Toward an Effec tive Pedagogy for

Teaching Rhythn n: Gordon and Beyond

By Bru c e Dalb y

iy:thm is arguablythe most importar nt component of music. In all musics of all cultures, past and
prese-:, rhythm is central to musical expeerience and understanding. Given the enormous diversity of
rhy:r- perhaps it is no surprise that therre is a wide range of opinion about how to teach it. It seems
tha, vesryapproach to music education pedagogy-Kodaly, Dalcroze, beat-impulse, undergraduate
mus:c ftheory-prescribes its own unique set of methods and techniques for teaching rhythm.
Consistency of instruction is difficult to find from classroom to classroom within the same school, let
alone between schools, communities, anci states. Even within the same band program, students may
learn differing syllable (counting) systemss when they move from one level to the next.
This article is intended to help music t:eachersaddress crucial questions about rhythm instruction.
I draw heavily on the rhythm ideas of Edvwin E. Gordon, but with an attempt to reconcile certain con-
flicts between his theory and componentss of the "traditional"conceptions of meter found in current
music theory texts. I also offer some ideas, of my own for enhancing the effectiveness of rhythm teach-
ing.

G;eneral Principles for Teaching Rhythm

Identify meters on the basis of audiation-how music
sounds-not notation. Notational practice creates the
potential for much confusion. Consider the second move-
ment ("Scherzo")of Beethoven's Symphony no. 9 (dotted
half note = ca. 120) and Albinoni'sAdagio (quarter note =
ca. 52). The traditional definition of meter tells us that
both selections are examples of "simple triple" meter
because they are written in 3/4, yet it is difficult to imag-
ine two more different pieces of music. The speed of quar-
ter notes differs by nearly 700 percent! There are many sim-
ila.r cases. The symphonies of Beethoven and Brahms, for
instancce, provide many challenges to traditional time signature def-
initions. Perhaps there'smore to understanding rhythm and meter than applying simple mathematical
formulas.
Use a good rhythm-syllablesystem. Marny music teachers attempt to teach rhythm through mathe-
matical analysis of rhythmic relationshipss. They begin instruction with abstract concepts such as the
number of eighth notes in a quarternote certhe equation for computing dot dura-
tions. This approach may be ineffective, ]however, because rhythm audiation
and mathematical thinking are very different cognitive processes.
Intellectual understanding of the arithmeetic behind rhythm durations is
no guarantee of the ability to performrhytthms correctly.
Rhythm syllables are beneficial for at le ast two reasons. First, they pro-
vide a vivid way to experience rhythm, esrpecially when used with appro-
priate rhythmic movement. Second, rhytlim syllables facilitate the com-
prehension and retention of patterns in audiation. They help students
build a large vocabulary of rhythm patter]ns by exemplifying the similar-
ities and differences among patterns.
An appropriate rhythm-syllable systenn has the following characteris-
tics:
* It is based on how rhythm is audiateed (i.e., how it sounds), not how it
is notated.
* Each sound is associated with a uniqlue rhythm element in relation to its metrical
context.

MUS IC EDU( CATORS JOURNAL S EPT EMBER 2 0 0 5

Downloaded from [Link] at TEXAS SOUTHERN UNIVERSITY on June 4, 2016

 * It is comprehensive, accounting unambiguously for as many meters and rhythms as possible.
* It is conducive to the performing (chanting) of many rhythm patterns, from simple to com-
plex.
The rhythm-syllable system that Gordon developed in association with James Froseth and
Albert Blaser is designed to meet the above criteria. (See table 1 for a brief description.) Later in
this article, I will suggest some modifications to the Gordon system.
Use syllables primarilyfor verbal association, not verbal/logical analysis. Systematic and compre-
hensive use of verbal association is one of the most powerful tools known for developing students'
rhythm skills. Many teachers intuitively understand the value of rhythm syllables, but they tend to
use them after the fact. For example, a band teacher might say, "Trumpets, that note is on the and
of two, not on beat three." This approach, while helpful, is incomplete because it doesn't allow stu-
dents to experience the rhythm syllables in close association with the rhythm sounds themselves.
A more effective strategy is for the teacher to perform the rhythms with an appropriate syllable sys-
tem and have students do the same.
Use rhythmic movement that is consistent with the structure of meter and rhythm as audiated.
Agreement within music education has grown in recent decades about the importance of move-
ment in learning rhythm. The methodologies of Gordon, Dalcroze, and Orff, for example, quite
consistently emphasize that rhythm, rather than being an
intellectual process like math, resides in the body
itself (or, more accurately, in the "mind-
body"'), and it must be manifested
through movement to be meaningful.
The current music-teaching litera-
ture contains many excellent rec-
ommendations for using move-
ment activities in informal music
learning.2 In informal learning,
children are encouraged to
move to music in their own f'
individual ways. Children who ?' I;

i --""-----.

Movement activities,such as patschingthe beat, can help

as
Movement activities,such
students correctly the rhythms
performpatschinge in their
rhythmsin music.
heir music.

WWW. M E N C. O RG
 ,
rlfop,

Meter Name Beat Divisions Possible Time Signatures Rhythm Syllablesa Movementb
(microbeats)

Duple Duple 2/4,4/4,2/2 du-de,du-de p-p, p-p

Triple Triple 6/8 du-da-di,du-da-di p-p-p, p-p-p

(eighths)
3/4' du-da-di (quarters) p-p-p
9/8c du-da-di p-p-p
(dotted quarters)
a Each
syllablerepresentsa [Link].
bp = patsch(palmson thighs)
c Each
measureis consideredone macrobeatof a macrobeatpair.

B 66 . . 0 * S MS - m m S
are ready for formal music instruc- agreements. (See table 2 for a quick would likely audiate the quarternotes
tion-that is, children whose musical summary.) Four main issues are as macrobeats, it would be just as
and physiological development involved. valid to feel half notes as macrobeats.
enables them to perform rhythms Basis for determining meter. Indeed, the higher a person's rhythm
"correctly"-benefit from system- According to the more traditional aptitude, the larger the macrobeats
atized movement activities in which model, the time signature4 is a reli- that person is apt to audiate.
they move in ways specified by the able indicator of meter. Gordon says Beat divisions. Both models agree
teacher. In formal rhythm instruction, that only audiation allows us to make that beat divisions are an important
students should engage in move- valid determinations of meter. aspect of meter and that beats can be
ments that are consistent with the Objectivity versus subjectivity. In divided into two or three equal parts.
essential rhythmic characteristics of the traditional model, the time signa- The two theories use different termi-
the music they are studying. ture indicates the beat. Students learn nology, however. Gordon uses duple
that in 2/4, for example, the quarter and triple to refer to two-part and
TwoViews of the Structure of note gets the beat and there are two three-partbeat divisions. The parallel
Rhythm and Meter beats in each measure. Gordon argues terms in traditional theory are simple
All theories of rhythm account for that the perception of meter (which and [Link] uses the term
the existence and importance of time scale is audiated as the beat, usual to refer to those meters in which
beats. Beyond that, disagreements division of the beat, etc.) varies from all macrobeats are of equal duration.
abound. There is considerable variety person to person. In other words, one (An examination of unusual meters-
of opinion regarding how to divide person's beat (what Gordon calls the meters in which the length of mac-
beats and group them together, as macrobeat) may be another person's robeats varies, typically notated in
well as the role of notation in deter- division of beat (or microbeat), one 5/8, 7/8, etc.-is beyond the scope of
mining meter. person's macrobeat may be another this article.)
A comparison of Gordon's theory person's macrobeat pair, and so on. Beat groups. In the traditional
of rhythm with what some may con- Figure 1 shows hierarchical levels model, beats may be grouped in twos,
sider a more traditional approach3 of meter for "Go Tell Aunt Rhody," threes, or fours. As always, notational
highlights many of the essential dis- notated in 2/4. While most people practice is a reliable indicator of
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
r

Traditional Gordon

Basisfor determiningmeter Timesignaturesand notation Audiation(how musicsounds)and movement

Objectivityvs. subjectivity Objective(indicatedby time signature) Subjective(variesfrompersonto person)

Beatdivisions(microbeats) Dupleandtriple Dupleandtriple
Beatgroupings Duple,triple,andquadruple Dupleonly

.6 6 S. iI
.6IIIN a a I 'I a a1

56 MUSIC EDUCATORS JOURNAL S E PT E M B E R 200 5

.40

Pair of Pair of Pairs

Pair of Pairs I Pair of Pairs
MB Pair I MB Pair l MB Pair I MB Pair
MB MB MB MB MB MB MB MB

J ro j IJ j
MB = macrobeat

tS I^ I
Im7i . gHmal
AL [T;eSB
meter characteristics. For example, 3/4, even in music as slow as ment, but I suggest modifications that
the time signatures 2/4, 3/4, and 4/4 Albinoni'sAdagio, is but a single mac- establish an objective basis for identi-
represent simple duple, triple, and robeat. Some authorities have criti- fying macrobeats and allow for triple
quadruple meter, respectively cized this aspect of Gordon's theory, groupings of beats. See table 3 for a
Gordon'stheory is unique in allow- citing the enormous quantity of summary of my suggested modifica-
ing only for duple groupings of beats. music that people can move to-by tions to Gordon'stheory.
According to Gordon, what others conducting, marching, walking, or Althoughaudiationof meteris subjec-
call quadruple meter is really the dancing-in threes.5 tive, effectivemusic instructionrequires
same as duple meter. Two measures of Table 1 presents a brief summary an objectivebasisfor establishingmetric
2/4, for example, sound the same as of usual meters according to Gordon's levels. But how? Music notation, as we
one measure of 4/4; both represent rhythm theory, including rhythm syl- have seen, is an unreliable guide.
two pairs of macrobeats. He argues lables and movement recommenda- Because people experience rhythm
that groupings of four macrobeats are tions. Note that there is no column through movement, perhaps it would
not based on audiation or how music for beat groups, as Gordon allows be helpful to look at the practices of
is felt; they are based only on nota- only for duple groupings.6 expert movers. What about dancers?
tion. Likewise, one measure of 6/8 Dancers definitely know movement,
sounds the same as two measures of Some Suggested Modifications but the diversity and subtleties of
3/4 (or half a measure of 12/8). to Gordon'sTheory dance practice present certain prob-
The prohibition against triple beat The following principles of meter lems. For example, in salsa music the
groups is a particularly significant are consistent in most respects with players are likely to sway along to half
implication of Gordon's formulation. Gordon's rhythm theory. I maintain notes as they perform,but the dancers'
According to Gordon, one measure of the emphases on audiation and move- feet move twice as fast, to the quarter
0 "

Meter Beat Beat Possible Time Rhythm Movement'

Name Divisions Groups Signaturesa Syllablesb
(microbeats)

Duple Duple Duple 2/4,4/4,2/2 (4/2) du-de, tu-de RT-RT

LT-LT,
FastTriple Triple Duple 6/8 (3/4, 3/8, 12/8) du-da-di,tu-da-di LT-LT-LT,
RT-RT-RT

SlowTriple Duple Triple 3/4 (6/8, 3/8, 12/8) du-de, tu-de, ti-de LT-LT,
RT-RT,
LP-LP

TripleTriple Triple Triple 9/8 du-da-di,tu-da-di, LT-LT-LT,

ti-da-di RT-RT-RT,
LP-LP-LP

aTimesignaturesin parenthesesare less commonlyused.

b Eachsyllable
representsa [Link].
c LT=
patschon left thigh;RT= patschon rightthigh;LP= patschon lap

s_ _s~ -F
~~~~~~~~ La_LM-
WWW. MEN C. O RG 57
 notes. There are many other examples
Meter Examples where expressive concerns or perform-
LittleStar" ance traditionrender dance practices a
Duple "Twinkle,Twinkle,
"GoTellAunt Rhody" questionable basis for establishing the
"LightlyRow" metric level that constitutes the mac-
robeat.
FastTriple "WeThree Kings" Is there is another type of move-
"TheBandPlayedOn" ment expert we could look to? Well,
"Pop,Goes the Weasel" conductors also move to music. Is
SlowTriple there enough consistency of practice
"MyCountry'Tisof Thee"
"AmazingGrace" among good conductors to rely on
"KumBaYah" their judgments? I believe there is.
Good conductors know enough about
TripleTriple "BeautifulDreamer" the relationships between music,
"Jesu,Joyof Man'sDesiring"
"Down in the Valley" notation, and movement not to be
misled by the idiosyncrasies and his-
. S
SMMIVlRM, a
I torical quirks of notational practice.
No competent conductor, for exam-

"
-g

Duple:"Twinkle,Twinkle Little Star"

m'? 4
i i
Syllables: du de tu de du de tu
Movement:LT LT RT RT LT LT RT RT

Fast Triple:"We Three Kings"

4^ I-J J>
Jf?
-

J v
I _I1
9)
Syllables: du di tu di du da di tu
Movement:LT LT LT RRT RT LT LT LT RT RT RT

Slow Triple:"My Country 'Tis of Thee"

9) I I j J I
L -_- -a^.
Syllables: du tu ti du de ti
Movement:LT LT RT RT LP LP LT LT RT RT LP LP

TripleTriple:"Beautiful Dreamer"

! r Ir JJ. I j II
Syllables: du da di tu ti du da di tu
Movement:LT LT LT RT RT RT LP LP LP LT LT LT RT RT RT LP LP LP

Key:LT= patsch on left thigh;RT= patsch on rightthigh;LP= patsch on lap

Note:These excerpts are providedto exemplifymovement and rhythmsyllablepractices for rhythmpatterns found
in familiartunes. In Gordon's method, however,rhythmsyllablesshould not be used in a tonal context; they are
chanted,never [Link] should alwaysbe sung with words or a neutralsyllable.

5I MUSI C E D U C A T ORS O U R N A LS EP TE MB E R 2 0
58 MUSIC EDUCATORS JO URNAL S E PT E M B E R 2 0 0 5
pie, is likely to conduct a Beethoven on three essential levels: microbeats, and movements. (My own prelimi-
scherzo in three just because it is macrobeats, and macrobeat groups. nary work suggests that many, if not
notated in 3/4. Likewise, conductors The following are procedures for most, sixth graders can perform the
know to make the half note the beat incorporating macrobeat groups, suggested syllables and movements
in the first movement of Beethoven's including triple groups, in activities quite well.)
Fifth Symphony, even though the that use verbal association and rhyth- Rhythm syllables. In the Gordon
notation says 2/4. They also know mic movement. Sequence of instruc- system, macrobeats are always du.
when to conduct 6/8 in six instead of tion is crucial. Macrobeats and Microbeats in usual duple meter are
two, and so on. While there may be microbeats should be taught first du-de; in usual triple meter, du-da-di.
an occasional disagreement about a because children comprehend them The modified system proposed here is
passage with a tempo that is on the more easily than they do macrobeat almost the same as Gordon's during
borderline between two possible mac- groups. Introduce syllables and move- the early stages of instruction. The
robeat choices, conducting practice is ment procedures for macrobeat exception is for slow-triple and triple-
arguablythe best basis music teachers groups only when students have suffi- triple meters, in which quarter notes
have for deciding how most students cient physical coordination and famil- in 3/4 and dotted quarters in 9/8,
are likely to audiate the macrobeats. iarity with the more basic syllables respectively, are considered mac-
In most cases, your own conduct-
ing training and experience will pro-
vide the necessary foundation for o m
z z
determining the macrobeat, although ,o,
M3N3WA MENCResources
it may occasionally be necessary to
consult with colleagues or the con-
ducting literature. Trystudying famil- The followingarticles offer additionalinsightinto Gordon's music learn-
iar music with openness to how it
feels to move to the music with a ing [Link] order back issues of MENCjournalsby calling 1-800-828-
0229. Articles from past issues are also availablein many library periodical
relaxed, free-flowing motion. It's sur-
databases.
prising how often your body tells you
something very different from the * Conway, Colleen. "Good Rhythm and Intonation from Day One in
rigid rules of notation and theory.
Meteris determinedby the mannerin BeginningInstrumentalMusic."MusicEducators
Journal89, no. 5 (2003):
26-30.
which macrobeats are divided and
groupedin audiation. Macrobeat divi-
* Dalby,Bruce."TeachingAudiationin InstrumentalMusicClasses."Music
sions (microbeats) and macrobeat
Journal85, no. 6 (1999):22-25,46.
Educators
groups can be duple or triple. See
table 3 for a summary of usual meter
* Gordon, Edwin E. "All about Audiation and MusicAptitudes."Music
types, including rhythm syllables and Journal86, no. 2 (1999):41-44.
Educators
movement recommendations. The
most common usual meter is duple
* Grashel,John."AReview of Selected Studies Using Gordon'sAudiation
(duple microbeats and duple groups),
which may be notated in 2/4, 4/4, 2/2, Theory."UPDATE: Applicationsof Researchin Music Education10, no. I
or (rarely) 4/2. (1991): 30-34.
Music with triple microbeats and
* Thompson,KeithP.,ed. SpecialIssue on Gordon's MusicLearning
duple groups is usually, but not
Theory.GeneralMusicToday8, no. 5 (1995).
always, notated in 6/8. I call this meter
fast triple because the triple compo- - ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
r

nent occurs at the more rapidly mov-

ing level of [Link] triple has
duple microbeats and triple groups
nstitute
Gordmon
and is most commonly notated in
3/4.7 A small but importantfraction of
.Music Learning [Link]
music employs two adjacent levels of
triple, that is, triple microbeatswithin LearnmoreaboutGordon's approach
triple groups. This triple-triple meter to guidingmusiclearning.
is almost always notated in 9/8. Table
4 lists examples of familiar tunes in Access informationregarding.
each of these basic meters. Music LearningTheory
Publications Workshops
Implications for Instruction Membership GIML
Meter has multiple layers within Edwin E. Gordon
layers, but instruction should focus
WWW. MENC. ORG 59
robeats rather than microbeats and ate meter in the subjective manner istics, Gordon prefers the term measure
are performed with the syllable du. most appropriate to their own indi- signature.
When students are ready,they change vidual rhythmic abilities. What a mar- 5. See especially Emily Brink, "A Look
the macrobeat syllables for beats two velous way to help students develop at Edwin E. Gordon's Theories," Bulletin
and three of any duple or triple mac- confident, independent musician- of the Council for Research in Music
robeat group. Beat two starts with the ship! Education,no. 75 (1983): 1-13.
syllable tu (note how it sounds like 6. For further information about
"two"), and beat three starts with ti Notes Gordon's music learning theory, see
(rhymes with "three"). 1. DavidElliottprovidesa convincing Edwin Gordon, Learning Sequences in
Movement. Initially, use Gordon's refutationof the dualisticview of body Music: Skill, Content, and Patterns
formal rhythm movement procedures: and mindin DavidElliott,"Musicing," in (Chicago: GIA, 2003). He covers rhythm
put macrobeats in the heels, with Music Matters (New York: Oxford syllables in chapter 4 and rhythm content
palms of the hands lightly tapping the University Press, 1995), 49-77. in chapter 7. Another good source of
thighs (patsching) for microbeats. 2. Youcan find recommendations for information is [Link]
When students are ready, teach them appropriatemovementactivitiesin infor- 7. Regardingtime signatures, the great-
to position their hand patsches mal music instructionin EdwinGordon, est diversity of practice-and potential
according to macrobeat groups. "Assimilation," in A Music Learning confusion-is found in music having a
Students patsch microbeats occurring Theory for Newborn and Young Children single level of triple at the macrobeat divi-
during beat one with both hands on (Chicago: GIA, 2003); and Wendy H. sion or macrobeat group level. Slow triple
the left thigh, on the right thigh for Valerio, Alison M. Reynolds, Beth M. is usually notated in 3/4, but examples in
beat two, and in the lap for beat Bolton, Cynthia C. Taggart, and Edwin 6/8, 3/8, and even 12/8 are quite common.
three.9 Gordon, Music Play: The Early Childhood (An excellent example is the second
See table 3 and figure 2 for more Music Curriculum(Chicago: GIA, 1998), movement of Brahms's Symphony no. 4,
information about using these verbal 16-20. notated in 6/8, eighth note = ca. 52.) Fast
association and movement proce- 3. The basic portrait of traditional triple meter is typically notated in 6/8, but
dures. rhythm theory presented here reflects many 3/8, 12/8, and 3/4 examples exist.
generalizations based on prominent theo- 8. Divisions of microbeats are also
Conclusion ry texts. A more in-depth analysis of tra- important and should be addressed in ver-
I don't intend for the ideas present- ditional theory, including some of its bal association. In Gordon'srhythm-sylla-
ed here to serve as a comprehensive inconsistencies and inadequacies, is avail- ble system, divisions receive the syllable
theory of meter that will satisfy every able in Russell Jones, "A Dialectic ta (pronounced "tuh"). Divisions in
music theorist. The complexities of Analysis of Selected Contradictions duple, for example, are chanted
rhythm are far too many to be codi- among Definitions of Meter in Music," du-ta-de-ta.
fied in a book, let alone a brief article. Bulletinof the CouncilforResearchin Music 9. I suggest leading with the left side
Despite the subjective nature of Education, no. 83 (1985): 44-45. because it is consistent with what band
meter, music teachers do need a suffi- 4. Because he considers "time signa- students will experience in marching
ciently objective model of meter that tures" poor indicators of meter character- band. U
accounts unambiguously for as much
music as possible, maximizes rhythm-
teaching efficiency, and minimizes
confusion among students with dif-
fering levels of rhythm aptitude and
achievement.
Of course, no matter how compre-
hensive the model of meter a teacher
uses, there will always be music that
seems to fall somewhere in the cracks,
music in which equally sensitive
musicians might disagree about
which beats to call the macrobeats.
How should teachers tackle these
musical challenges? Rather than
avoiding such literature, perhaps we
can use it as a starting point for dis-
cussion and a springboard for deeper
learning for students who have mas-
tered the use of syllables and solidi-
fied their understanding of meter.
As students grow in awareness and
skill, they can be encouraged to audi-
60 MUSIC EDUCATORS JOURNAL S E PT E M B E R 2 0 0 5