Module 4

Module 4: Valves, Pumps, ballast and Coolers

Introduction
Modern cargo ships are provided with a large low-pressure distilling plant for producing fresh
water during the voyage, as the capacities required would otherwise need considerable tank
space. This space is better utilized to carry oil fuel, improving the ship’s range. Independent
tanks supplying the fresh water required for drinking and culinary purposes, and fresh washing
water, etc., may be taken from the double bottom tanks, the pumps for each supply being
independent also. Hot fresh water is supplied initially from the cold fresh water system, through
a non-return valve into a storage type hot water heater fitted with heater coils, and then the
heated water is pumped to the outlet.

The sanitary system supplies sea water for flushing water closets, etc., and may be provided with
a hydro-pneumatic pump in cargo vessels, but on larger passenger ships where the demand is
heavier, a continuously operating power pump is required.

It is a statutory requirement that a fire main and deck wash system should be supplied. This has
hose outlets on the various decks, and is supplied by power driven pumps in the machinery
spaces. Provision may be made for washing down the anchor chain from a connection to the fire
main.

Lesson 1.1: Valves

Describes the applications of quick-closing valves

A quick closing valve can be controlled by pneumatic, hydraulic, or mechanical transmission. Suitable for
a variety of applications, a quick closing valve serves the purpose of a very important safety function,
especially in emergency situations where a product may need to be suddenly shut off to stop the flow.

Main features of a quick-closing valves

Quick closing valve is a kind of pressure reducing valve in which the automatic process
control valve for fluid pressure control is used for unmanned machinery spaces. The controlling
system has a piston which moves with the pressure of air or fluid and simultaneously moves the
lever attached to it.
 Sketch of a change-over chest

Purpose and applications of change-over-chests

Dual purpose tanks such as those for either oil or water ballast require exclusive connections to
separate systems. Special valve chests (Figure 2) with interchangeable blanks and connecting
passages are installed for this duty. The example shown has two suction valves flanked by a
blank on one side and a dome on the other. In the position shown, the two suction valves have
access via the dome, to the water ballast main but not to the oil fuel main. By simply changing
over the blank and the dome the situation is reversed.
Main features of a mud box

 Mud boxes are fitted into the machinery space bilge suction piping. The mud box is a coarse
strainer with a straight tailpipe down to the bilge. To enable the internal perforated plate to be
cleaned when necessary, the lid of the mud box is easily removed without disconnecting any
pipework.

Lesson 1.2: Pumps

Purpose of a bilge pumping system

A bilge pump is a water pump used to remove bilge water. Since fuel can be present in the bilge,
electric bilge pumps are designed to not cause sparks. Electric bilge pumps are often fitted with
float switches which turn on the pump when the bilge fills to a set level. Another use of the force
pump was to combat fires.

Principle features of an emergency bilge pump

The emergency bilge suction or bilge injection valve is used to prevent flooding of the ship. It is

a direct suction from the machinery space bilge which is connected to the largest
capacity pump or pumps. An emergency bilge pump is required for passenger ships but may also
be fitted as an extra on cargo ships.

Purpose of a ballast pumping system

It is a pump for transferring or discharging water ballast. Ballast pump is usually in a pump room

on board the ships or vessels. Together with the tank, pipe, valves, it is composited of the ballast
system. When cargo has been discharged, it is used to improve vessel's stability.

Diagrammatic arrangement of a ballast system

Lesson 1.3: Main uses of fresh water and seawater

Freshwater on board ships is used for a variety of purposes. From domestic uses such

as drinking and washing to ship operation purposes such as machinery cooling and
cleaning, fresh water is of utmost importance on board ships.

Seawater is used for cooling, oil field water injection and firefighting systems in ship building,
offshore oil and gas platforms, and power plants and for industrial facilities along the coastline.

Domestic seawater pumping system

Pumps and substantial piping systems are provided in ships to supply the essential services of hot
and cold fresh water for personal use, and salt water or fresh water for sanitary and firefighting
purposes.

Treatment necessary for water produced by evaporators for human consumption

Water that is safe for drinking is called potable water. The treatment piece of this process is

called the water-treatment process. The water-treatment process involves four steps, in this order:
coagulation, sedimentation, filtration, and disinfection

Engine-room central cooling system

Most cooling systems are made as central cooling ones, which means that there is only one or
two large plate heat exchangers equipped with titanium plates. Titanium is the only material that
can withstand seawater without corrosion damages. This means that the central cooler can
operate without problems using seawater as the cooling medium for the internal freshwater
cooling systems.

The typical central cooling water system consists of:

- The Seawater Cooling System,

- The Freshwater Low Temperature (FW-LT) System,

- The Freshwater High Temperature (FW-HT) System.

The FW-LT System is used for cooling: ME LO Cooler, Camshaft LO Cooler, Jacket Water
Cooler, and Scavenge Air Coolers. The FW-HT System is used for cooling the cylinder liners,
cylinder covers and exhaust valves of the main engine. Freshwater generator is installed for
production of freshwater by utilizing the heat in the jacket water-cooling system.

Purpose of the isolating valve in the machinery space fire-pump delivery main

Fire protection on ships is provided by detection and fire-fighting equipment together with
structural features which are intended to contain an outbreak of fire and the employment when
required of non-combustible materials to prevent its spread.

Lesson 1.4: Hydraulics

Machinery which might be controlled or driven by hydraulic motors, hydraulic

machines use liquid fluid power to perform work. Heavy construction vehicles are a common
example. In this type of machine, hydraulic fluid is pumped to various hydraulic
motors and hydraulic cylinders throughout the machine and becomes pressurized according to
the resistance present. The fluid is controlled directly or automatically by control valves and
distributed through hoses, tubes, and/or pipes.

Hydraulic systems, like pneumatic systems, are based on Pascal's law which states that any
pressure applied to a fluid inside a closed system will transmit that pressure equally everywhere
and in all directions. A hydraulic system uses an incompressible liquid as its fluid, rather than a
compressible gas.
The popularity of hydraulic machinery is due to the very large amount of power that can be
transferred through small tubes and flexible hoses, and the high power density and wide array
of actuators that can make use of this power, and the huge multiplication of forces that can be
achieved by applying pressures over relatively large areas. One drawback, compared
to machines using gears and shafts, is that any transmission of power results in some losses due
to resistance of fluid flow through the piping.
Hydraulic system
A hydraulic system is a drive technology where a fluid is used to move the energy from e.g. an
electric motor to an actuator, such as a hydraulic cylinder. The fluid is theoretically
uncompressible and the fluid path can be flexible in the same way as an electric cable.
Properties of hydraulic fluid
 The demands placed on hydraulic systems constantly change as industry requires greater
efficiency and speed at higher operating temperatures and pressures. Selecting the best hydraulic
fluid requires a basic understanding of each particular fluid's characteristics in comparison with
an ideal fluid. An ideal fluid would have these characteristics:
 thermal stability
 hydrolytic stability
 low chemical corrosiveness
 high anti-wear characteristics
 low tendency to capitate
 long life
 total water rejection
 constant viscosity, regardless of temperature, and
 Low cost.
Although no single fluid has all of these ideal characteristics, it is possible to select one that is
the best compromise for a particular hydraulic system. This selection requires knowledge of the
system in which a hydraulic fluid will be used. The designer should know such basic
characteristics of the system as:
 maximum and minimum operating and ambient temperatures
 type of pump or pumps used
 operating pressures
 operating cycle
 loads encountered by various components, and
 type of control and power valves
Lesson 1.4.a: Care necessary when topping up the fluid from hydraulic system

1. Keep contaminants out of your hydraulic system. Clean the area around dipsticks, fill
plugs and hydraulic filters before removing them to check or change the hydraulic fluid.
2. Change the fluid and filter after the initial 50 hours of use.
3. Check oil before each use.
Color coding

To better understand how apart or circuit works, consider using color coding for the lines and
components. Color coding is instituted by the instructor, designer, or engineer and is according
to his or her interpretation, so might not be consistent in each case. Most training manual and
manufacturers use the following color code.

Red: Working fluid flow lines, usually from the pump to a device. This lines is always solid. It
can represent plastic tubing as small as 5/32-in. OD for air any size pipe or tubing for hydraulics.

Blue: Return lines from valves and other device for hydraulic circuits. This lines is always solid,
and can represent any size of pipe or tubing.
Yellow: Metered or flow controlled fluid that is at a reduced speed in relation to the same line
without restriction. This line could be solid. Or a series of long dashes if pilot flow from be
metered.

Orange: A reduced pressure line, such as a pilot pressure line or carrying accumulator pre-
charge gas. This line could be a solid after reducing valve or a long-dashes line for pilot flow.

Green: Pump inlet lines (suction lines) or drain lines. This line would be solid for the pump inlet
and a series of short dashes for drains. Two types of lines with the same color are not confusing
even when in close proximity to each other.

Purple or indigo: This colors usually indicate working fluid that has been pressure intensified
by area differences or load induced conditions. These pressure are usually greater than the setting
of the main relief valve or reducing valve that feed the circuit.

Line without color are considered non-working or to have no flow at present.

Lesson 1.5: Sewage treatment plant

Generally, ships prefer treating sewage before discharging to save themselves from any type of
embarrassment. There are different methods of treating sewage available in the market, but the
most common of them is the biological type for it occupies less space for holding tank, unlike
those of the other methods. Moreover, the discharge generated from this plant is eco-friendly. It
is to note that each sewage treatment system installed onboard has to be certified
by classification society and should perform as per their requirement and regulations. 

The most preferred type of sewage treatment plant is that involving aerobic bacteria. The
Anaerobic bacteria are equally capable of decomposing and breaking down the sludge but during
the process, they generate and release harmful gases such as H2S and methane which are toxic
and dangerous for aquatic organisms.

Sewage-retention system
A retention or holding tank is required where no discharge of treated or untreated sewage is
allowed in a port area. The sewage is pumped out to shore reception facilities or overboard when
the vessel is proceeding on passage at sea, usually beyond the 12 nautical mile limit.
Biological sewage treatment.

A coliform count in sewage systems

Coliform is a type of organism which is present in human intestine and is recognized as indicator
organisms of sewage pollution. Presence of these organisms in water is an indication of pathogen
(pathogen count), which are

Principles of a biological sewage treatment plant

The basic principle of the working of a biological treatment plant is decomposition of the
raw sewage. This process is done by aerating the sewage chamber with fresh air. The aerobic
bacteria survive on this fresh air and decompose the raw sewage which can be disposed of in the
sea

Discarding sewage produced onboard on a ship is one of the few tasks on a ship which should be
taken utmost care of if one wants to save him and his shipping company from heavy fine. The
sewage generated on the ship cannot be stored on the ship for a very long time and it, for this
reason, it has to be discharged into the sea.

Though sewage can be discharged into the sea, we cannot discharge it directly overboard as there
are some regulations regarding discharging of sewage that needs to be followed. Sewage on the
sea is generally the waste produced from toilets, urinals, and WC scuppers. The rules say that the
sewage can be discharged into the seawater only after it is treated and the distance of the ship is
4 nautical miles from the nearest land.

But if the sewage is not treated this can be discharged 12 nautical miles away from the nearest
land. Also, the discharged sewage should not produce any visible floating solids nor should it
cause any discoloration of surrounding water. The details of the sewage discharge regulations
can be found in MARPOL Annex IV.

Screen Filter:

The screen filter mesh is fitted on the first tank near the entrance of the sewage to the STP. It
helps in removing the non-sewage adulteration component such as; toilet paper, plastic paper,
other solids etc, which can clog the complete system if went inside.

Bio filter:

The bio filter is also the part of the aeration chamber which treats the sewage passing from the
screen filter. The bio filter reactor, with the help of fine air bubbles supplied from the blower,
will disperse the contaminated substance diffusing and breaking down the organic matter by the
aerobic microorganism. The fine bubble by passing through the diffuser will increase the oxygen
transmission rate.  

Settling/ Sedimentation Chamber:

The treated sewage water from the bio filter reactor will come to the next chamber which is used
for settling purpose. The mixture will be further separated to high-grade water and sediment after
being settled in Sedimentation tank. The clarification compartment is usually of the hopper type
with sloping sides which prevent the sticking and accumulating of sludge and send it to the
suction side of the air lift tube.

The untreated sludge settled in the bottom of the sedimentation tank returns into the Bio filter
reactor to break up by microorganism again.

Activated Carbon:

The activated carbon is fitted post the settling chamber to remove Chemical Oxygen Demand
(COD) by filtering and absorption. It also helps in treating the Biological Oxygen Demand
(BOD) and Suspended Solids.

Chlorinator: The chlorinator is fitted in the last chamber to treat the final stage water for
discharging overboard. The chlorinator can be of tablet dosing type or chemical injection type.
Inside the tablet-based chlorinator, clean water comes directly in contacts with the chlorine
tablets, making a chlorine solution. The chlorinator comprises cylinders for filling the chlorinator
with tablets.

In chemical pump type, a measured set quantity of NaOCl is injected to sterilization/chlorination

tank using the diaphragm type reciprocating pump.

Floats and Level Switches:

 Usually, three float switches, namely – high level, low level, and high alarm level switch
are fitted on the chlorination/sterilization chamber.
 This chamber is also fitted with level switches to control the start-stop of the discharge
pump.
The basic principle of the working of a biological treatment plant is decomposition of the raw sewage.
This process is done by aerating the sewage chamber with fresh air. The aerobic bacteria survive on this
fresh air and decompose the raw sewage which can be disposed of in the sea. Air is a very important
criterion in the functioning of the biological sewage plant because if air is not present, it will lead to the
growth of anaerobic bacteria, which produces toxic gasses that are hazardous to health. Also, after
decomposition of the sewage with anaerobic bacteria, a dark black liquid causes discoloration of water
which is not accepted for discharging. Thus in a biological sewage treatment plant, the main aim is to
maintain the flow of fresh Division of Processes

The biological sewage plant is divided into three chambers:- 

Aeration chamber
 This chamber is fed with raw sewage which has been grounded to form small particles. The
advantage of breaking sewage in small particles is that it increases the area and a high number of
bacteria can attack simultaneously to decompose the sewage. The sewage is decomposed into
carbon dioxide, water, and inorganic sewage. The air is forced through the diffuser into the air
chamber. The pressure of air flow also plays an important role in decomposition of the sewage. If
the pressure is kept high then the mixture of air and sewage will not take place properly and it
will escape without doing any work required for decomposition. It is for this reason; controlled
pressure is important inside the sewage treatment plant as this will help in proper mixing and
decomposition by the agitation caused by air bubbles. Generally, the pressure is kept around 0.3-
0.4 bars. 

Settling tank

The mixture of liquid and sludge is passed to settling tank from the aeration chamber. In the
settling tank, the sludge settles at the bottom and clear liquid on the top. The sludge present at the
bottom is not allowed to be kept inside the settling tank as this will lead to the growth of
anaerobic bacteria and foul gasses will be produced. The sludge formed is recycled with the
incoming sludge where it will mix with the later and assist in the breakdown of sewage. 

Chlorination and Collection

In this chamber, the clear liquid produced from the settling tank is overflown and the liquid is
disinfected with the help of chlorine. This is done because of the presence of the e-Coli bacteria
present in the liquid. To reduce these bacteria to acceptable level chlorination is done. Moreover,
to reduce the e-Coli, the treated liquid is kept for a period of at least 60 minutes. In some plants,
disinfection is also done with the help of ultraviolet radiation. The collected liquid is discharged
to overboard or settling tank depending on the geological position of the ship. If the ship is in
restricted or near coastline then the sewage will be discharged into the holding tank; otherwise,
the sewage is discharged directly into the sea when a high level is reached and is disposed of
automatically until low-level switch activates.

Precautions for efficient operation of STP:

 The aeration blower is installed to run continuously as it helps the microorganism to

sustain and grow. Never switch off the blower as it will cause the death of
microorganisms, which will, in turn, reduce its clarification efficiency and will take days
to grow microorganisms again.
 Never throw any foreign substances such as cigarette buds, paper, rags etc. into toilets as
it may choke the pipeline or filter hampering the STP operation
 The toilet tissue used onboard should be free of vinyl components as it affects the growth
of bacteria
 Never use unauthorized chemical or detergent to clean toilet
 The grey water inlet pipe must be placed lower than the water level of the inside of S.T.P
to decrease the foam generation
  The pH of the samples of effluent shall be in the range of 6 to 8.5
 The Nitrite content is not to exceed 10 mg/ltr NO2.
Special Area Regulation:

Currently, the Baltic Sea area is the only Special Area under Annex IV. The discharge of sewage
from passenger ships within a Special Area is generally be prohibited under the new regulations,
except when the ship has in operation an approved sewage treatment plant and additionally meet
the nitrogen and phosphorus removal standard.

In accordance with resolution MEPC.275 (69), the discharge requirements for Special Areas in
regulation 11.3 of MARPOL Annex IV for the Baltic Sea Special Area shall take effect:

1. on 1 June 2019, for new passenger ships

2. on 1 June 2021, for existing passenger ships other than those specified in 3; and
3. on 1 June 2023, for existing passenger ships in route directly to or from a port located outside
the special area and to or from a port located east of longitude 28˚10′ E within the special area
that does not make any other port calls within the special area.

Air Blower:

There are usually 2 air blowers installed, in which one acts as stand-by, to supply air (via air
bubbles) helping in forming the microorganism in biofilter reactor. It also helps in transferring
the sludge from sedimentation tank, supply air to the activated carbon tank and to back flush the
sludge.

Discharge Pump:

The discharge pump is provided in a duplex and they are mounted on the last compartment of the
STP. They are centrifugal pumps of the non-clog type which are coupled to their respective
motors.  The pump is run on auto mode controlled by the level switches installed in the
sterilization tank. The pump is usually run on manual mode when taking out the sludge from the
compartments after the cleaning of the tank insides.

Piping:

 The inlet pipe carrying the sewage to the plant is installed with the proper slope to
prevent the clotting and condensation.
 The sewage pipe is such arranged that the inside holes are accessible for cleaning
during maintenance.
 Overboard discharging outlet should be placed 200~300mm lower than L.W.L and the
discharge pipe is provided with a Non-return valve.
Lesson 1.6: Incinerator
According to Annex VI of MARPOL 1973/78 Convention of IMO for prevention of air pollution
from ships, the guidelines regarding the waste material storage and disposal of waste at sea need
to be strictly followed.

Incineration of various materials such as galley waste, food scraps, accommodation waste, linen,
cardboard, oil sludge from lubricating oil, fuel oil, bilge and purifier, sewage sludge etc. is one of
the most effective ways of disposal and saving storage capacity of the ship tanks and waste
storage containments on ships.

Moreover, the residue left from the incineration can be easily disposed of off as it mainly
consists of ash.

For all foreign going vessel, an incinerator installed onboard the ship on or after 1 January 2000
must comply with requirements of the standard specifications for shipboard incinerators
developed under resolutions MEPC.76 (40) and MEPC.93 (45).

The following materials not to be incinerated:

1. Annexes I, II and III cargo residues of the present Convention and related contaminated
packing materials;
2. Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs)
3. Garbage, as defined in Annex V of the present Convention, containing more than traces
of heavy metals; and refined petroleum products containing halogen compounds
4. Incineration of sewage sludge and sludge oil generated during the normal operation of a
ship may also take place in the main or auxiliary power plant or boilers, but in those cases,
shall not take place inside ports, harbors and estuaries
The temperature of the flue gases must be monitored and should not be less than 850 deg C for
continuous feed and reach 600 deg C within 5 minutes ( time may vary depending upon the
capacity of incinerator) for a batch

Types of Marine Incinerators

Vertical cyclone type and horizontal burner type are the two most commonly used incinerators
on the ship.

Horizontal Burner Type

The setup is similar to a horizontal fired boiler with a burner arrangement horizontal to the
incinerator combustion chamber axis. The ash and noncombustible material remaining at the end
of the operation has to be cleared out manually.
Vertical Cyclone Type
In this type, the burner is mounted on the top and the waste to be incinerated in introduced into
the combustion chamber from the top. A rotating arm device is provided to improve combustion
and remove ash and non-combustibles from the surface.

The important parts of the incinerator are:

1. Combustion chamber with diesel oil burner, sludge burner, pilot fuel heater and electric
control panel
2. Flue gas fan which may be fitted with flue gas damper or frequency inverter
3. Sludge service tank with a circulating pump and heater
4. Sludge settling tank with filling pump and heater (Optional)
5. Water injection (Optional)
6. Rotating arm to remove ash and non-combustibles (for vertical cyclone type)
7. Cleaning Fuel Oil Tanks on Ship
Incinerator Operation
A sludge burner is placed in the incinerator to burn and dispose of sewage, sludge and waste oil.
An auxiliary oil burner is also fitted to ignite the refuse.

Automatic controls provided for the system secure the igniter when the refuse starts burning
without the need of the igniter. Combustion air is supplied with the help of forced draught fan.

A loading door, pneumatically operated, is provided to load the refuse. An interlock is also
provided with burner and forced draught fan, which trips when the loading door is in open
condition as part of the safety.

Solid waste is fed from the loading door, and the incineration process starts after closing the
door. Liquid waste is fed into the system when the refractory of the incinerator becomes hot.

Lesson 1.6.a: Sludge and Bilge Management Onboard Ship 

After the completion of the incineration process, the incinerator is allowed to cool down, and
residue like ash and the non-combustibles are removed by pulling the ash slide door. The rotating
arm in the vertical cyclone type scrapes off the entire solid residue in the ash box which can be
easily disposed of.

Real Life Accident: Incinerator Safety Devices Bypassed, 4th Engineer Loses Forearm

During incineration, it is important to control the exhaust temperature, which should not be very
high or too low. The high temperature could lead to melting of metal and can cause damage to
the machinery, whereas too low temperature will not be able to burn the residue and sterilize and
remove odor from the residue.
This temperature control can be achieved by introducing cold-diluted air in the exhaust stream at
the point which is as close to incinerator discharge.

 Things to Remember For Starting and Stopping Incinerator

 Keep the incinerator chamber inlet outlet and burner parts clean. A daily inspection must
be carried out before the start in the morning
 Do not throttle the air/steam needle valve more than 3⁄4 turn closed. If the pressure
increases above the defined limit, clean the sludge burner nozzle
 Do not turn off the main power before the chamber temperature is down below 170°C.
Keep the fan running to cool down the chamber
 If experiencing any problem with a high temperature in the combustion chamber, flue gas
or control of sludge dosing, replace the dosing pump stator
 Do not transfer sludge to the service tank during sludge burning in a single tank system as
it can damage the refractory
 It is always recommended to heat the sludge overnight, without starting the circulating
pump. Drain off the free water and start the sludge program before performing the
incinerator operation
 Never load glass, lithium batteries or large quantities of spray cans in the incinerator.
Avoid loading large amounts of oily rags or filter cartridges as all these may damage the
flue gas fan
 Inspect the cooling jacket every six months (open the cover plates) and clean as required
with steam or hot water
 Read the instruction manual, and never change any settings unless instructed by the
makers
Important Points to Note:

Do not incinerate metals as soda and food can plate, flatware, serving spoons/tray, hardware
(nuts & bolts), structural pieces, wire rope, chains, etc., glass such as bottles, jars, drinking
glasses, etc.

Real Life Incident: Ship Engineer’s Thumb Crushed By Incinerator Door

Flammable materials such as bottles or cans containing flammable liquids or gasses and aerosol
cans must not be incinerated.

Loading of glass will result in a rock hard slag, which is hard to remove from the refractory
lining.

In the case of a blackout, when the combustion chamber temperature is above 220°C, it is
important to start the flue gas fan as soon as possible in order not to damage the incinerator by
accumulated heat in the refractory lining.

Disclaimer: The authors’ views expressed in this article do not necessarily reflect the views of
Marine Insight. Data and charts, if used, in the article have been sourced from available
information and have not been authenticated by any statutory authority. The author and Marine
Insight do not claim it to be accurate nor accept any responsibility for the same. The views
constitute only the opinions and do not constitute any guidelines or recommendation on any
course of action to be followed by the reader.

Lesson 1.6.b: Incinerator Operation

A sludge burner is placed in the incinerator to burn and dispose of sewage, sludge and waste oil.
An auxiliary oil burner is also fitted to ignite the refuse. During incineration, it is important to
control the exhaust temperature, which should not be very high or too low

Sludge- Ship generated sludge are the residue from any oil separation process which is usually a
mixture of water, solid material and high viscosity oil. Sludge tank – A tank provided to receive
oily residues coming from the oily water filtering or separating equipment and from the
purification of fuel and lubricating oils.

Refuse- means all kind of victual domestic and operational waste excluding fish and parts
thereof, food waste, generated during the normal operations of the ship and liable to be disposed
of continuously or periodically except those substances which are listed in other Annexes of
MARPOL convention

Fuel oil
The oil is stored in tanks in the double bottom from which it is pumped to a settling tank and
heated. After passing through centrifuges the cleaned, heated oil is pumped to a daily service
tank. From the daily service tank the oil flows through a three-way valve to a mixing tank.

A flow meter is fitted into the system to indicate fuel consumption. Booster pumps are used to
pump the oil through heaters and a viscosity regulator to the engine-driven fuel pumps. The fuel
pumps will discharge high-pressure fuel to their respective injectors. The viscosity regulator
controls the fuel oil temperature in order to provide the correct viscosity for combustion. A
pressure regulating valve ensures a constant-pressure supply to the engine-driven pumps, and a
pre-warming bypass is used to heat up the fuel before starting the engine.

A diesel oil daily service tank may be installed and is connected to the system via a three-way
valve. The engine can be started up and maneuvered on diesel oil or even a blend of diesel and
heavy fuel oil. The mixing tank is used to collect recirculated oil and also acts as a buffer or
reserve tank as it will supply fuel when the daily service tank is empty.

The system includes various safety devices such as low-level alarms and remotely operated tank
outlet valves which can be closed in the event of a fire

Ship’s Main Engine Lubrication System

In the 1960s, ships with marine engine burning heavy fuel oil became more popular and
increased in number as compared to the steamships.
Eventually, in the 21st century, motor ships replaced almost all steamships and acquired 98% of
the world fleet. Post the refining process; mechanical catalyst particles (aluminium silicate)
remain in the oil and are not easy to separate. If exceeded in number, this can damage parts of
the fuel system such as an injector, fuel pumps etc. as they have very fine clearance. As per ISO
8217:2010, the maximum limit for Al+Si is 60 mg/kg for RMG and RMK category fuels.

Lesson 1.7: Venting arrangements for fuel tanks

The venting arrangements shall be so designed and operated as to ensure that neither pressure
nor vacuum in the cargo tanks shall exceed design parameters

The diagram below shows a Fuel oil supply system for a large 2 stroke crosshead engine.
However the setup is typical of any fuel system for a marine diesel engine operating on heavy
residual fuel.

Properties of fluidity, viscosity and pour point

Fluidity is the peppery of a fluid which allows fluid to flow. That means as high the fluidity,
more easily fluid can flow. (Means if viscosity of the fluid is more, its internal resistance
between layers will high so can't flow easily)

Viscosity is another type of bulk property defined as a liquid's resistance to flow. When the
intermolecular forces of attraction are strong within a liquid, there is a larger viscosity.
The pour point of a liquid is the temperature below which the liquid loses its flow characteristics.
It is defined as the minimum temperature in which the oil has the ability to pour down from a
beaker.

Minimum closed flashpoint of marine fuels

60°C.
The International Maritime Organization (IMO) SOLAS regulation requires that fuel used on
board ships shall have a flash point of not less than 60°C. This is also stated as the minimum
flash point limit for marine fuels in ISO 8217, the global fuel standard from the International
Organization for Standardization (ISO).

Maximum temperature to which fuel oil may be raised for transfer and when stored in a
settling tank

Various piping systems, provided for bunkering, storage, transfer, offloading and treatment of
fuel oils. The following systems are provided for diesel engines that operate on heavy fuel
oils: Fuel oil transfer system, Fuel oil treatment system and Fuel oil supply system.

Fuel oil transfer system – This system receives and stores fuel and delivers it to settling tanks.
Fuel oils are loaded through deck fill connections that have sample connections provided to
permit the fuel to be sampled as it is taken aboard. HFO is loaded in storage tanks fitted with
heating coils. In preparation for use, HFO is transferred to the fuel oil settling tanks via FO
transfer pumps which are equipped with a suction strainer. Piping is so arranged that the pumps
can transfer fuel between storage tanks and then to the deck connections for offloading. Settling
tanks are used to permit gross water and solids to settle on the bottom.

Fuel oil treatment system – From the settling tanks fuel oil is transferred to the service tanks
via FO treatment system. For cleaning of heavy fuel oils (HFO) the two stage process is
commonly used. The fuel is heated in a settling tank to about 50-60°C and then is drawn out by
the purifier inlet pump. The inlet pump delivers the fuel to a thermostatically controlled heater
which raises the fuel temperature to about 80°C, and thence to the centrifugal purifier. The dry
purified fuel is then transferred to a centrifugal clarifier by the purifier discharge pump. After
clarification the clarifier discharge pump delivers the fuel to the service tank for the engine use.

Fuel oil supply system – This system supplies the fuel from the service tank to the diesel engine.
The system consists of: a supply flow meter, supply pumps, circulating pumps, preheaters, the
final filter, a viscosity controller, a FO venting box.

The pressurized system is preferable while operating the diesel engine on high viscosity fuels. It
can be delivered as a modular unit (fuel oil supply module), tested and ready for service supply
connections.
The basic requirement for any marine engine is to propel a ship or to generate power onboard by
using the energy obtained from burning of fuel oil. HFO or heavy fuel oil is the most widely
used type of fuels for commercial vessels.

The fuel oil releases energy to rotate the ship propeller or the alternator by burning fuel inside
the combustion chamber of the engine or to generate steam inside the boiler.

The amount of heat energy thus released is the specific energy of a fuel and is measured in
MJ/kg.

Under MARPOL Annex 1, the definition of Heavy Grade Oil is given as:

 Crude oils having a density at 15ºC higher than 900 kg/m3;

 Fuel oils having either a density at 15ºC higher than 900 kg/ m3 or a kinematic viscosity
at 50oC higher than 180 mm2/s; and
 Bitumen, tar, and their emulsions
History of Marine Heavy Fuel Oil Usage
During the early 19th Century, the cargo ships, which used sails harnessing wind energy, started
getting replaced by steamships.

Later on, around the second half of the 20th century, motor ships using IC engines were mainly
used as commercial vessels to carry cargo.

The first four-stroke marine engine using heavy fuel was made operational in the 1930s. With
time, shipping companies started investing more in R&D and the two-stroke engine became
bigger, powerful and famous.

The use of marine heavy fuel oil became more popular in the 1950s because of the introduction
of high alkaline cylinder lubrication, which was able to neutralize the acids generated by high
Sulphur content in the heavy fuel oil.

Density:

Every matter, whether solid, liquid or gas has a specific density. The “fuel oil density” is an
essential factor that indicates the ignition quality of a fuel and is also used for calculating the
amount of fuel oil quantity delivered during the bunkering procedure.
Lesson 1.8: The Ultimate Guide to Fuel Oil Bunkering Process on Ships
The official and most commonly used unit for density is kg/m3 at 15°C.

Kinematic Viscosity:

Viscosity is the resistance within the fluid which acts against the flow. Kinematic viscosity
represents the dynamic viscosity of a fluid per unit density. The viscosity of fuel is a highly
significant parameter as it is used to determine the ease of atomization and convenience to pump
the fuel within the system.

Viscosity Meter and Viscosity Controller Used on Ships.

Calculated Carbon Aromaticity Index (CCAI):

The Calculated Carbon Aromaticity Index (CCAI) is a calculation based on the density and
viscosity of a given fuel. As per the formula, the CCAI number is inversely proportional to
efficient combustion. This means that higher the CCAI number, the more inferior the ignition
quality of the fuel. CCAI helps in getting the ignition delay of the fuel and is used only for the
residual fuel such as HFO. The maximum acceptable valve for HFO CCAI is 870.

Flashpoint:

The temperature at which the vapour of the heated fuel ignites is known as the fuel’s flash point.
This is done under specified test conditions, using a test flame. As per SOLAS, The flashpoint
for all heavy fuel oil to be used onboard vessels is set at Pensky–Martens closed- cup 60°C
minimum.

Pour point:

The pour point is the temperature below which the fuel ceases to flow. Once the fuel oil
temperature goes below the pour point, it forms wax which can lead to blockage of the filter. The
wax formation will also build upon tank bottoms and heating coils, leading to a reduction in heat
exchanging capabilities.
Sulphur:

Sulphur in the fuel is one of the main factors for Sulphur oxide pollution from ships – a pollutant
which is currently under major scrutiny. As per MARPOL, the current Sulphur value for HFO
are:

 3.50% m/m on and after 1 January 2012

 0.50% m/m on and after 1 January 2020

A Guide to Marine Gas Oil and LSFO Used On Ships

Water content:
Water in fuel leads to a decrease in the efficiency of fuel oil and leads to energy loss. Heavy fuel
oil mixed with water, if burnt, will lead to corrosion of internal parts.

Carbon residue:

A lab test of fuel can determine the carbon residue in the heavy fuel oil. The fuel tends to form
carbon deposits on the surface of different parts involved in the combustion chamber under a
high-temperature condition. More the amount of hydrocarbons, more difficult to burn the fuel
efficiently.

Ash:

The amount of inorganic materials present in the fuel which remain as residue once the
combustion process is over is called ash deposits. These deposits mainly consist of elements such
as vanadium, Sulphur, nickel, sodium, silicon, aluminum etc., which are already present in the
fuel. The maximum limit of ash content in the fuel is 0.2% m/m.

Problems of Burning HFO:

1. Water in Fuel: Water in fuel creates issues such as a decrease in heat transfer rate, loss in
efficiency and wear of cylinder liner surface etc. Water can mix with fuel oil in different ways
such as change of temperature leading to condensation, leaking steam pipe inside the fuel oil
tank, improper storage of fuel oil (open sounding pipe) etc.

Lesson 1.8.a: Malpractices in Bunkering Operations Seafarers Should Be Aware Of:

2. Sludge formation: A ship needs to carry heavy fuel oil in abundance to ensure a continuous
supply of fuel to engines and boilers during the long voyage. The heavy fuel oil is stored in the
ship’s bunker tanks. Storage of such a large quantity of fuel leads to sludge formation which
involves a thick layer on the bottom surface of the tanks. The sludge also sticks on the heat
transfer surface of the steam pipes.

3. Pump ability: Many times, if the heating system of the bunker tanks fails or face a problem, it
becomes difficult for the ship’s staff to pump the heavy fuel oil from bunker to settling tank due
to the high viscosity of the oil. If the heavy fuel oil is of inferior quality, it will choke the filter
frequently, increasing the workload of the ship staff onboard ship.

4. Mixing of different grades: Two different grades of heavy oils when mixed together in ship’s
storage tanks can lead to stability problems. The number of bunker tanks on ships is limited, and
when receiving fuel of different grades, it is a challenge for ship’s officer to store different
grades of oils in separate tanks.

5. Combustion: The combustion of heavy fuel oil remains an issue with the ship operator as the
oil need to be heated to bring the viscosity below 20cst for achieving proper atomization. If there
is an issue in the heating and pumping system, the atomization will be affected, leading to carbon
deposits on the piston and liner surfaces.

6. Abrasion: The heavy fuel oil contains deposits such as vanadium, Sulphur, nickel, sodium,
silicon etc. which are difficult to remove and have an abrasive effect on the liner and piston
surfaces.

7. Corrosion: Elements such as vanadium and Sulphur, which are present in the heavy fuel oil,
leads to high temperature and low-temperature corrosion respectively.

Vanadium when comes in contact with sodium and Sulphur during the combustion, forms a
eutectic compound with a low melting point of 530°C.

This molten compound is highly corrosive and attacks the oxide layers on the steel liner and
piston (which is used to protect the steel surface), leading to corrosion.

Sulphur is also present in the heavy grade fuel. When Sulphur combines with oxygen to form
Sulphur dioxide or Sulphur trioxide, it further reacts with moisture (which can be due to low load
operation) to form vapors of sulphuric acid. When the metal temperature is below the dew point
of acid, the vapors condense on the surface and cause low-temperature corrosion.

Lesson 1.8.b: Understanding Hot and Cold Corrosion in Marine Engines

8. Lube oil contamination: During the operation, the heavy fuel oil can always enter the
lubrication system and contaminate the lubricating oil. It can be due to leakage through the
stuffing box, leaking fuel pumps, or unburned HFO that remains on the cylinder walls and
washes down into the sump.

What Are Treatment Methods of Marine Heavy Fuel Oil Used Onboard Ship?
It is impossible to use the heavy fuel oil directly from the bunker tank without treating it. There
are different methods used on a ship to treat the fuel before using it for combustion. Some of the
most used methods are:

1. Heating & Draining: The fuel delivered to the ship is stored in the bunker tank where it is
heated by supplying steam to the coils installed in the bunker tanks. Heating is an essential
process, which makes it an integral part of fuel oil treatment. The average temperature
maintained for heavy fuel oil bunker tanks is around 40ºC. After transferring it to a settling tank,
the fuel is further heated to ensure it is at an appropriate temperature to enter the separators.
Once the fuel is transferred to the service tank from the separator, the oil temperature is >80ºC.
The main intention is to ensure the smooth pump ability of the fuel oil at different processes and
to separate the maximum quantity of water from fuel by draining the settling and service
tanks and using purifiers.

2. Purifiers: For removal of water and sludge from the heavy grade oil, fuel oil purifiers are
used. Depending upon the owner’s choice, either conventional or modern purifiers (computer
driven fuel cleaning systems) can be installed on a ship. The oil flow remains continuous even
during the sludge discharge process. Purification of heavy fuel oil is considered to be the most
critical treatment process and is carried out on all commercial ships.

3. Filtration: Heating and purification process is used to separate water from the fuel. However,
the solid impurities such as fine metal particles which can cause abrasion wear in the fuel system
must also be removed. A fine filter is placed in the fuel oil supply line, which blocks the fine
metal particles. These are full-flow units and the substance used inside the filters is usually
natural, or synthetic fibrous woolen felt material.

4. Chemical treatment: Just like the automotive industry where fuel additives are popular, the
maritime industry also uses chemicals in fuels for different jobs; however, this process is not
much popular. The main types of residual fuel additives for marine heavy fuel oil are:

• Pre-combustion additives such as demulsifies, dispersants

• combustion improvers
• ash modifiers