel in 1800. While measuring the temperature
of each color of light (separated by a prism), he noticed that the temperature just beyond
the red light was highest. IR is invisible to the human eye, as its wavelength is longer
than that of visible light (though it is still on the same electromagnetic spectrum).
Anything that emits heat (everything that has a temperature above around five degrees
Kelvin) gives off infrared radiation.

There are two types of infrared sensors: active and passive. Active infrared sensors
both emit and detect infrared radiation. Active IR sensors have two parts: a light
emitting diode (LED) and a receiver. When an object comes close to the sensor, the
infrared light from the LED reflects off of the object and is detected by the receiver.
Active

IR sensors act as proximity sensors, and they are commonly used in obstacle
detection systems (such as in robots).

Passive infrared (PIR) sensors only detect infrared radiation and do not emit it from
an LED. Passive infrared sensors are comprised of:

 Two strips of pyroelectric material (a pyroelectric sensor)

 An infrared filter (that blocks out all other wavelengths of light)

 A Fresnel lens (which collects light from many angles into a single point)

 A housing unit (to protect the sensor from other environmental variables, such
as humidity)
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PIR sensors are most commonly used in motion-based detection, such as in-home
security systems. When a moving object that generates infrared radiation enters the
sensing range of the detector, the difference in IR levels between the two pyroelectric
elements is measured. The sensor then sends an electronic signal to an embedded
computer, which in turn triggers an alarm.

Figure 4.1.8 IR Sensor

4.1.9 Relay:

A relay can be defined as a switch. Switches are generally used to close or open
the circuit manually. Relay is also a switch that connects or disconnects two circuits.

But instead of manual operation a relay is applied with electrical signal, which in
turn connects or disconnects another circuit.

Relays can be of different types like electromechanical, solid state.

Electromechanical relays are frequently used. Let us see the internal parts of this relay
before knowing about it working. Although many different types of relay were present,
their working is same.
Every electromechanical relay consists of an consists of an

1. Electromagnet

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2. Mechanically movable contact
3. Switching points and
4. Spring

Electromagnet is constructed by wounding a copper coil on a metal core. The two ends
of the coil are connected to two pins of the relay as shown. These two are used as DC
supply pins.

Figure 4.1.9 Relay

Generally, two more contacts will be present, called as switching points to connect high
ampere load. Another contact called common contact is present in order to connect the
switching points. These contacts are named as normally open (NO), normally closed
(NC) and common(COM) contacts. Relay can be operated using either AC or DC. In
case of AC relays, for every current zero position, the relay coil gets demagnetized and
hence there would be a chance of continues breaking of the circuit. So, AC relays are
constructed with special mechanism such that continues magnetism is provided in order
to avoid above problem. Such mechanisms include electronic

circuit arrangement or shaded coil mechanism.

[Link] Working:

 Relay works on the principle of electromagnetic induction.

 When the electromagnet is applied with some current it induces a magnetic field
around it.
 Above image shows working of the relay. A switch is used to apply DC current
to the load.
 In the relay Copper coil and the iron core acts as electromagnet.

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 Automatic LED for Staircase
 When the coil is applied with DC current it starts attracting the contact as shown.
This is called energizing of relay.
 When the supply is removed it retrieves back to the original position. This is
called De energizing of relay.
There are also such relays, whose contacts are initially closed and opened when there
is supply i.e. exactly to opposite to the above shown relay. Solid state relays will have
sensing element to sense the input voltage and switches the output using opto-coupling.

[Link] Applications:

1. Lighting control systems

2. Telecommunication
3. Industrial process controllers
4. Traffic control
5. Motor drives control
6. Protection systems of electrical power system
7. Computer interfaces
8. Automotive
9. Home appliances

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 Automatic LED for Staircase

5. RESULT
5.1 Working

In this project, we implemented an Automatic LED for Staircase with IR sensor.

We used IR sensor as the main sensory device. The working of the circuit is simple and is
explained below.

Firstly, the IR sensor in the working model detects the motion of the person who wants
to go upstairs or downstairs. It produces a pulse. The pulse produced by IR sensor is given
to capacitor C1, which charges through resistor R1. This raises voltage at the base
of transistor T1, which enters into saturation. Meanwhile, capacitor C1 starts discharging
through resistors R2 and R3 and the base-emitter terminals of T1. Now, since T1 is
conducting, the base of transistor T2 gets grounded, and hence it also starts conducting.
This causes current to flow through transistor T2 and LED1 and LED2 turn on.

Since the capacitor is constantly discharging, once its voltage goes below the cut-in
voltage of transistor T1, the transistor turns off, and hence T2 also turns off. This makes
LED1 and LED2 switch off. The values of capacitor C1 and resistor R3 determine the
discharge time of capacitor C1. So, if you want to keep the lights (LED1 and LED2) on for
a longer period of time, increase the values of C1 and R3.

This circuit works on a 9V battery/power adaptor. It can also be designed to work on

5V or 12V.

Figure 5.1.1 Automatic LED without obstacle

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 Automatic LED for Staircase

Figure 5.1.2 Automatic LED with obstacle

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 Automatic LED for Staircase

6. ADVANTAGES and APPPLICATIONS

6.1 Advantages:

 Less cost
 Simple to implement
 Hardware complexity is easy
 Can be used without touching
 Can avoid power loss by using LED
 As the LED’s automatically turn off, it saves more power
 No age restrictions to use

6.2 Applications:

Automatic LED for Staircase is mainly used for:

1. Houses
2. Offices
3. By further developing this project we can extend this from staircases to street
lights too!

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 Automatic LED for Staircase

7. CONCLUSION & SCOPE

7.1 Conclusion:

The main motto of our project is to avoid falling of older and younger people from stairs.
By this project we not only save lives but also the major issues like power consumption.
There are many other similar projects like this. But we opted this method as it has simple
hardware. We can use this anywhere at home, office, industries, and many more. As if we
further increase the potential and values we can extend it up to street lights.

7.2 Scope:

The basic objectives of Automatic LED Staircase are to protect human lives, material
assets. Mainly,

 Preventing danger to life (personnel protection)

 Preventing power loss (Asset protection)

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 Automatic LED for Staircase

7.3 References

1. [Link]
2. [Link]
3. [Link]
4. [Link]
5. [Link]
6. [Link]
7. [Link]
8. [Link]
9. [Link]
nsor%20Based%20Dark%20Detector%20for%20Lighting%20Purpose%20on%20a%2
0Stair%[Link]
10. [Link]

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APPENDIX

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