EECE211 Lecture 2

Schrödinger Wave Equation

Basic Postulates: read p.61
• Each particle in a physical system is described by a wave function (r, t)
•  and : continuous, finite, and single valued
• Quantum mechanical operator:
Classical Variables : 𝑥 𝑓 𝑥 𝑝 𝑥 𝐸

ℏ 𝜕 ℏ𝜕
Quantum Operator (Qop): 𝑥 𝑓 𝑥 − 𝑤ℎ𝑟𝑒𝑟 ℎ = 6.63 × 10−34 𝐽𝑠
𝑗 𝜕𝑥 𝑗 𝜕𝑡 ℏ = ℎൗ2𝜋 = 1.054 × 10−34 𝐽𝑠

• The average value <Q> of any variable Q is calculated from the wave function by using the
operator form Qop defined in the above postulate.

Q   * Qop  dV ∞
& ‫׬‬−∞ Ψ ∗ Ψ 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧 = 1: 𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑧𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛


Total energy equation and separation of variable

1 2 Ψ 𝑥, 𝑡 = 𝜓 𝑥 𝜙 𝑡 , 𝜓 𝑥 : 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 − 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒 1𝐷 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑝 +𝑉 =𝐸
2𝑚
ℏ2 𝑑 2 𝜓 ℏ 𝑑𝜙 ℏ2 1 𝑑 2 𝜓 ℏ 1 𝑑𝜙
2
ℏ 2 ℏ 𝜕Ψ − 𝜙 + 𝑉𝜓𝜙 = − 𝜓 ⇒ − + 𝑉 =− −
⇒− 𝛻 Ψ + 𝑉Ψ = − 2𝑚 𝑑𝑥 2 𝑗 𝑑𝑡 2𝑚 𝜓 𝑑𝑥 2 𝑗 𝜙 𝑑𝑡
2𝑚 𝑗 𝜕𝑡 𝑑𝜙 𝑗𝐸 𝑗𝐸
− 𝑡
=− 𝜙 𝑡 ⇒𝜙 𝑡 =𝑒 ℏ
𝑑𝑡 ℏ
𝜕2Ψ 𝜕2Ψ 𝜕2Ψ
2
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝛻 = + + ⇒
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑧 2 𝑑 2 𝜓 2𝑚
+ 𝐸−𝑉 𝑥 𝜓 𝑥 =0
𝑑𝑥 2 ℏ2
: 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 − 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑆𝑐ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑟
ሷ 𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
1
 Potential Well Problem: particle in a potential well
• 1-D infinite well
• V(x)=0 inside the well
𝑑 2 𝜓 2𝑚
+ 𝐸 − 𝑉 𝑥 𝜓 𝑥 = 0, 0<𝑥<𝐿
𝑑𝑥 2 ℏ2
2𝑚𝐸
⟶ Ψ 𝑥 = 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑘𝑥 + 𝐵𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑘𝑥 , 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑘 =
ℏ
⟶ 𝐵 = 0 𝑏𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑒 Ψ = 0 𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑤𝑎𝑙𝑙
(𝑖𝑓 𝑛𝑜𝑡, Ψ 2 ≠ 0 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑤𝑎𝑙𝑙)
𝑛𝜋
⟶ 𝑘 = 𝑘𝑛 = ,
𝐿
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑛 = 1,2,3, … . ∶ 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟

𝑛 2 𝜋 2 ℏ2
⟶ 𝐸𝑛 = 2 ∶ 𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑖𝑠 𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑧𝑒𝑑
𝐿 2𝑚

∞
• Normalized condition: න ΨΨ ∗𝑑𝑥 = 1
−∞
∞ 𝐿
න ΨΨ ∗ 𝑑𝑥 = න 𝐴2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑛𝜋ൗ𝐿 𝑥𝑑𝑥 = 𝐴2 𝐿ൗ2 = 1
−∞ 0
⟶𝐴= 2/𝐿

⟶ Ψ𝑛 = 2/𝐿 sin 𝑛𝜋ൗ𝐿 𝑥

2
 Potential Well Problem
• compared with Free Space  Quantum mechanical Tunneling
𝑛𝜋 𝑛 2 𝜋 2 ℏ2
𝑃𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑊𝑒𝑙𝑙: 𝑘𝑛 = , 𝐸𝑛 = 2
𝐿 𝐿 2𝑚
E

E3

E2

E1
−3𝜋 −2𝜋 −𝜋 𝜋 2𝜋 3𝜋
k
𝐿 𝐿 𝐿 𝐿 𝐿 𝐿

2𝑚𝐸 𝑝2 ℏ2 𝑘 2
𝐹𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑆𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑒: 𝑘= , 𝐸= = ,
ℏ 2𝑚 2𝑚
E
Ψ(𝑥) = 𝐴 sin 𝑘𝑥 + 𝐵𝑐𝑜𝑠 (𝑘𝑥)

k or p
3
 Periodic Table

4
 Electronic Structure of Si atom

5
 Energy Bands

Figure 3–2 Linear combinations of atomic orbitals (LCAO): The

LCAO when two atoms are brought together leads to two distinct
“normal” modes—a higher energy antibonding orbital, and a lower
energy bonding orbital. Note that the electron probability density
is high in the region between the ion cores (covalent “bond”),
leading to lowering of the bonding energy level and the cohesion
of the crystal. If instead of two atoms, one brings together N
atoms, there will be N distinct LCAO, and N closely spaced energy
levels in a band.

6
 Energy Bands

Figure 3–3 Energy levels in Si as a function of interatomic spacing. The core levels (n = 1, 2) in Si are
completely filled with electrons. At the actual atomic spacing of the crystal, the 2N electrons in the 3s subshell
and the 2N electrons in the 3p subshell undergo sp3 hybridization, and all end up in the lower 4N states
(valence band), while the higher-lying 4N states (conduction band) are empty, separated by a band gap.
7
 Energy Bands

Figure 3–4 Typical band structures at 0 K.

8
 Direct and Indirect Semiconductors
• The space-dependent wave function
for the electron is given by

Ψ𝑘 𝑥 = 𝑈(𝑘𝑥 , 𝑥)𝑒 −𝑖𝑘𝑥 𝑥

where k is a wave vector
and 𝑈(𝑘𝑥 , 𝑥)= 𝑈 𝑘𝑥 , 𝑥 + 𝑛𝑎 is
a periodic function

• By solving the Schrödinger’s equation,

the allowed values of energy(E) vs. the
wave vector (k) can be plotted.

9
 E-k diagram and E-x diagram
• The E-k diagram and the (simplified) Energy band (E-x) diagram complement each other.
• The E-k diagram has no information about the position of a given electron.
• The E-x diagram does not reveal anything about the wave vector ( direction of motion).

10
 E-k diagram and E-x diagram

Figure 3–9 Superimposition of the (E, k) band structure on the E-versus-position simplified band
diagram for a semiconductor in an electric field. Electron energies increase going up, while hole
energies increase going down. Similarly, electron and hole wavevectors point in opposite directions and
these charge carriers move opposite to each other, as shown.
11
 Direct and Indirect Semiconductors

• Direct semiconductor: ex) GaAs

- The Ec minimum and the Ev maximum occur at k=0
- An electron can transit from the Ev to Ec without a change in k value.

• Indirect semiconductor: ex) Si

- The Ev maximum occurs at k=0, but the Ec minimum occurs at k0
- For the transition of an electron from Ev to Ec, it requires some change in k value,
suggesting a change of momentum for the electron.

12
 Electrons and Holes
• For T > 0 K, some valence electrons may gain enough thermal
energy to be excited to the conduction band.
- EHP(electron-hole pair) generation
- The empty state in the Ev is referred to as a hole.

• In a filled band( all states are occupied), from the E-k plot for the
Ev, for every electron moving with a given velocity, there is an
equal and opposite electron motion.
- For electron j moving with velocity vj , there is a
corresponding electron j’ with velocity -vj .
- The net current density in a volume is zero, given by
N
J  (q) vi  0 (filled band)
i

• If there is a hole by removing the jth electron, the net current

density in the valence band is given by
N
J  ( q ) vi  ( q )v j
i
  qv j (jth electron missing)

- Equivalent to the current of a positively charged particle

with velocity vj

13
 Effective Mass
• Electron motion in a crystal: affected by the periodic potential of the lattice crystal
 different from its motion in free space

• To apply classical electrodynamics to charge carriers in a solid,

we use “ effective mass” and treat as “ almost free” carriers in most computations.

• Remember
ℏ2 2
𝑝Ԧ = ℏ𝑘 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐸= 𝑘
2𝑚∗
∗
ℏ2
⇒𝑚 = 2 : curvature of the band in (E,k) diagram determines the effective mass.
𝑑 𝐸 Τ𝑑𝑘 2

Intrinsic Semiconductor
• A perfect semiconductor crystal with no impurities
or lattice defects.

14
 Silicon
• Atomic density: 5 x 1022 atoms/cm3

• Si has four valence electrons: forming covalent bonds with four of its nearest neighbors.

• Pure Si has a relatively high electrical resistivity at room temperature.

• Mobile charge-carriers in Si:

– Electrons negatively charged
– Holes positively charged

• Modulation of the density (#/cm3) of carriers(electrons & holes) in a semiconductor:

– by adding impurity atoms ( dopants )
– by applying an electric field
– by changing the temperature
– by irradiation

15
 Carrier Concentration in Intrinsic-Si
• When a conduction electron is thermally generated, a “hole” is also generated

• A hole is associated with a positive charge, and is free to move about the Si lattice.

• Band-gap energy, Eg : the amount of energy needed to remove an electron from a covalent
bond.

• The concentration of conduction electrons in intrinsic silicon, ni, depends exponentially on Eg

and the absolute temperature ,T :
ni  5.2  1015 T 3 / 2 exp( E g / 2kT ) electrons/cm3
ni  1.5  1010 electrons/cm3 at 300K

 ni  1 10 electrons/cm at 600K
15 3

16
 Doping: Extrinsic Semiconductor
• Si can be “doped” with other elements to change its electrical properties.
• Notation: n = electron concentration,
p = hole concentration
• Examples:
– doped with phosphorus (P): each P atom can contribute a conduction electron, so that
the Si lattice has more electrons than holes; “N type”
– doped with boron (B): each B atom can contribute a hole, so that the Si lattice has more
holes than electrons; “P type”

17
 Extrinsic Semiconductor: doped semiconductor

Semiconductor Ge Si GaAS
Bandgap, Eg(eV) 0.67 1.12 1.42

Dopant P As B In
Ionization energy (meV) 45 54 45 160
Ec-Ed or Ea-Ev

Equilibriu m Concentration
n0 p0  ni : mass action law
2

(notice n0  p0  ni )

18
 Charged Carriers in Si

19
 Electron and Hole concentrations
• Under thermal equilibrium conditions, the product of the electron density(n0) and the hole
density(p0) is equal to the square of ni:
n0 p0  ni
2

N-type material P-type material

2
n n
2
n0  N D p0  i p0  N A n0  i
ND NA
• General solution: see slide #31

Terminology
• Interstitial impurity: impurity atom may be located between lattice sites
• Substitutional impurity: impurity atom may be located at normal lattice sites
• Vacancy: an atom may be missing from a lattice site
• Donor: impurity atom that increases n
• Acceptor: impurity atom that increases p
• N-type material: contains more electrons than holes
• P-type material: contains more holes than electrons
• Majority carrier: the most abundant carrier
• Minority carrier: the least abundant carrier
• Intrinsic semiconductor: no impurities, no defects, n0 = p0 = ni
• Extrinsic semiconductor: doped semiconductor
• Thermal equilibrium: no net flows of matters or of energy, no phase change, and no
20
unbalanced potentials ( or driving forces)
 Carrier Concentration
• Density of States(DOS):
− N(E)dE ( or g(E)dE ) = Number of states per cm3 in the energy range between E and E+dE

− Near the band edges:

𝑚𝑛∗ 2𝑚𝑛∗ (𝐸 − 𝐸𝑐 )
𝐸 ≥ 𝐸𝑐
𝜋 2 ℏ3
𝑁 𝐸 =
𝑚𝑝∗ 2𝑚𝑝∗ (𝐸𝑣 − 𝐸)
𝐸 ≤ 𝐸𝑐
𝜋 2 ℏ3

mn* : DOS effective mass of electron

mn*  1.09m0 ,
m*p  1.15m0
m0  9.11031 kg

21
 Carrier Concentration
• Fermi-Dirac distribution:
− The statistics of indistinguishable particles obeying the Pauli exclusion principle
1
− Fermi-Dirac distribution function: f (E) 
 E  EF 
1  exp 
 kT 
− The probability that an available energy state E is occupied by an electron at absolute
temperature T.

− EF: Fermi level, an energy state at the Fermi level has a probability of ½ being occupied
by an electron

22
 Carrier Concentration: Doping Effect

Probability of electron occupancy: f(E)

Probability of hole occupancy: 1-f(E)

If there is no available state at E, there is

no probability of finding an electron there.
23
 Carrier Concentration: Effective Density of State (DOS)

24
 Carrier Concentration
Represent all the distributed electron states in the conduction band by NC located at the C. B. edge so that
n0=NCf(EC): total electron concentration in Ec
1
𝑓 𝐸 = ≈ exp −(𝐸 − 𝐸𝐹 /𝑘𝑇] if(𝐸 − 𝐸𝐹 ) ≫ 𝑘𝑇 = 25.9𝑚𝑒𝑉 𝑎𝑡 300𝐾
1 + exp (𝐸 − 𝐸𝐹 /𝑘𝑇]

𝐸𝑐 →∞ 3/2
1 𝑚𝑛∗
𝑛 = න 𝑓 𝐸 𝑁 𝐸 𝑑𝐸 = න 𝐸 − 𝐸𝑐 𝑒 −(𝐸−𝐸𝐹 )/𝑘𝑇 𝑑𝐸 ← 𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑥 = (𝐸 − 𝐸𝐹 )/𝑘𝑇
𝐸𝑐 2𝜋 2 ℏ2
∞
4𝜋 2𝑚𝑛∗ 𝑘𝑇 3/2
1 (𝐸𝐹 −𝐸𝑐 )/𝑘𝑇
= 𝑒 න 𝑥 1/2 𝑒 −𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑁𝐶 𝑒 (𝐸𝐹 −𝐸𝑐 )/𝑘𝑇 ,
ℏ3 0
3/2
2𝜋𝑚𝑛∗ 𝑘𝑇
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑁𝐶 = 2 : 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝐸𝑐
ℏ2
- Gamma Function and Indefinite Integrals

 ( n)   x n 1e  x dx
0
 
(1 / 2)   x 1/ 2 e  x dx  2 exp(u 2 )du (by letting x  u 2 , dx  2udu)
0 0
   
 (1 / 2)  (2 exp(u 2 )du)(2 exp(u 2 )du)  4  exp((u 2  v 2 ))dudv
2
0 0 0 0
changing to polar coordinate systems.t.u   cos , v   sin 
 /2   /2 
 4  exp(  2 ) dd  4  (1 / 2) exp(  2 ) d  
 0 0 0  0

 (1 / 2)  
Similarly,
 1  1 1 
0
x1/ 2 e  ax dx 
a a
0
y1/ 2 e  y dy 
a a
(3 / 2) 
2a a
(1 / 2) 
2a a
1 3  5    (2m  1)
(m  1 / 2)   , m  1,2,3,...
2m
25
 Carrier Concentration
- Equilibrium Concentrations

Electrons : n0  N C exp[( EC  EF ) / kT ]
Holes : p0  NV [1  f ( EV )]  NV exp[( EF  EV ) / kT ]

3/ 2
 2m*p kT 
NV  2  : Effective density of state at V.B. edge E V .
 h2 
 

Let the intrinsic Fermi level as E i . Then, for intrinsic material, the intrinsic carrier concentrations are
ni  N C exp[( EC  Ei ) / kT ]
pi  NV exp[( Ei  EV ) / kT ]

Since ni  pi for an intrinsic material

ni  N C NV exp[ E g / 2kT ]
 1.5 1010 /cm3 @ 300 K  E g  EC  EV  1.12 eV for Si at 300 k.

 n0  N C exp[( EC  EF ) / kT ]  ni exp[(EF  Ei ) / kT ]
p0  NV exp[( EF  EV ) / kT ]  ni exp[(Ei  EF ) / kT ]

 n0 p0  N C NV exp[( EC  EV ) / kT ]  ni2 : mass action law

26
 Carrier Concentration: ni

Figure 3–17 Intrinsic carrier

concentration for Ge, Si, and GaAs as a
function of inverse temperature. The room
temperature values are marked for
reference.

27
 Equilibrium Concentrations
• Intrinsic Fermi level, Ei :
− Derivation: in an intrinsic semiconductor, n0=p0
𝑛0 = 𝑁𝐶 𝑒 (𝐸𝐹 −𝐸𝑐 )/𝑘𝑇 = 𝑁𝑉 𝑒 −(𝐸𝐹 −𝐸𝑣 )/𝑘𝑇 = 𝑝0

𝐸𝑐 + 𝐸𝑣 𝑘𝑇 𝑁
⇒ 𝐸𝐹 = + ln 𝑉ൗ𝑁 ≡ 𝐸𝑖
2 2 𝐶

𝐸𝑐 + 𝐸𝑣 3𝑘𝑇 𝑚𝑝∗ 𝐸𝑐 + 𝐸𝑣
⇒ 𝐸𝑖 = + ln ൘ ∗ ≅
2 4 𝑚𝑛 2

• Determination of EF
n 
n0  ni exp[(EF  Ei ) / kT ]  EF  Ei  kT ln  0 
 ni 
p 
p0  ni exp[(Ei  EF ) / kT ]  EF  Ei  kT ln  0 
 ni 

• Example: ND=1017/cm3

28
 Equilibrium Concentrations
• Nondegenerate/degenerate semiconductor
− calling back that the expressions of n and p were derived using the Boltzmann approximation
Ev  3kT  E F  EC  3kT

− in this case, the semiconductor is said to nondegenerately doped.

− Degenerate semiconductor: when the Boltzmann approximation is not valid

at 300K in Si : EC  EF  3kT if N D  1.6 1018 cm3
EF  EV  3kT if N A  9.11017 cm3

− Terminology:
• n+ : degenerately n-type doped, EF ≈ EC .
• p+ : degenerately p-type doped, EF ≈ EV .

29
 Equilibrium Concentrations: Temperature Dependence
ni>ND: intrinsic carrier dominates (thermal EHP generation)

ND: electron concentration controlled by the doping density

Electrons donated to Ec

Electrons bounded to donor atoms

30
 Space Charge Neutrality and Compensation
• ND : donor concentration and NA : acceptor concentration

• From the space charge neutrality: ND  p0  N A  n0

• At thermal equilibrium: n0 p0  ni2 (law of mass action)

• General solution for carrier concentrations: • Compensation: when both ND and

NA atoms are added to the same
2
(N  N A )  ND  N A  region.
n0  D     ni2
2  2 
2
(N  ND )  N A  ND 
p0  A     ni2
2  2 

31
 Invariance of the Fermi Level at Equilibrium

At equilibrium, no net energy & carrier transport

Transfer rate of electrons:

Filled state in 1 Empty state in 2

1 to 2  N1 ( E ) f1 ( E )  N 2 ( E )[1  f 2 ( E )]

  f1  f1 f 2  f 2  f1 f 2  f1  f 2  EF1  EF2
2 to 1  N 2 ( E ) f 2 ( E )  N1 ( E )[1  f1 ( E )]


32
 Drifts of Carriers in Electric Field
• The carriers and atoms are always in random thermal motion
− Lattice scattering ( or phonon scattering) : electrons collide
with the vibrating atoms, increase as the temperature
increases.
− Thermal velocity, vth : ~ 2.3107 cm/s at 300K.
3 1
kinetic energy 
kT  mn*vth2
2 2
3kT 3  0.026 eV 1.6 1019 J / eV
vth  *
  2.3 107 cm/s
mn 0.26m0

• The net current is zero with no applied electric field.

• When an electric field is applied, the electrons will drift in the

opposite direction to the electric field at constant average drift
velocity, vd.

• Conductivity effective mass vs. semiconductors

Semiconductor Si Ge GaAs
Conductivity mn*/m0 0.26 0.12 0.068
effective mass
mp*/m0 0.36 0.21 0.34

33
 Drifts of Carriers in Electric Field
•  : the average mean free time between the scattering events
• dt /  : The probability that a carrier will be scattered in time
interval dt 
• Between collisions, electrons are accelerated by : E
   
vd  vd 0  (qE / m)  vd  q *  E : drift velocity
 mn 
  vd
  n  q *     n : electron mobility (cm 2 /V  s)
 mn  E
   vd p
  p  q *    : hole mobility (cm 2 /V  s)
m  E
 p
• Electron and hole mobilities of intrinsic semiconductors at 300 K:

Intrinsic S/C Si Ge GaAs

n 1350 3900 8500
p 480 1900 400
Velocity gained in the x direction
at time t from the electric field (Ex)
for three electrons. There will be N
electrons to consider in the material.

34
Effects of Temperature and Doping on Mobility
• If these two scattering events are independent;

dt dt dt 1 1 1
    
 I L  I L

• Lattice scattering (phonon scattering)

− scattered by a vibration of the lattice.
− dominant at high temperature

35
Effects of Temperature and Doping on Mobility
• (ionized) Impurity scattering
− scattered by a charged ion.
− dominant at low temperature
− as the impurity concentration increases, the
number of impurity scattering centers
increases, thus reducing mobility.

An electron can be scattered by an acceptor ion (a)

and a donor ion (b) in a strikingly similar manner,
Si, 300 K even though the ions carry opposite types of
charge. The same is true for a hole (not shown).

36
 Drifts Currents
• Current: the amount of charge crossing a plane per unit time.
• Drift current is proportional to the carrier velocity and carrier concentration:
 v p tA  volume whereall holes crossplane in time t
p v p tA # of holes crossing plane in time t
qp v p tA  charge crossing plane in time t
qp v p A  charge crossing plane per unit time  hole current
qp v p
 hole current/unit area(i.e. hole current density)  J p ,drift
 
 J p ,drift  qp p E (hole current density), J n ,drift  (q)n(  n E ) (electron current density)

• In a semiconductor, both electrons and holes conduct current:

 
 J tot ,drift  J p ,drift  J n,drift  qp p E  qnn E
 
J tot ,drift  q( p p  nn ) E  E

• The conductivity of a semiconductor :   q( p p  nn )[/   cm]

1 1
• The resistivity of a semiconductor :   [  cm]
 q( p p  n n )
• Resistance: V L
R    [ ]
I wt
37
 Hall Effects
• If a magnetic field is applied perpendicular to the direction of current, the path of the carriers are
deflected:
F  q(Ε  v  B)  Fy  q(Ey  vx Bz )
• To maintain the current flow, the electric field Ey must just balance the product vxBz.
E y  v x Bz : Hall Effect
VAB  E y w : Hall Voltage

Jx 1
E y  v x Bz  Bz  RH J x Bz  RH  : Hall Coefficient
qp0 qp0
J ( I / wt ) Bz I B
p0  x B z  x  x z
qE y q (VAB / w) qtVAB
Rwt VCD / I x
ρ (  1 /   1 / q p p0 )  
L L / wt
 R
μp   H : measurement of R H and ρ
qp0 ρ

38
 Terminology
• Allowed energy band: a band or range of energy levels that an electron in a crystal is allowed to
occupy based on quantum mechanics.

• Density of states function: the density of available quantum states as a function of energy [# /eVcm3 ]

• Electron(hole) effective mass: the parameter that relates the acceleration of an electron in the
conduction (valence) band of a crystal to an external force; a parameter that takes into account the
effect of internal forces in the crystal.

• Fermi-Dirac probability function: the function describing the statistical distribution of electrons
among available energy states and the probability that an allowed energy state is occupied by an
electron

• Fermi energy: the energy below which all states are filled with electrons and above which all states
are empty at T=0K.

• Compensated semiconductor: a semiconductor that contains both donors and acceptors in the same
region.

• Drift velocity: the average velocity of charged carriers in the presence of electric field.

• Ionized impurity scattering: the interaction between a charged carrier and an ionized impurity atoms.

• Lattice scattering: the interaction between a charged carrier and a thermally vibrating lattice atom.
39
 Generation and Recombination

− Generation: a process by which electrons and holes are created in pairs.

− Recombination: a process by which electrons and holes are annihilated.

− At thermal equilibrium, the rate of recombination ri is proportional to the equilibrium

concentration of carriers: r   n p   n 2  g
i r 0 0 r i i
where r is a constantof proportionality
and g i is the generation rate.

40
 Direct Recombination of Electrons and Holes
• Carrier Lifetime : Direct recombination of electrons and holes:
Assume n(t) and p(t) are given
- Thermal generation rate of EHP : αr ni2
- Recombination rate : αr n(t )p(t )

dn (t )
Then,  α r ni2  α r n(t )p(t )
dt

If the initial (at t  0) ex cesscarrier concentrations are Δn & Δp,

the instantaneous concentrations of ex cesscarriers, n(t ) & p(t ) are
dn(t )
 α r ni2  α r (n 0  n(t ))(p0  p(t ))
dt

If Δn  Δp, n(t )  p(t ) because of e - h recombination in pairs

dn(t )
 α r (n 0  p0 )n(t )   2n(t )
dt
 α r p0n(t ) (If p - type and n , p  p0 : low - level injection)
α p t t / 
 n(t )  Δne r 0  Δne n
 n  1/(α r p0 ) : recombination lifetime or minority carrier lifetime.
1
 : more general ex pression
α r (n 0  p0 )

41
 Indirect Recombination: Trapping

Energy is given up as heat to

lattice (electrons falls into Ev).

42
 Quasi-Fermi Level: in case of steady state carrier generation
• The Fermi level EF is meaningful only under the thermal equilibrium condition.
n0  ni ex p[(E F  E i ) / kT ], EC  E i  E g / 2 if NC  NV
p0  ni ex p[(E i  E F ) / kT ]

• Under steady state, introduce a quasi-Fermi level, Fn or Fp to express the steady state
concentrations such that
 n 
n  ni exp[(Fn  Ei ) / kT ]  Fn  Ei  kT ln   
 ni   np  n 2 exp[(F  F ) / kT ]

 p  i n p

p  ni exp[(Ei  Fp ) / kT ]  Fp  Ei  kT ln  
 ni 

Fn , Fp : quasi - Fermi level

Fn  Fp : at non - equilibriu m; a measureof the deviation from the equilibriu m,
Fn  Fp  EF : at equilibriu m

43
 Quasi-Fermi Level: in case of steady state carrier generation

44
 Diffusion Current
•Due to thermally induced random motion, mobile particles tend to
move from a region of high density to a region of low density.
•Current flow due to mobile charge diffusion is proportional to the
carrier concentration gradient.
•The proportionality constant is the diffusion constant, D.
 Let : as a mean free time, l : as a mean free path;
l /   vth
 The flux 1 ( rate of electron flow passing x0 from left) in time 
1  (1 / 2)nL  l /   (1 / 2)nL  vth
 The flux 2 (rate of electrons passing x0 from right) in time 
2  (1 / 2)nR  l /   (1 / 2)nR  vth
 The flux (rate of electrons passing x0 from left to right) in time 
1 1 dn( x)
n ( x0 )  (nL  nR )  vth   vth l 
2 2 dx
1 l2
 Diffusion coefficient D  vth l  [cm 2 / s]
2 2

dn dn
• The diffusion current density: J n (diff .)  (q) Dn  qDn  qDnn
dx dx
dp dp
J p (diff .)  (q) D p  qDp  qDpp
dx dx
45
 Diffusion Current: profile dependence

 x
 Linear profile : p  N0 1  
 L
0 dp N
J p ,diff  qDp  qDp 0 : constant diff. current
dx L

 Non  linear profile : p  N 0 exp(  x / Ld )

0
dp qDp N 0 x
J p ,diff  qDp  exp  : varying diff. current
dx Ld  d 
L

46
 Diffusion and Drift of Carriers: Built-in Fields
• In the presence of the carrier gradient and an electric field, drift and diffusion components are
contributed to the total current :

• Assume that an e-field is in the x-direction

• Total current: J(x)= Jelectron+ Jhole = Jdrift + Jdiff

dn dp
J ( x)  J n ( x)  J p ( x)  q(  n n   p p) E  q( Dn  Dp )
dx dx
dn dp
J n ( x)  q n nE  qDn , J p ( x)  q p pE  qDp
dx dx

47
 Diffusion and Drift of Carriers: Band-bending
• Potential vs. kinetic energy: EC represents the electron potential energy.

• The potential energy of a particle with charge -q and the electrostatic potential V(x): P.E. = - qV

• Variation of Ec and Ev with position is called “band bending.”

1V
increasing electron energy

K.E. E

increasing hole energy

EC + –
uniform n-Si
E
P.E.

Ev
hole K.E. V(x)

1V
ERef x
0

1
P.E.  EC  ERef  qV  V  ( ERef  EC )
q
dV ( x) 1 dEC 1 dEV 1 dEi
E ( x)     
dx q dx q dx q dx

48
 Diffusion and Drift of Carriers: Einstein Relationship
•Assume: nondegenerate, nonuniformly doped semiconductor under equilibrium conditions.

• At equilibrium, Jp=0=Jn : no net current.

• From hole current equation, J p ( x)  q p pE  qDp dp  0

D p 1 dp( x) dx
E ( x) 
 p p( x) dx
D p 1  dEi dEF 
     p( x)  ni exp[(Ei ( x)  E F ) / kT ]
 p kT  dx dx 
Dp 1
 qE ( x)
 p kT
D p kT
  : Einstein relationship for holes
p q
• A similar argument for electrons yields
Dn kT
 : Einstein relationship for electrons
n q

•Note: The built-in fields accompany gradients in Ei. Such gradients in the bands at equilibrium (i.e.
EF const.) can arise when the band gap varies due to changes in alloy composition. More
commonly, built-in fields result from doping gradients.

49
 Continuity Equation
• Rate of hole build up between x and x+x: (p / t )

• Increase of hole/unit volume due to hole accumulation:

[ J p ( x)  J p ( x  x)] /(qx)

• Recombination rate: p /  p
p 1 J p ( x)  J p ( x  x) p
  
t x  x  x q x p

• Continuity equation: by taking x0

p p 1 J p p n n 1 J n n
   (holes)    (electrons)
t t q x  p t t q x  n

•Minority carrier diffusion equation: If the current is solely by diffusion

n n  2n n
J diff
 qDn   Dn 
x t x 2  n
n

p p  2p p

J diff
 qD p   Dp 
x t x 2  p
p

50
 Minority Carrier Diffusion Equation
•Minority carrier diffusion equation:
- If the current is solely by diffusion and under steady state condition,

n  2n n  n  2n n

 Dn     2 , Ln  Dn n : electron diffusion length
t x 2  n   0 Dn n x 2 Ln
 t
 
p  p p 
2
p  2p p
 Dp     2 , L p  D p p : hole diffusion length
t x 2  p  D p p x 2 Lp

p  2p p x / L
  2  p( x)  pe p

D p p x 2
Lp
 x / Lp
 e
 x   x dx  L p : the average distance that a hole diffuses before recombination
0 Lp
dp Dp x / L Dp
J p ( x)  qD p q pe p  q p( x)
dx Lp Lp

51
 Gradients in the Quasi-Fermi Levels
dn( x)
• J n ( x)  q n n( x) E ( x)  qDn
dx
1 dEi
E( x ) 
q dx
D kT
 : Einstein Relation
 q
n  ni exp[(Fn  Ei ) / kT ], where Fn : quasi - Fermi level for electrons

 dF dE 
J n ( x)  q n n( x)E( x)   n n( x)  n  i 
 dx dx 
dF d F  d F 
  n n( x) n  q n n( x)  n    n ( x)  n  : modified ohm's law
dx dx  q  dx  q 
d  Fp  d  Fp 
J p ( x)  q p n( x)     p ( x)  
dx  q  dx  q 

The processesof electron drifts and diffusion are summed up

by the spatial variation of the quasi - Fermi level

52
 Terminology
• Generation: The process of elevating electrons from the valence band into the conduction band, creating an
electron-hole pair.

• Recombination: The process whereby an electron falls into an empty state in the valence band (a hole) so that an
electron-hole pair is annihilated.

• Direct band gap semiconductor: the minimum conduction band energy and maximum valence band energy occur at
the same k value; transitions between the two allowed bands can take place with no change in crystal momentum.

• Indirect band gap semiconductor: the minimum conduction band energy and maximum valence band energy do not
occur at the same k value; a transition have to include an interaction with the lattice so that crystal momentum is
conserved.

• Low-level injection: The condition in which the excess-carrier concentration is much smaller than the thermal
equilibrium majority carrier concentration.

• Quasi Fermi-level: The quasi-Fermi level for carriers relate to nonequilibrium carrier concentration to the intrinsic
carrier concentration and the intrinsic Fermi level.

• Minority carrier diffusion length: The average distance a minority carrier diffuses before recombining, a parameter
equal to (D)1/2 where D and  are the minority carrier diffusion coefficient and lifetime, respectively.

• Minority carrier lifetime: The average time that an excess minority carrier exists before it recombines.

• Thermal equilibrium: There are no net flows of matters or of energy, no phase change, and no unbalanced potentials
( or driving forces)

53
 Unit of energy: eV
• Consider a parallel plate capacitor with an applied voltage as shown in the figure.
• Assume that an electron is released at x=0 and at t=0.
dv qEt qEt 2
F  m0 a  m0  qE  v  and x  - V +
dt m0 2m0
• Assume that at t=t0 the electron reaches the positive plate so that x=d;
2 E
qEt0 2m0 d qEt0 2qEd
d  t0   v(t0 )  
2m0 qE m0 m0
• The kinetic energy of the electron at this time is x=0 x=d
1 1  2qEd 
K .E.  m0v(t0 ) 2  m0    qEd  qV
2 2  m0 
• If an electron is accelerated through a electrostatic potential differential of 1V, then the K.E. is
K .E.  qV  1.6 10 19 C 1V  1.6 10 19 J
• The electron-volt (eV) unit of energy is defined as
K .E.  1.6 10 19 J  1 eV

54