CLASSICAL & EARTH MAGNETISM

 Magnet
 Magnetic Field due to a Bar Magnet
 Comparision between Electric & Magnetic Dipole
 Properties of Magnetic Materials
 Hysteresis : Retentivity and coerclvity
 Earth Magnetism
 Classical & Earth Magnetism

CLASSICAL & EARTH MAGNETISM

Magnet :
Two bodies even after being neutral (showing no electric interaction) may attract/repel strongly if they have a special
property. This property is known as magnetism. This force is called magnetic force. Those bodies are called magnets.
There are two types of Magnet–
(1) Natural Magnet – These are available in nature for eg.- magnet which is available in mines is natural magnet. It
has not a definite shape and size that's why this magnet is of no use for scientific and research [Link] power
of it is very low.
(2) Artificial Magnet – These are man made magnet. Generally these are made by Fe, Al, Ni. Shape and size are
definite and attraction power is controlled by manufacturer. This is why these are used in scientific work. Generally the
word "Magnet" is use for artificial magnet. Some types of artificial magnet are given below
(1) Rod/bar magnet (2) Magnetic needle (3) Slab magnet (4) Ring magnet
Properties of Magnet
(1) Magnet attracts iron
(2) A freely suspended magnet remains in north-south direction always
(3) There is a attraction between two unlike poles and repulsion between like poles
(4) A magnet develope magnetism in magnetic elements by induction
(5) No monopole exist in real time means no south pole or north pole can exist independently.
Bar magnet - A bar magnet is a rod shaped metal object which produces magnetic field in its surrounding and at the
two ends of it there are two magnetic poles – North Pole and South Pole. Magnetic lines originate from north pole of a
magnet and terminate on south pole as shown in figure.

Note : Current carrying solenoid acts as a bar magnet.

Magnetic poles - A magnet has two poles. If a magnet is placed within powder of iron than we get two points such that
attraction force is maximum, these points are known as magnetic poles. Strength of poles depends upon the attraction.
Magnetic Axis – An imaginary line which join both poles of a magnet is known as magnetic axis.
Effective length of Magnet : Distance between two poles of a magnet is known as its effective length. This is
measured along the magnetic axis. This length is equal to 5/6 of its geometric length.
Pole strength : The efficiency by which a pole attracts magnetic substance is known as pole strength. In a magnet
pole strength is increases as number of magnetic field lines increases. This is represented by
F Magnetic force
mp 

B Magnetic field
Unit of pole strength is ampere meter or newton/tesla.
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 Classical & Earth Magnetism
Coulomb's Law (Inverse Law) :
Attraction or repulsion between two magnetic poles is proportional to pole strength and inversely proportional to
distance between them
m1m2 km1m2
If m1 and m2 are pole strength and r is distance between then - F F
r2 r2

Where k = 0 / 4. Here 0 = permeability of free space Relative permeability  r  
0

Magnetic Induction due to a Magnetic Pole : To determine a magnetic induction in surrounding of a magnetic north
pole of pole strength m, we place a test pole m0 at a distance r from the pole at point P as shown in figure. The magnetic
force on test pole placed at point P is given as -
mm 0
FK
r2 P F
The magnetic induction at point P is given by m0
r
F Km 0 m
BP = = 2 =
m0 r 4 r 2 m(N)
  m
Its vector form is BP  0 3 r
4 r
Properties of Magnetic Field Lines : These are imaginary lines which represents magnetic field.
Magnetic Field Lines forms closed loop.
The direction of magnetic lines of force is from north to south pole outside a magnet and inside a magnet the direction
is from south pole to north pole.
These are perpendicular to a plane.
Magnetic lines of force of same magnitude are parallel to each other.
Mangetic lines of force do not cross each other.
There is neither origin point nor end point for magnetic lines force.
These can enter at any angle to south pole and can come out with any angle from north pole.
The tangant drawn at any point on magnetic lines force shows the direction of magnetic field at that point.

Magnetic dipole :

Two poles of magnet can not be separated by any how. If a magnet is break up into
S N
number of pieces then each piece will be a dipole. A single pole magnet can not be
found any where. When two poles of different nature and equal strength are placed at S N
N S
a defined distance then this arrangment is known as magnetic dipole.
A loop of single turn can also be treated as magnetic dipole. Looking from one side it S N S N S N S N
behaves as north pole and from other side it behaves as south pole.
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 Classical & Earth Magnetism
Magnetic length :
Distance between two poles of a bar magnet known as magnetic length of a magnet

Magnetic length is a vector which shows direction from south pole to north and it is represented by 2l
Magnetic length of a magnet is always less then its geometric length.
All structures which show a tendensy to rotate in direction of magnetic field known as magnetic dipole A magnetic dipole
can not be represented by two isolated poles becuase a single pole of magnet does not exist.
Magnetic dipole moment : Multiplication of magnetic length and pole strength is known as magnetic dipole moment
 
M  m(2 )

Its a vector quantity which is a direction from south to north.

Dividing a rectangular bar magnet -

Suppose we have a rectangular bar magnet having length, breadth and mass as L, b and w respectively. If it is cut in p
equal parts along the length as well as perpendicular to the length it is cut in q equal parts simultaneously as shown in
the figure then -

b'

L'
L
L b w
Length of each part L'  , breadth of each part b '  , mass of each part w'  ,
q q pq

m m L M
pole strength of each part m'  , magnetic moment of each part M'  m' L'    .
p p q pq

Magnetic field due to a bar magnet -

(i) End side on position, tan A Position or axial points :
2lm
At point P intensity of magnetic field is BN BS
N S
  2 Mr
B 0 r +m –m
e j
2
4 r 2  2 Where M = 2ml = Magnetic dipole moment r

For small dipole ( r >>>> 2l)


  2M
0
 B
4 r3

Note : Magnetic field on axial points is in the direction of magnetic moment M .
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 Classical & Earth Magnetism
(ii) Broad side on position or Equatorial or tan B Position :-
0 m 
2
B=
e
4 r 2  2 j r  2
2


 0M
B 3

e
4 r 2
 j
2 2


  0M
If a magnet is very small ( r >>>> 2l) B
4 r 3

Note : Magnetic field on equitorial points is in the opposite direction of magnetic moment M .

Gauss's Law in Magnetism -

In electrostatic electric field can be generate due to a single charge, but magnetic field can only be developed when
there is a dipole because there is no existence of single pole.

Gauss’s Law for Magnetism

z
s
 
B. ds  0

Gauss Law proves that magnetic poles of a magnet are equal and in opposite nature, and remains always in pair.

Comparision between Electric and Magnetic Dipole

[Link]. Physical Quantity to be Electric Dipole Magnetic Dipole

Compared
1. Dipole moment p = q (2l) M = m (2l)
2. Direction of dipole moment From negative charge to the From south to north pole
positive charge
3. Net force in uniform field 0 0
     
4. Net torque in uniform field  p E  MB
1 2p   0 2M 
5. Field at far away point on the axis . (along p ) . 3 (along M )
4  0 r 3 4 r

1 p  0 M 
6. Field at far away point on . 3 (opposite p ) . 3 (opposite M )
4  0 r 4 r
perpendicular bisector
   
7. Potential energy U = – p. E = – pE cos  U = – M. B = –MB cos 
8. Work done in rotating the dipole W1  2 = pE (cos 1 – cos 2) W1  2 = MB(cos 1 – cos 2)

   
Note : In the table  is the angle between field ( E or B ) and dipole moment ( p or M ).

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 Classical & Earth Magnetism
Examples ...
Ex.1 A bar magnet of magnetic moment 2.0 A-m2 is free to rotate about a vertical axis through its centre. The magnet is
released from rest from the east-west position. Find the kinetic energy of the magnet as it takes the north-south
position. The horizontal component of the earth's magnetic field is B = 25 T. Earth's magnetic field is from south to
north.
Sol. Gain in kinetic energy = loss in potential energy
Thus, KE = Ui – Uf
As U = – MB cos 
FG  IJ – (– MB cos 0°) = MB
 KE = – MB cos H 2K
Substituting the values we have, KE = (2.0) (25 × 10–6) J = 50 J
Ex.2 A bar magnet is 0.1 m long and its pole strength is 12 Am. Find the magnetic induction at a point on its axis at a distance
of 0.2 m from its centre.
Sol. Net magnetic induction due to bar magnet at point P is given by the vector sum of the magnetic inductions at P due to the
two poles given as
BP = BN – B s
lm
0 m 0 m 32 0mrl BN BS
 BP = .  . =
b
4 r  l / 2 g 2
b
4 r  l / 2 g 2
e 2
4  4r  l 2
j
2 N
+m
S
–m
r
32  10 7  12  0.2
 BP = = 3.4 × 10–4 T
eb g b gj
2
2 2
4 0.2  0.1

Ex.3 A bar magnet of magnetic moment 'M' is divided into two equal parts in following two fashions (a) Parallel to its length
(b) Perpendicular to its length and if these pieces are placed perpendicular to each other then the net magnetic moment
will be -
Sol. If a magnet is divided into two equal parts parallel to its length then pole strength will become half and if it is divided int
two equal parts perpendicular to its length, then the geometric length will become half, in both cases dipole moment of
its parts will become half of the initial magnetic moment.
 
M  m(2l )
m M
M1 = (2l) = If divided along its length
2 2
FG l IJ = M If divided perpendicular to its length
M2 = m
H 2K 2
FG M IJ
So the net magnetic moment if both the cases is Mnet = 2
H 2K
Ex.4 Magnetic moment of bar magnet is M. Now if it is bend in form of a semicircle then its new magnetic moment is -
Sol. Magnetic moment of bar magnet M = ml
2r = l  constant
then the new magnetic moment when it is bend in a form of semi circle will be
ml 2M
M' = m × (2r) = 
 
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 Classical & Earth Magnetism
Ex.5 Figure shows two identical magnetic dipoles a and b of magnetic moments M each, placed at a separation d, with their
axes perpendicular to each other. Find the magnetic field at the point P midway between the dipoles.

d d
S Bb S
a a
S N b b
S N
Ba
N N
(a) (b)

Sol. The point P is in end-on position for the dipole a and in broadside-on position for the dipole b. The magnetic field at P due

 0 2M  0 2M
to a is B a  along the axis of a, and that due to b is B b  parallel to the axis of b as shown in
b g
4 d / 2 3
b g
4 d / 2 3

figure. The resultant field at P is, therefore.

 0M 2 5 0M
B  B 2a  B 2b = 12  2 2 =
4 d / 2b g 3
d 2
The direction of this field makes an angle a with Ba such that tana = Bb/Ba = 1/2.
_______________________________________________________________________
Try yourself...

1. A magnet of magnetic moment 50 i A-m2 placed along x-axis. Where magnetic field is B  0.5i  3.0j tesla. The e j
torque acting on magnet is -

(1) 175 k N-m (2) 150 k N-m (3) 75 k N-m (4) 25 37 k N-m
2. Two/three/four identical bar magnets of magnetic moment 'M' are combined according to figure. Find net magnetic
moment of the system -

(a) (b) (c)

(d) (e) (f)

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 Classical & Earth Magnetism

3. Magnetic field at axial point due to a short bar magnet at distance r is euqal to B . Then the magnetic field due to this bar
magnet at a distance of r/2 on it's equitorial axis -
 
B B  
(1) (2) – (3) 4 B (4) – 4 B
2 2
4. Figure shows a small magnetised niddle P placed at a point O. The arrow shows the direction of its magnetic moment.
The other arrows shows different position (and orientations of the magnetic moment) of another identical magnetised
needle Q.
(a) In which configuration is the system is not in equilibirum.
(b) In which configuration is the system in stable and unstable equilibirum.
(c) Which configuration corresponds to the lowest potential energy among all the configurations shown.

Q4

Q5 O P Q3
Q1 Q2

Q6

5. A magnet of magnetic dipole moment 1 × 104 J/T is released in a uniform magnetic field of induction 4 × 10–5 T from the
position shown in the figure. Find -

M
120°
B

(i) Its kinetic energy at  = 90°

(ii) Its maximum kinetic energy during the motion.
(iii) Wii it perform SHM? oscillation? Periodic motion? What is its amplitude?

Ans. 1. (2), 2. (a) 2M, (b) Zero, (c) 2 M, (d) M, (e) Zero, (f) 2 2 M, 3. (4),
4. (a) PQ1 and PQ2, (b) PQ3, PQ6 stable and PQ5, PQ4 unstable, (c) PQ6
5. (a) 0.2 J, (b) 0.6 J, (c) Oscillatory and periodic motion with amplitude of 120°
_______________________________________________________________________

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 Classical & Earth Magnetism
Properties of Magnetic Material
All substances can be divided into three groups according to their magnetic properties. It can be explained on the basis
of atomic model, we know that matter is made up of atoms. Each atom of any substance has a positively charged
nucleus at its centre around which electrons revolve in various discrete orbits. Each revolving electron is equivalent to a
tiny current-loop (or magnetic dipole) and gives a dipole moment to the atom. Besides this, each electron "spins" about
its own axis and this spin also produce a magnetic dipole moment. However, most of the magnetic moment of the atom
produced by electron spin, the contribution of the orbital revolution is very small.
(i) Diamagnetism : Diamagnetic substances are those which have tendency to move from stronger to the weaker part
of the external magnetic field. When these substance brought near to a powerful magnet, then they repels.
Ex. - bismuth, copper, lead, sillicon, nitrogen (at STP), water and sodium chloride.
The Property of diamagnetism is generally found is those substances whose atom, or molecules, have "even' number of
electrons which form pairs. In the direction of spin of one electron is opposite to that of the other. So, the magnetic
moment of one electron is neutralised by that of the other. As such, the net magnetic moment of an atom of a diamagnetic
substance is zero. Diamagnetism is temperature independent.
When magnetic field is applied, those electrons having orbital magnetic moment in the same direcxtion slow down and
those in the opposite direction speed up. This hapends due to induced current in accordance with Lenz's law. So the
substance develops a net magnetic moment in direction opposite to that of the applied field and hence repulsion.

 
(a) m i  0 , M T  0 ; (b) S N
Bext
Bi

Note : Diamagnetism is a universal property because it exist in every material upto some extents.
(2) Para - Magnetic Substances : Paramagnetic substances are those which get weakly magnetised when placed in an
external magnetic field. They have tendency to move from a region of weak magnetic field to strong magnetic field, i.e.,
they get weakly attracted to a magnet.
The property of paramagnetism is found in those substance whose atoms, or molecules, have an excess of electron
spinining in the same direction. Hence atoms of paramagnetic substance have a permanent magnetic moment and
behave like tiny bar-magnets. Even then the paramagnetic substances do not exhibit any magnetic effect in the absence
of external magnetic field. The reason is that the atomic magnets are randomly oriented and so the magnetic moment
of the bluk of the substance remains zero.
Examples - aluminium, sodium, calcium, oxygen (at STP) and copper chloride.
In the presence of an external field B0, which is strong enough, and at low temperatures. the individual atomic dipole
moment can be made to align and point in the same direction as B0. As shown in figure a bar of paramagnetic material
placed in an external field obtain net magnetisation in direction of external magnetic field.

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 Classical & Earth Magnetism

(A) (B)

When no field is applied On application of field ( B )
(3) Ferro-Magnetic Substances :
Ferromagnetic substances are those which gets strongly magnetised when placed in an external magnetic field. They
have strong tendency to move from a region of weak magnetic field to strong magnetic field, i.e., they get strongly
attracted to a magnet.
The individual atoms (or ions or molecules) in a ferromagnetic material possess a dipole moment as in a paramagnetic
material. However, they interact with one another in such a way that they spontaneously align themselves in a common
direction over a macroscopic volume called domain. Each domain has net magnetisation. Typical domain size is 1 mm
and the domain contains about 1011.
In the absence of external magnetic field domains are randomly oriented and magnetisation varies randomly from
domain to domain and there is no bulk magnetisation. In the presence of external magnetic field B0 the domains oriented
in the direction of B0 grow in size so a net large magnetisation is produced in the direction of external magnetic field.
Examples - iron, aluminium, nickel, cobalt etc.

(A) Unmagnetised (B) Magnetised

Methods of Magnetisation–
The process by which some magnetised material such as iron, steel are converted into magnet is known as magnetisa-
tion.
(i) By rubbing : In this process when a magnet is rubbed again and again on a magnetic material then the material
changed into a magnet.
(ii) By electric current : In this process, when some copper wire are wrapped around a magnetic material and a
current is provided in the wire, then the material changed into a magnet.
Electro Magnet
The magent which are built up with the help of electric current is known as electromagnet.
For example — when a current is provided in a solenoid, then the solenoid will behaves as a magent.
These are temporary magnet.
When a soft iron rod is placed within a solenoid, then magnetism of solenoid increases by hundred of times.

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 Classical & Earth Magnetism

Intenstiy of magnetisation ( I ):
When a ferromagnetic material is placed in a magnetic field, it acquires a magnetic dipole moment M. This magnetic
dipole moment per unit volume of the substance is known as intensity of magnetisation. It is given by

 M
I
V
where V is the volume of the ferromagnetic specimen. If m is the pole strength developed in the specimen and 2  is the
magnetic length of the specimen, then
m  2 m
I 
A  2 A
where A is the cross-sectional area of the specimen.
SI unit of intensity of magnetisation is A m–1.


Magnetic Intensity or Magnetic Field Strength ( H )
When a substance is placed in an external magnetic field, it becomes magnetised. The actual magnetic field inside the
substance is the sum of the external field and the due to its magnetisation. The capability of the magnetising field to

magnetise the substance is expressed by means of vector ( H ) , called the magnetic intensity' of the field. It is defined
 
through the vector relation. B   0H
Inside a material having magnetic permeability r the relation is modified as
 
B   0 rH
     
Relation between B , H in I and in Magnetization of Materials is given by B  B 0  B i

    B 
B   0H   0 I ( H ) =   I
0
 
where ( B ) is magnetic field induction inside the substance and I is the intensity of magnetisation and
0 is the permeability of space.
 
The SI unit of ( H ) is same as of I , that is, ampere/metre (Am–1). The C.G .S. unit is oersted.

Relative magnetic permeability

Relative magnetic permeability of a material is defined as the ratio of the number of lines of magnetic induction per unit
area (i.e., flux density B) in the material to the number of magnetic lines per unit area that would be present it the
medium were replaced by a vacume (i.e., flux density B0).
B
r 
B0
Relative magnetic permeability of a material may also be defined as the ratio of magnetic permeability of the material
() and the magnetic permeability of free space (0).

r 
 0 or   r  0
For diamagnetic substance r < 1
For paramagnetic substance r > 1
For ferromagnetic substance r >> 1

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 Classical & Earth Magnetism
Magnetic susceptibility () :
This is a constant parameter for each material which gives an idea about the ease with which the material can be
magnetized when subjected to external magnetic field.
Magnetic susceptibility is defined as the ratio of the intensity of magnetisation and the magnetic intensity of the magnetising
field.
       

H
I
e j
 I  H  B  B 0  B i   0  r H   0 H  H  r = 1 + 

where  is 'constant' known as the susceptibility of the substance. It is a unitless and dimensionless quantity.
Magnetic susceptibility for different materials–
Value of it may be negative or positive.
(i) Value of magnetic susceptibility is negative and very small for diamagnetic material
(ii) Value of magnetic susceptibility is positive but small value for paramegnetic material
(iii) Value of magnetic susceptibility is positive and very high for ferromagnetic material
1
For paramagnetic materials it is reciprocal to temperature.  
T
Magnetisation & De–magnetisation –
When a paramagnetic substance is magnetised due to magnetic induction is knwon as magnetisation induction.
With the help of this process magnetic strenght of any material can be increased.
When magnetism of a magnetic substance is totaly cancelled than it is known as de-magnetisation. With the help of this
process magnetic strenght of any material can be decreased.
Magnetism of a magnet can be destroyed when it is placed at a place for a long time, when it is cooled down after
heating, in forging process.
The condition after which magnetic strength of a magnetic material is stop to increased is known as magnetic saturation.
Magnetic Shielding -
The arrangment for a body to keep the body free from the effect of magnetic field is known as magnetic shielding.
When a iron box is kept in a magnetic field than field inside box is zero (B = 0). A magnet to keep it free from magnetic
effect it should be placed in a iron box.
Curie's temperature and Curie's Law–
When a paramagnetic substance is heated then its magnetic susceptibility is decreases. According to Curie's Law for a
1 C
paramagnetic substance   
T T
Where T = Absolute temp, C =Curie's constant, =magnetic susceptibility
Mangetic susceptibility of ferromagentic substance does not follow curie's law. For the ferromagnetic meterial, we have
a modified equation called Curie-Weiss equation.
C'
m 
T  TC
where TC is curie temperature and C' is constant.
According to this relation, when the ferromagnetic material is heated, it becomes paramagnetic at a certain temperature.
This temperature is called Curie temperature.
Note : The most exotic diamagnetic materials are super conductors
For super conductor r = 0,  = –1 i.e., super conductor don't allow magnetic lines of force pass through it. This
phenomenon of perfect diamganetism is called the meissner's effect.
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 Classical & Earth Magnetism
Comparision between Different Magnetic Materials
Property Diamagnetic substances Paramagnetic substances Ferromagnetic substances
Cause of magnetism Orbital motion of electrons Spin motion of electons Formation of domains
Explanation of magnetism On the basis of orbital motion On the basis of spin and orbital On the basis of domains
of electrons motion of electrons formed
Behaviour in a non-uniform These are repelled in an These are feebly attracted in These are strongly attacted in
magnetic field external magnetic field, i.e,. an external magnetic field i.e., an external magntic field, i.e.,
have a tendency to move from have a tendency to move from they easily move from low to
high to low field region. low to high field region. high field region.

Pushed up Pulled in Very strong

pull

N S N S N S

State of magnetisation These are weakly magnetised These get weakly magnetised These get strongly
in a direction opposite to that in the direction of applied magnetised in the direction of
When the material in the form of applied magnetic field magnetic field applied magnetic very much
of liquid is filled in the U-tube Liquid level in that limb gets Liquid level in that limb rises Liquid level in that limb rises
and placed between pole depresed up up very much
pieces.
N S N S N S

Liquid Liquid Liquid

The value of magnetic B < B 0 (whe re B 0 is the B > B0 B >> B0

induction B magnetic induction in vacuum)
Magnetic susceptibility  Low and negative ||  1 Low but positive  1 Positive and high  102
Dependence of  o n Does not depend on On cooling, these get These get converted into
temperature temperature (except Bi at low converted to ferromagnetic paramagnetic materials at
temperature) materials at Curie temperature Curie temperature
x x x

T T TC T

Relative r < 1 r > 1 r >> 1

Permeability (r) I is in a direction opposite to I is in the direction of H but r = 102
Intensity of magnetisation (I) that of H and its value is very value is low I is in the direction of H and
low value is very high.

I-H curves x
+I

H
–I H TC T
Magnetic moment (M) Very low ( 0) Very low Very high
Examples Cu, Ag, Au, Bi, Sb, NaCl, H 2O Al, Mn, Pt, Na, CuCl2, O2 and Fe, Co, Ni, Cd, Fe3O4 etc.
air and diamond etc. crown glass

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 Classical & Earth Magnetism
Hysteresis : Retentivity and coercivity :

Hystersis curve : When a ferromagnetic substance is placed in a magnetic field, it is magnetised by induction. If we vary

magnetic intensity H of the magnetising field, the intensity of magnetisation I and the flux density B in the (ferromagnetic)
substance do not vary linearly with H. In other words the susceptibility m (= I/H) and the permeability  = (= B/H) of the
substance are not constants, but vary with H and also depend upon the past history of the substance.

I or B
A
B

sm
g n nt
M a mna
eti
Re
C
–H O F H
ity
civ
er

E
Co

D
I or B
Hysteresis Loop

The variation in I with variation in H is shown in above figure. The point O represents the initial unmagnetised state of
the substance (I = 0) and a zero magnetic intensity (H = 0). As H is increased, I increase (non- uniformly) along OA. At

A the substance acquires a state of magnetic saturation. Any further increase in H does not provide any increase in I.

If now the magnetising field H is decreased, the magnetisation I of the substance also decrease following a new
path AB (not the original path AO). Thus I lags behind H. When H becomes zero, I still has a value equal to OB. The

magnetisating remaining in the substance when the magnetising field is reduced to zero is called the "residual
magnetism". The power of retaining this magnetism is called the "retentivity" or the remanence of the substance.
Thus, the retentivity of a substance is a measure of the magnetisation remaining in the substance when the magnetising

field is removed In figure OB represents the retentivity of the substance.

If now the magnetising field H is increased in the reverse direction, the magnetisation I decrease along BC, still
lagging behind H, until it becomes zero at C where H equals OC. The value OC of the magnetising field is called the

"coercive" or "coercivity" of the substance. Thus, the coercivity of a substance is a measure of the reverse magnetising
field required to destroy the residual magnetism of the substance. As H is increased beyond OC, the substance is
increasingly magnetised in the opposite direction along CD, at 0 the substance is again magnetically saturated.

By taking H back from its maximum negative value (through zero) to its original maximum positive value, a symmetrical
curve DEFA is obtained. At points B and E where the substance is magnetised in the absence of any external magnetising
field , it is said to be a "permanent magnet".

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 Classical & Earth Magnetism
It is thus found that the magnetisation I (or of B) behind H is called "hysteresis". The closed curve ABCDEFA
which represents a cycle of magnetisation of the substance is known as the "hysteresis curve (or loop)" of the
substance. On repeating the process, the same closed curve is traced again but the portion OA is never obtained.
(i) Hysteresis loss :
A ferromagnetic substance consist of local regions called "domains", each of which is spontaneously magnetised. In an
unmagnetised substance the directions of magnetisation in different domains are different so that, on the average, the
resultant magnetisation is zero.
It can be proved that the energy lost per unit volume of a substance in a complete cycle of magnetisation is equal to the
area of the hysteresis loop (I-Hcurve).
If A = area of hysteresis loop, V = volume of specimen, f = frequency then energy loss for a specimen in time 't' to
magnetise and demagnetise the specimen then the total energy loss is equal to AVft.
(ii) Difference in magnetic properties of soft iron and steel :
A comparison of the magnetic properties of ferromagnetic substance can be made by the comparison of shapes and
sizes of their hysteresis loops. In figure are shown hystersis loops of soft iron and steel for the same values of I and H.
We can draw following conclusions regarding the magnetic properties of these substance from these loops :

I SOFT IRON
B' STEEL
B

C
O H

(a) The retentivity of soft iron (OB') is greater than the retentivity of steel (OB).
(b) The coercivity of soft iron (OC') is less than the coercivity of steel (OC).
(c) The hysteresis loss in soft iron is smaller that in steel because the area of the soft iron is smaller than that of steel.
(d) Curves between magnetic flux density B and magnetising field H would reveal that the permeability of soft iron is
greater than that of steel.
Choice of magnetic materials :
The choice of a magnetic material for making permanent magnet, electromagnet, core of transformer can be decided
from the hysteresis curve of the material.
(i) Permanent magnets:
The material for a permanent magnet should have high retenvity so that the magnet is strong, and high coercivity so
that the magnetisation is not wiped out by stray external fields, mechanical ill treatement and temperature changes. The
hysteresis loss is immaterial because the material in this case is never put to cyclic changes of magnetisation. From
these considerations magnets are made of steel. The fact that the retentivity of soft iron is a little greater than that of
steel is outweighed by its much smaller coercivity, which makes it very easy to demagnetise.

E.g. Steel and Alloy(Alnico) (Al + Ni + Co)

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 Classical & Earth Magnetism
(ii) Electromagnets : The material for the cores of electromagnets should have high permeability (or high susceptibility),
specially at low magnetising fields, and a low retentivity. Soft iron is suitable material for electromagnets.

(iii) Transformer cores and telephone diaphragms : In these cases the material goes through complete cycles of
magnetisation continuously The material must therefore have a low hysteresis loss to have less dissipation of energy
and hence a small heating of the material (otherwise the insulation of wind ings may break), a high permeability (to

obtain a large flux density at low field) and a high specific resistance (to reduce eddy current loses).

Soft -iron is used for making transformer cores and telephone diaphragms : More effective alloys have now been
developed for transformer cores. They are permalloys mum metals etc.
_______________________________________________________________________
Examples ...
Ex.1 A solenoid of 500 turns/m is carrying a current of 3A. Relative permeability of core material of solenoid is 5000.
Determine the magntidues of the magnetic intensity, magetization and the magnetic field inside the core -
Sol. Magnetic intensity
H = I = 500 m–1 × 3A = 1500 Am–1
r = 1 + , i.e.  = 5000 – 1 = 4999
Hence, the magnetisation
I = H = 7.5 × 106 Am–1
The magnetic field
B = 0rH
= 5000 × 4 × 10–7 × 1500 = 9.4 T
Ex.2 A rod of magnetic material of cross-section 0.25 cm2 is located in 4000 A/m magnetising field. Magnetic flux passes
through the rod is 25 × 10–6 Wb. Find out for rod -
(i) permeability
(ii) magnetic susceptibility
(iii) magnetisation

25  10 6
Sol. (i) Magnetic flux  = BA  B = /A = = 1 Wb/m2
0.25  10 4
B 1
B = H   = = = 2.25 × 10–4 Wb/A-m
H 4000
FG  IJ
H
(ii) r = 1 + m  m = r – 1   r 
0 K
F
2.5  10 4 I

m =  – 1 =
0
GH
4   10 7
JK
 1 = 199 – 1 = 198

(iii) Magnetization I = m H = 198 × 4000 = 7.92 × 105 A/m

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 Classical & Earth Magnetism
Ex.3 In a region at 280 K temperature magnetic susceptibility of an aluminium sample is 2.4 × 10–5 , then calculate its
magnetic susceptibility 320 K -
m1 T2 T1 m1 280
Sol.  –5  –5
 m2 T1  m2 = m1 × T2  m2 = 2.4 × 10 ×  m2 320 = 2.1 × 10
Ex.4 A piece of iron of mass 8.4 kg is repeatedly magnetised and demagnetised by an external periodic time varying magnetic
field of frequency 50 Hz. In the iron piece it is measured that rate of heat dissipation is 6.4 × 104 J/hr. If iron density is
7200 kg/m3 find the energy dissipated in iron piece per cycle per unit volume of it.
Sol. The heat dissipation in the iron piece per unit volume per hour is given as

Heat 6.4  10 4
Q= = J/hr-m3
Volume 8.4 / 7200
Period of one cycle of magnetisation is given as
1 1
T= = hr
f 50  3600
Thus heat dissipated per cycle per unit volume is given as

6.4  10 4 1
Qv = × = 305 J/m3
8.4 / 7200 50  3600
_______________________________________________________________________
Try yourself...
1. The magnetic materials having negative magnetic susceptibility are -
(1) Non magnetic (2) Para magnetic (3) Diamagnetic (4) Ferromagnetic

2. A solenoid has has 103 turns per unit length. On passing a current of 2A, magnetic induction is measured to be
4 Wb/m2. Calculate magnetic susceptibility of core -
(1) 4999 (2) 2999 (3) 3999 (4) 1099

3. A magnetising field of 1600 A-m–1 produces a magnetic flux of 3.14 × 10–5 waber in a bar of iron of cross section
0.2 cm2. Permeability of the bar will be -
(1) 9.8 × 10–5 Waber/A-m (2) 9.8 × 10–4 Waber/A-m

(3) 1.8 × 10–4 Waber/A-m (4) 9.8 × 104 Waber/A-m

4. An iron rod of cross sectional area 4 cm2 is placed with its length parallel to a magnetising field 1600 Am–1. The flux
through the rod is 4 × 10–4 weber. Find out permeability of the material of the rod?

(1) 62.5 × 10–3 Waber/A-m (2) 0.625 × 10–3 Waber/A-m

(3) 6.25 × 10–3 Waber/A-m (4) 625 × 10–3 Waber/A-m
5. Which of the following relations is not correct -

(1) B = 0 (H + I) (2) B = 0H (1 + m) (3) 0 =  (1 + m) (4) r = 1 + m

Ans. 1. (3), 2. (1), 3. (2), 4. (2), 5. (3)
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 Classical & Earth Magnetism

Earth Magnetism
The origin of earth's magnetism is still a matter of conjecture among scientists but it is agreed upon that the earth

behaves as a magnetic dipole inclined at a small angle (11.5°) to the earth's axis of rotation with its south pole pointing
north. The lines of force of earth's magnetic field are shown in figure which are parallel to earth's surface near the
equator and perpendicular to it near the poles. Our earth behaves as a magnet whose South Pole is in direction of

geographical north and North Pole is in direction of geographical South Pole. This fact proves by following statements.
(1) a freely suspended magnetic needle remains in north south direction
(2) a piece of iron beneath earth surface change into magnet

(3) existence of neutral points : When magnetic lines of force are drawn then we get some points such that
magnetic field of magnet cancel by magnetic field of earth. If earth has not magnetic field, we never get
such neutral point.

GN : Geographic North

GS : Geographic South

GE : Geographic East

GW : Geographic West

MN : Magnetic North

MS : Magnetic Soth

ME : Magnetic East

MW : Magnetic West

(a) Magnetic Meridian :

A vertical plane passing through axis of magnet, when it freely suspended or through the magnetic north and

magnetic south. This vertical plane is known as magnetic meridian.

(b) Geographical Meridian :
The geographical meridian at a place is a vertical plane which passes through the line joining the geographical

north and south, i.e., it is a plane which contains the place and geographical axis.
(c) The magnetic field of earth is not constant and changes irregularly from place to place on the surface of the earth
and even at a given place it varies with time too.

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 Classical & Earth Magnetism
Elements of the Earth's Magnetism :
1. Angle of declination () :
At any place angle between geographical meridian and magnetic meridian is known as angle of declination.
This is an acute angle.

-is angle of declination

2. Angle of dip () :

When a freely suspended dip needle remains in magnetic meridian, it makes an angle with horizontal.
In this condition, angle made by magnetic axis with horizontal is known as angle of dip.

Therefore, angle of dip is the angle between earth’s magnetic field and the horizontal direction.
3. Horizontal component of Earth's field
At any place earth’s magnetic field (Be) which is working on magnetic meridian can be divided into two

components, one is horizontal (BH) and second is vertical (BV).

Bv
BE
BE
Bv

BH  G H  BH
S N S N
In northern hemisphere In southern hemisphere
(a) (b)

Horizontal component of earth’s magnetic field is BH = Be cos 

Vertical component of earth’s magnetic field is BV = Be sin 

1 B V
B e  B H2  B V 2    tan B (where  is the angle of dip)
H

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 Classical & Earth Magnetism
Important Points :
– At magnetic poles  = 90º  BH = 0, BV  0
– At magnetic equator  = 0º BV = 0, BH  0
– At magnetic equatorial line the magnetic lines of force of earth magnetism are parallel to earth surface i.e., only

horizontal component of earth magnetism exists B = BH ( j) i.e., towards south to north.
– Horizontal component of earth magnetic field is from south to north at every point on the earth.
– Vertical component of earth magnetic field is outward (k ) in southern hemisphere and inward (k ) in northern
hemisphere.
Apparent Dip :
If a magnetic needle in placed in a plane other the magnetic meridian then the direction indicated by needle in not the
direction of resultant magnetic field.
In this condition the angle made by magnetic axis of needle with horizontal is called apparent dip.

Magnetic
Meridian
BH

B'H Bv

BV BV tan 
tan '   
B'H BH cos  cos 
here  = true dip
' = apparent dip
 = angle of the vertical plane with the magnetic meridian
if  = 90° then tan' =  , ' = 90°

_______________________________________________________________________
Examples ...
Ex.1 Earth’s magnetic field Be at some location is directed at 45° from horizontal. If horizontal component of earth’s magnetic
field here is B0 then earth’s magnetic field Be will be ?
Sol. BH = Be cos  B0 = Be cos 45°  Be = 2B o
Ex.2 At some location, horizontal component of earth’s magnetic field is 3 times of vertical component then inclination of
earth’s magnetic field with horizontal will be ?

v B Bv 1
Sol. tan = B      30
H 3B v 3
Ex.3 In the magnetic meridian of a certtain place, the horizontal component of earth's magnetic field is 0.26 G and the dip
angle is 60°. Find -
(a) Vertical component of earth's magnetic field. (b) The net magnetic field at this place.

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 Classical & Earth Magnetism
V
Sol. (a) tan  =
H
 V = H tan  = (0.26) tan 60° = 0.45 G
(b) H = Be cos 
H 0.26
 Be = = = 0.52 G
cos  cos 60
Ex.4 A magnetic needle in a vertical plane which is at a angle of 30° from magnetic meridian is making an angle of 30° with
horizontal then the true dip angle at this position of earth is equal to -
tan 
Sol. tan ' = , ' = 30°,  = 30°
cos 
tan ' = tan ' cos 

1 3 1
= tan 30° cos 30° =  =
3 2 2

FG 1 IJ = 26°
 = tan–1 H 2K
_______________________________________________________________________
Try yourself...
1. An observer is facing towards the north and an  particle is moving towards him. If  particle deviate towards east
then observer is standing in -
(1) northern hemisphere (2) southern hemisphere
(3) Equator (4) North pole
2. An observer is facing towards north in southern hemisphere. An electron moving away from the observer will be deviate
towards -
(1) East (2) West (3) South (4) Vertical downward
3. Cosmic rays coming from the space towards the earth will deviate in direction -
(1) North (2) South (3) East (4) West
4. Which of the statement is correct about cosmic rays coming from the space towards the earth :
(1) will reach smoothly at the poles (2) will not reach smoothly at the poles
(3) will reach smoothly at the equator (4) Never reach at the equator
* Cosmic rays consist 80% positive charged ions.
Ans. 1. (1), 2. (2), 3. (3), 4. (1, 4)
_______________________________________________________________________

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