Operating Systems

Chapter 2 Process and Threads

Tien Pham Van, Dr. rer. nat.

(Lecture compiled with reference to other

presentations)
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 Process Concept
• A process is an instance of a computer program
that is being executed. It contains the program
code and its current activity.

• Depending on the operating system (OS), a process

may be made up of multiple threads of execution
that execute instructions concurrently

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 Processes
• A process is a unique
execution of a program.
– Several copies of a program
may run simultaneously or at
different times.
• A process has its own state:
– registers;
– memory.
• The operating system
manages processes.

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 Process
Process: a program in execution
• Text section:
– program code
– program counter (PC)
– data of registers
• Stack: to save temporary data
• Data section: store global variables
• Heap: for memory management

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 Process in Memory

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 Process State

• new: The process is being created

• running: Instructions are being executed
• waiting: The process is waiting for some event to
occur
• ready: The process is waiting to be assigned to a
process
• terminated: The process has finished execution

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 Diagram of Process State

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 Process Control Block (PCB)
• Each process is represented in a
operating system by a Process
Control Block (PCB)
– Process identifier
– Process state
– Program counter (PC)
– CPU scheduling information
– Memory-management information
– Accounting information
– I/O status information

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 Process Control Block Process Identification

• Process Control Block

The collection of attributes is refereed to as process control
block.
• Unique numeric identifier
– may be an index into the primary process table

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 Process Control

• Process Control Block (PCB)

• Process State Information
• Process Control Information
• Functions of an Operating-System Kernel
• Switch a Process
• Change of Process State
• Execution of the Operating System

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 Memory Tables
• Allocation of main memory to processes
• Allocation of secondary memory to processes
• Protection attributes for access to shared memory
regions
• Information needed to manage virtual memory

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 I/O Tables
• I/O device is available or assigned
• Status of I/O operation
• Location in main memory being used as the source
or destination of the I/O transfer

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 Further in programming...

• [Link]
Kch3Hk

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 File Tables
• Existence of files
• Location on secondary memory
• Current Status
• Attributes
• Sometimes this information is maintained by a file-
management system
(Think about struct stat and stat( ) )

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 Process State Transition Diagram with Two
Suspend States - Seven-State Process Model

New

Admit Suspend
Admit

Activate Dispatch
Ready, Ready Running Exit
suspend
Suspend Time out

Event Event
Event
Occurs Wait
Occurs

Activate
Blocked, Blocked
suspend
Suspend
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 UNIX Process State Transition Diagram (1)
fork

Created
Preempted
return
enough not enough memory
to user
memory (swapping system only)

User
Running preempt swap out
return reschedule Ready to Run Ready to Run
in Memory Swapped
process
swap in
system call, Kernel
interrupt
Running

sleep wakeup wakeup

interrupt,
interrupt return exit

Asleep in swap out Sleep,

Zombie Swapped
Memory

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 UNIX Process State Transition Diagram (2)

• User running: Executing in user mode.

• Kernel running: Executing in kernel model.
• Ready to run, in memory: Ready to run as soon as
the kernel schedules it.

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 UNIX Process State Transition Diagram (3)

• Asleep in memory: unable to execute until an event

occurs; process in main memory.
• Ready to run, swapped: process is ready to run, but
the the swapper must swap the process into main
memory before the kernel can schedule it to
execute.
• Sleeping, swapped: The process is awaiting an event
and has been swapped to secondary storage.

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 UNIX Process State Transition Diagram (4)

• Preempted: process is returning from kernel to user

mode, but the kernel preempts it and does a process
switch to schedule another process.
• Created: process is newly created and not yet ready
to run.
• Zombie: process no longer exists, but it leaves a
record for its parent process to collect.

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 UNIX Process Control Table
• Process Identifiers
ID of this process and ID of parent process.
• User Identifiers
real user ID, effective user ID
• Pointers
To user area and process memory (text, data, stack)
• Process Size, Priority, Signal, Timers, ......

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 Context switch
• Activation record: copy of
process state. PC
process 1
• Context switch:
– current CPU context goes
out;
registers
process 2
– new CPU context goes in.

... CPU

memory

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 CPU Switch From Process to Process

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 Process Scheduling

• As processes entered the system, they are put into

job queue
• The processes that stay in main memory and are
ready and waiting to execute are kept on a list called
ready queue
• A ready queue contains pointers to the first and
final PCBs in the list
• The list of processes waiting for a particular I/O is
called a device queue

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 Queueing Diagram

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 Schedulers
• Long-term scheduler
(or job scheduler) –selects which processes should
be brought into the ready queue

• Short-term scheduler
(or CPU scheduler) –selects which process should
be executed next and allocates CPU

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 Schedulers
• Short-term scheduler is invoked very frequently
(milliseconds) ⇒(must be fast)
• Long-term scheduler is invoked very infrequently
(seconds, minutes) ⇒(may be slow)
• The long-term scheduler controls the degree of
multiprogramming

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 Process Creation
• A process may create several new processes. The
creating process is called a parent process, and new
processes are called children process
• Each of these processes may create other
processes, forming a tree processes

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 Process Tree

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 Process Creation

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 C Program Forking Separate Process

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 Process Termination

• Process executes last statement and asks the

operating system to delete it (exit)
• Output data from child to parent (via wait)
• Process’resources are deallocated by operating
system

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 Co-operative multitasking

• Improvement on co-routines:
– hides context switching mechanism;
– still relies on processes to give up CPU.
• Each process allows a context switch at cswitch()
call.
• Separate scheduler chooses which process runs
next.

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 Problems with co-operative multitasking

• Programming errors can keep other processes out:

– process never gives up CPU;
– process waits too long to switch, missing input.

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 Preemptive multitasking

• Most powerful form of multitasking:

– OS controls when contexts switches;
– OS determines what process runs next.
• Use timer to call OS, switch contexts:

interrupt

timer
CPU

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 Preemptive context switching

• Timer interrupt gives control to OS, which saves

interrupted process’s state in an activation record.
• OS chooses next process to run.

interrupt interrupt

P1 OS P1 OS P2

time

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 When to Switch a Process

• Trap
– error occurred
– may cause process to be moved to Exit state
• Supervisor call
– such as file open

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 When to Switch a Process
• Memory fault
– memory address is in virtual memory so it must be
brought into main memory
• Interrupts
– Clock
• process has executed for the maximum allowable time
slice
– I/O

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 Process Synchronization

Concurrent access to shared data may result in data

inconsistency
Maintaining data consistency requires mechanisms to ensure
the orderly execution of cooperating processes
Suppose that we wanted to provide a solution to the
consumer-producer problem that fills all the buffers. We can
do so by having an integer count that keeps track of the
number of full buffers. Initially, count is set to 0. It is
incremented by the producer after it produces a new buffer
and is decremented by the consumer after it consumes a
buffer.

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 Producer
while (true) {

/* produce an item and put in

nextProduced */
while (count == BUFFER_SIZE)
; // do nothing
buffer [in] = nextProduced;
in = (in + 1) % BUFFER_SIZE;
count++;
}

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 Consumer
while (true) {
while (count == 0) ; // do nothing
nextConsumed = buffer[out];
out = (out + 1) % BUFFER_SIZE;
count--;

/* consume the item in nextConsumed */

}

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 Race Condition
count++ could be implemented as

register1 = count
register1 = register1 + 1
count = register1
count-- could be implemented as

register2 = count
register2 = register2 - 1
count = register2
Consider this execution interleaving with “count = 5” initially:
S0: producer execute register1 = count {register1 = 5}
S1: producer execute register1 = register1 + 1 {register1 = 6}
S2: consumer execute register2 = count {register2 = 5}
S3: consumer execute register2 = register2 - 1 {register2 = 4}
S4: producer execute count = register1 {count = 6 }
S5: consumer execute count = register2 {count = 4}
[Link]
bcs
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 Solution to Critical-Section Problem

1. Mutual Exclusion - If process Pi is executing in its critical section, then no

other processes can be executing in their critical sections
2. Progress - If no process is executing in its critical section and there exist
some processes that wish to enter their critical section, then the
selection of the processes that will enter the critical section next cannot
be postponed indefinitely
3. Bounded Waiting - A bound must exist on the number of times that
other processes are allowed to enter their critical sections after a
process has made a request to enter its critical section and before that
request is granted
 Assume that each process executes at a nonzero speed
 No assumption concerning relative speed of the N processes

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 Peterson’s Solution
Two process solution
Assume that the LOAD and STORE instructions are
atomic; that is, cannot be interrupted.
The two processes share two variables:
int turn;
Boolean flag[2]
The variable turn indicates whose turn it is to enter the
critical section.
The flag array is used to indicate if a process is ready to
enter the critical section. flag[i] = true implies that
process Pi is ready!

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 Algorithm for Process Pi

do {
flag[i] = TRUE;
turn = j;
while (flag[j] && turn == j);
critical section
flag[i] = FALSE;
remainder section
} while (TRUE);

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 Solution to Critical-section Problem Using Locks

do {
acquire lock
critical section
release lock
remainder section
} while (TRUE);

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 TestAndndSet Instruction

Definition:

boolean TestAndSet (boolean *target)

{
boolean rv = *target;
*target = TRUE;
return rv;
}

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 Solution using TestAndSet

Shared boolean variable lock., initialized to false.

Solution:

do {
while ( TestAndSet (&lock ))
; // do nothing

// critical section

lock = FALSE;

// remainder section

} while (TRUE);

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 Swap Instruction

Definition:

void Swap (boolean *a, boolean *b)

{
boolean temp = *a;
*a = *b;
*b = temp;
}

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 Solution using Swap
Shared Boolean variable lock initialized to FALSE; Each
process has a local Boolean variable key
Solution:
do {
key = TRUE;
while ( key == TRUE)
Swap (&lock, &key );

// critical section

lock = FALSE;

// remainder section

} while (TRUE);
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 Lock implementation

Stanford CS140:
[Link]
bin/cs140-
spring20/[Link]?topic=lockImpl

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 Semaphore
Synchronization tool that does not require busy waiting
Semaphore S – integer variable
Two standard operations modify S: wait() and signal()
Originally called P() and V()
Less complicated
Can only be accessed via two indivisible (atomic) operations
wait (S) {
while S <= 0
; // no-op
S--;
}
signal (S) {
S++;
}

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 Semaphore as General Synchronization Tool

Counting semaphore – integer value can range over an unrestricted domain

Binary semaphore – integer value can range only between 0
and 1; can be simpler to implement
Also known as mutex locks
Can implement a counting semaphore S as a binary semaphore
Provides mutual exclusion
Semaphore mutex; // initialized to 1
do {
wait (mutex);
// Critical Section
signal (mutex);
// remainder section
} while (TRUE);

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 Condition Variables

condition x;

Two operations on a condition variable:

[Link] () – a process that invokes the operation
is
suspended.
[Link] () – resumes one of processes (if any)
that
invoked [Link] ()

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 Monitors
A high-level abstraction that provides a convenient and effective
mechanism for process synchronization
Only one process may be active within the monitor at a time

monitor monitor-name
{
// shared variable declarations
procedure P1 (…) { …. }
…

procedure Pn (…) {……}

Initialization code ( ….) { … }

…
}
}

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 Monitors

monitor account {
int balance := 0
function withdraw(int amount) {
if amount < 0 then error "Amount may not be negative"
else if balance < amount then error "Insufficient funds“
else balance := balance - amount
}
function deposit(int amount) {
if amount < 0 then error "Amount may not be negative“
else balance := balance + amount
}
}

CS 140: [Link]
bin/cs140-spring20/[Link]?topic=locks

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 Deadlock and Starvation

Deadlock – two or more processes are waiting indefinitely for an event that can be
caused by only one of the waiting processes
Let S and Q be two semaphores initialized to 1
P0 P1
wait (S); wait (Q);
wait (Q); wait (S);
. .
. .
. .
signal (S); signal (Q);
signal (Q); signal (S);
Starvation – indefinite blocking. A process may never be removed from the
semaphore queue in which it is suspended
Priority Inversion - Scheduling problem when lower-priority process holds a lock
needed by higher-priority process

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 Deadlock and Starvation

[Link]
bin/cs140-
spring20/[Link]?topic=deadlock

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 Scheduling Algorithms

1. Open lecture:
[Link]
nnel=SomanshuChoudhary
2. Stanford CS140: [Link]
bin/cs140-spring20/[Link]?topic=scheduling
[Link]
Click to add text
/watch?v=xlQ31WcTgOo
&ab_channel=Somanshu
Choudhary

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