CHAPTER 8: NERVOUS SYSTEM

Chapter 8: NERVOUS SYSTEM  Enteric nervous system

 a special nervous system found only in the
digestive tract.

Cells of the Nervous System

2 Principle Types:

 Neurons
 receive stimuli, conduct action potentials, and transmit
signals to other neurons or effector organs.
 a neuron (nerve cell) has a:
 Cell body
 contains a single nucleus
 Dendrite
 a cytoplasmic extension from the cell body
 usually receives information from other
Nervous System Functions neurons and transmits the information to
the cell body.
1. Receiving sensory input.  Axon
2. Integrating information.  A single long cell process that leaves the
3. Controlling muscles and glands. cell body at the axon hillock and conducts
4. Maintaining homeostasis. sensory signals to the CNS and motor
5. Establishing and maintaining mental activity. signals away from the CNS.
 Anatomy:
they have common features:
1. Cell body
 metabolic center of neuron (trophic
center)
 carries genetic information
 may form groups in CNS called nucleus
 may form groups in PNS called ganglion
 Parts: Nucleus, Cytoplasm (perikaryon)
Main Divisions of Nervous System

Central Nervous System (CNS) 1.A. Nucleus

 brain and spinal cord  usually one, centrally located
 large, transparent
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)  has a dark nucleolus, thus “fish-eye”
 all the nervous tissue outside the CNS nucleus

1.B. Cytoplasm or Perikaryon

 Sensory Division
 contains the usual organelles expect it
 conducts action potentials from sensory receptors to
lacks centrioles.
the CNS. a. Nissl bodies, highly developed
 Motor Division rough ER.
 conducts action potentials to effector organs such as b. Neurofibrils, acts as cytoskeleton,
muscles and glands. important in maintaining cell
shape
Motor Division Subdivision:
c. plays a role in development or
 Somatic nervous system
regeneration of axons.
 transmits action potentials from the CNS to
2. Processes or Fibers
skeletal muscles.
 armlike, vary in length from microscopic to
 Autonomic nervous system
3-4 feet
 transmits action potentials from the CNS to
 the longest extend from the lumbar region
cardiac muscle, smooth muscle, and glands.
to the great toe
 the Autonomic NS has two parts (typically
with opposite effects, one inhibits the other 2.A. Dendrites
stimulates):  the receptive process
 Sympathetic  transmit impulses towards the cell
 Parasympathetic body

2.B. Axon
 the discharging processes
 transmit impulses away from the cell
body
 golgi type 1 axon – long
 golgi type 2 axon – short
 arises from the conical elevation of cell
body called axon hillock
 within the gray matter, axon is naked
 within white matter, enclosed with
myelin sheath

2.C. Nodes of Ranvier

 gaps along the path of myelin sheath

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CHAPTER 8: NERVOUS SYSTEM
 site where axon gives branches
(collateral)

2.D. Axon Terminal  Glial Cells

 bulbous enlargement at the axon ends  the supportive cells of the CNS and PNS.
 contains hundreds of tiny vesicles, or
membranous sacs that contains Types of Neuroglia found in CNS:
neurotransmitter. 1. Astrocytes
2.E. Synaptic cleft  serve as the major supporting cells in the CNS
 a tiny gap that separates the axon  star-shaped cells, account for half of the neural
terminal from next neuron. tissue.
 living barrier between capillaries and neurons
2.F. Myelin sheath (surround the capillaries with their foot
 whitish, fatty material, waxy in processes).
appearance that covers most of the  stimulate or inhibit the signaling activity of
long nerve. nearby neurons and form the blood-brain
 Axons outside the CNS is myelinated barrier
by Schwann cells.  protect the neurons from harmful substances in
 Functions: Protects and insulates the the blood.
fibers and increases transmission of  play a role in exchange between capillaries and
nerve impulses. neurons, to help control the chemical
environment in the brain – like mopping up
leaked potassium and recapturing released
neurotransmitter.
2. Microglia
 act in an immune function in the CNS by
removing bacteria and cell debris.
 spider-like phagocytes that monitor the health
of nearby neurons.
 also dispose debris and dead brain cells and
bacteria.
 scavenger cells of the CNS.

3. Ependymal cells
 line the cavities in the brain that contains
Structural Types of Neurons cerebrospinal fluid.
 Multipolar neurons  line the cavities of the brain and spinal cord.
 have many dendrites and a single axon.  help to circulate the CSF with the action of cilia.
 most of the neurons within the CNS and 4. Oligodendrocytes
nearly all motor neurons are multipolar.  provide myelin to neurons in the CNS.
 Bipolar neurons  produced the myelin sheaths, a fatty insulating
 have two processes: one dendrite and one covering.
axon.  they wrap the flat extensions around the nerve
 located in some sensory organs, such as in the fiber.
retina of the eye and in the nasal cavity.
Types of Neuroglia found in PNS:
 Pseudo-unipolar neurons
 have a single process extending from the cell 1. Schwann cells
body, which divides into two processes as  provide myelin sheath to neurons in the PNS.
short distance from the cell body. 2. Satellite cells
 one process extends to the periphery, and the  protective and cushion cells.
other extends to the CNS.
 the two extensions function as a single axon Myelin Sheath
with small, dendrite-like sensory receptors at
the periphery.  specialized layers that wrap around the axons of some neurons,
 Peripheral process – carry impulses from the those neurons are termed, myelinated.
skin/organs to ganglion.  formed by Oligodendrocytes in the CNS and Schwann cells in
 Central process – carry impulses from the the PNS.
soma to the CNS.  an excellent insulator that prevents almost all ion movement
across the cell membrane.
 gaps in the myelin sheath called nodes of Ranvier, occur about
every millimeter, where ion movement can occur.
 myelination of an axon increases the speed and efficiency of
action potential generation along the axon.
 multiple sclerosis is a disease of the myelin sheath that causes
loss of muscle function.

Unmyelinated Neurons

 axons lack the myelin sheaths.

 these axons rest in indentations of the oligodendrocytes in the
CNS and the Schwann cells in the PNS.

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CHAPTER 8: NERVOUS SYSTEM
 a typical small nerve, which consists of axons of multiple 2. Sensory neurons conduct action potentials to the spinal
neurons, usually contains more unmyelinated axons than cord.
myelinated axons. 3. Sensory neurons synapse with interneurons that synapse
with motor neurons.
4. Excitation of the motor neurons results in contraction of the
Synapse flexor muscles and withdrawal of the limb from the painful
stimulus.
 a junction where the axon of one neuron interacts with another Reflex arc is the neuronal pathway by which a reflex occurs and
neuron. has five basic components.
 the end of the axon forms a presynaptic terminal, and the
Reflex Arc Components:
membrane of the next neuron forms the postsynaptic
membrane, with a synaptic cleft between the two membranes. 1. A sensory receptor
 chemical substances called neurotransmitters are stored in 2. A sensory neuron
synaptic vesicles in the presynaptic terminal. 3. Interneurons, which are located between and
communicating with two other neurons
4. A motor neuron
5. An effector organ (muscles or glands)

*Note: The simplest reflex arcs do not involve interneurons.

Neuronal Pathway (Converging)

 the CNS has simple to complex neuronal pathways.

 a converging pathway is a simple pathway in which two or more neurons
synapse with the same postsynaptic neuron.
 this allows information transmitted in more than one neuronal pathway to
converge into a single pathway.

Neuronal Pathway (Diverging)

 a diverging pathway is a simple pathway in which an axon from

one neuron divides and synapses with more than one other
postsynaptic neuron.
 this allows information transmitted in one neuronal pathway to
diverge into two or more pathway.

The Nervous System

 can be divided into the central nervous system and the

peripheral nervous system.
 the Central Nervous System (CNS) consists of the brain and
spinal cord.
 the Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) consists of all the nerves
and ganglia outside the brain and spinal cord.

Spinal Cord

 extends from foramen magnum to 2nd lumbar vertebra

 protected by vertebral column
 spinal nerves allow movement
 if damaged, paralysis may occur
Reflex
Gray Matter and White Matter
 an involuntary reaction in response to a stimulus applied to the
 Gray Matter
periphery and transmitted to the CNS.
 center of spinal cord
 allows a person to react to stimuli more quickly than is possible
 looks like letter H or a butterfly
if conscious thought is involved.
 White Matter
 mostly occur in the spinal cord or brainstem rather than in the
 outside of spinal cord
higher brain centers.
 contains myelinated fibers
 the simplest reflex is the stretch reflex which occurs when
muscles contract in response to a stretching force applied to Spinal Nerves
them.  arise along spinal cord from union of dorsal roots and
Patellar or Knee-jerk Reflex ventral roots
 a classic example of a stretch reflex  contains axons sensory and somatic neurons
 the simplest type in humans  located between vertebrae
 the quadriceps muscle attached to the hit tendon is  categorized by region of vertebral column which it
stretched emerges (C for cervical)
 to determine the general health of the motor  31 pairs
portion of the nervous system  organized in 3 plexuses
 the withdrawal reflex, or flexor reflex, is to remove a limb or
 Cervical Plexus
another body part from a painful stimulus.
 the sensory receptors are pain receptors, and  spinal nerves C1-4
stimulation of these receptors initiates the reflex.  innervates muscles attached to hyoid bone and neck
 contains phrenic nerve which innervates diaphragm
Steps of Withdrawal Reflex:  Brachial Plexus
 originates from spinal nerves C5-T1
1. Pain receptors detect a painful stimulus.
 supply nerves to upper limb, shoulder, hand
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CHAPTER 8: NERVOUS SYSTEM
 Hypothalamus
 Lumbosacral Plexus  Location: below thalamus
 originates from spinal nerves L1-S4  Characteristics: controls pituitary gland and is connected
 supply nerves lower limbs to it by infundibulum
 Function: controls homeostasis, body temp, thirst,
hunger, fear, rage, sexual emotions
Brainstem Cerebrum

Characteristics:
 largest portion of brain
 Divisions:
 Right hemisphere
 Left hemisphere
 Lobes:
 Frontal
 Parietal
 Occipital
 Temporal
 Insula

Components of Cerebrum:
Components of Brainstem:  Cerebral Cortex
 Location: surface of cerebrum, composed of gray matter
 Medulla Oblongata  Function:
 Location: continuous with spinal cord  controls thinking, communicating
 Function: regulates heart rate, blood vessel diameter,  remembering, understanding, and initiates
breathing, swallowing, vomiting, hiccupping, coughing,  involuntary movements
sneezing, balance
 Other: pyramids: involved in conscious control of skeletal Cerebrum Surface Features
muscle  Gyri
 folds on cerebral cortex that increase surface area
 Pons
 Location: above medulla, bridge between cerebrum and  Sulci
cerebellum
 shallow indentations
 Function: Breathing, chewing, salivation, swallowing, relay
station between cerebrum and cerebellum  Fissure
 deep indentations
 Midbrain
 Location: above pons
 Function: coordinated eye movement, pupil diameter,
turning head toward noise
 Other: the dorsal part has the four colliculi which are
involved in visual and auditory reflexes

 Reticular Formation
 Location: scattered throughout brainstem
 Function: regulates cyclical motor function, respiration,
walking, chewing, arousing and maintaining
consciousness, regulates sleep-walk cycle

Cerebellum
Cerebral Hemispheres
 Location: attached to the brainstem by the cerebellar
peduncles  Left hemisphere
 Characteristics:  controls right side of body
 means little brain  responsible for math, analytic, and speech
 cortex is composed of gyri, sulci, gray matter
 Functions:  Right hemisphere
 controls balance  controls left side of body
 muscle tone  responsible for music, art, abstract ideas
 coordination of fine motor
 Corpus callosum
Diencephalon  connection between the two hemispheres

Located between the brainstem and cerebrum. Lobes of the Brain

Components of Diencephalon:  Frontal Lobe

 Thalamus  Location: front
 Characteristics: largest portion of diencephalon  Function: controls voluntary motor functions, aggression,
 Function: influences moods and directs pain moods, smell

 Epithalamus  Parietal Lobe

 Location: above thalamus  Location: top
 Function: emotional and visceral response to odors  Function: evaluates sensory input

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CHAPTER 8: NERVOUS SYSTEM
 Occipital Lobe  mainly in left hemisphere
 Location: back
 Function: vision  Sensory speech (Wernicke’s area)
 parietal lobe
 Temporal Lobe  where words are heard and comprehended
 Location: sides  Motor speech (Broca’s area)
 Function: hearing, smell, memory  frontal lobe
 where words are formulated

Brain Waves and Consciousness

 used to diagnose and determine treatment for brain disorders

 Electroencephalogram (EEG)
 electrodes plated on scalp to record brain’s electrical activity

Limbic System and Emotions

 The olfactory cortex and certain deep cortical regions and the
diencephalon are grouped together under the title limbic
system.
 The limbic system influences long-term declarative memory,
emotions, visceral responses to emotions, motivation, and
mood.
 A major source of sensory input to the limbic system are the
olfactory nerves.
 The limbic system is connected, and functionally associated with,
Basal Nuclei
the hypothalamus.
 group of functionally related nuclei  Lesions in the limbic system can result in voracious appetite,
 plan, organize, coordinate motor movements and posture increased (often perverse) sexual activity, and docility (including
loss of normal fear and anger response).
 Corpus striatum
 deep in cerebrum

 Substantia nigra
 In midbrain

Meninges

 three connective tissue layers that surround the brain and spinal
cord.
Motors Areas of Cerebral Cortex  the outermost (most superficial) meningeal layer is the dura
mater, which is the toughest of all the meninges.
 Primary motor cortex
 the dura mater forms two layers around the brain and the only
 frontal lobe
one layer around the spinal cord.
 control voluntary motor movement
 the second meningeal membrane is the very thin, wispy
arachnoid mater.
 Premotor area
 the space between the dura mater and the arachnoid mater is
 frontal lobe
the subdural space, which is normally only a potential space
 where motor functions are organized before initiation
containing a very small amount of serious fluid.
 cerebrospinal fluid and blood vessels are found in the
 Pre-fontal area
subarachnoid space.
 motivation and foresight to plan and initiate movement
 the third meningeal membrane, the pia mater, is very tightly
bound to the surface of the brain and spinal cord.

Speech

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CHAPTER 8: NERVOUS SYSTEM

Ventricles

 the CNS contains fluid-filled cavities, called ventricles Cranial Nerves

 each cerebral hemisphere contains a relatively large cavity called
the lateral ventricle.  12 pairs of cranial nerves
 the third ventricle is a smaller, midline cavity located in the  named by roman numerals
center of the diencephalon between the two halves of the  2 categories of functions: sensory and motor
thalamus and connected by foramina (holes) to the lateral  Cranial Nerve I (Olfactory) is a pure sensory nerve for smell
ventricles.  Cranial Nerve II (Optic) is a pure sensory nerve for vision
 the fourth ventricle is located at the base of the cerebellum and  Cranial Nerve III (Oculomotor) is a pure motor nerve for eye
connected to the third ventricle by a narrow canal called the movement
cerebral aqueduct.  Cranial Nerve IV (Trochlear) is a pure motor nerve for eye
 the fourth ventricle is continuous with the central canal of the movement
spinal cord.  Cranial Nerve V (Trigeminal) is both a motor and sensory nerve.
 the fourth ventricle also opens into the subarachnoid space It is sensory for pain, touch, and temperature for the eye and
through foramina in its walls and roof. lower and upper jaws. It is motor for muscles of chewing.
 Cranial Nerve VI (Abducens) is a pure motor nerve for eye
movement
 Cranial Nerve VII (Facial) is both a sensory and motor nerve. It is
sensory for taste and motor for facial expression
 Cranial Nerve VIII (Vestibulocochlear) is a pure sensory nerve
for hearing and equilibrium
 Cranial Nerve IX (Glossopharyngeal) is both a motor and
sensory nerve. It is sensory for taste and motor for swallowing
 Cranial Nerve X (Vagus) is both a motor and sensory nerve. It is
sensory and motor for organs in the thoracic and abdominal
cavities.
 Cranial Nerve XI (Accessory) is a pure motor nerve for the
trapezius, sternocleidomastoid, and muscles of the larynx
 Cranial Nerve XII (Hypoglossal) is a pure motor nerve for the
tongue
Cerebrospinal Fluid

 Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF) bathes the brain and spinal cord,

providing a protective cushion around the CNS.
 the ependymal cells located in the choroid plexuses of the
ventricles produce the CSF.
 CSF fills the brain ventricles, the central canal of the spinal cord,
and the subarachnoid space.

Precious Faith Rodriguez