Hall effect
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For the Colombian band, see The Hall Effect (band).
The Hall effect is the production of a voltage difference (the Hall voltage) across an electrical conductor, transverse to
an electric current in the conductor and a magnetic field perpendicular to the current. It was discovered by Edwin Hall in 1879.[1]
The Hall coefficient is defined as the ratio of the induced electric field to the product of the current density and the applied
magnetic field. It is a characteristic of the material from which the conductor is made, since its value depends on the type,
number, and properties of the charge carriers that constitute the current.
Contents
[hide]
1 Discovery
2 Theory
o 2.1 Hall effect in semiconductors
o 2.2 Quantum Hall effect
o 2.3 Spin Hall effect
o 2.4 Quantum spin Hall effect
o 2.5 Anomalous Hall effect
o 2.6 Hall effect in ionized gases
3 Applications
o 3.1 Advantages over other methods
o 3.2 Disadvantages compared with other methods
o 3.3 Contemporary applications
3.3.1 Ferrite toroid Hall effect current
transducer
3.3.2 Split ring clamp-on sensor
3.3.3 Analog multiplication
3.3.4 Current sensing
3.3.5 Position and motion sensing
3.3.6 Automotive ignition and fuel
injection
3.3.7 Wheel rotation sensing
3.3.8 Electric motor control
3.3.9 Industrial applications
3.3.10 Spacecraft propulsion
4 The Corbino effect
5 See also
6 References
7 Further reading
8 External links
[edit]Discovery
The Hall effect was discovered in 1879 by Edwin Herbert Hall while he was working on his doctoral degree at Johns Hopkins
University in Baltimore, Maryland. His measurements of the tiny effect produced in the apparatus he used was an experimental
tour de force, accomplished 18 years before the electron was discovered.
[edit]Theory
The Hall effect comes about due to the nature of the current in a conductor. Current consists of the movement of many
small charge carriers, typically electrons, holes, ions (see Electromigration) or all three. Moving charges experience a force,
called the Lorentz force, when a magnetic field is present that is perpendicular to their motion. [2] When such a magnetic field is
absent, the charges follow approximately straight, 'line of sight' paths between collisions with impurities, phonons, etc. However,
when a perpendicular magnetic field is applied, their paths between collisions are curved so that moving charges accumulate on
one face of the material. This leaves equal and opposite charges exposed on the other face, where there is a scarcity of mobile
charges. The result is an asymmetric distribution of charge density across the Hall element that is perpendicular to both the 'line
of sight' path and the applied magnetic field. The separation of charge establishes an electric field that opposes the migration of
further charge, so a steady electrical potential builds up for as long as the charge is flowing.
It shall be noted that in the classical view, there are only electrons moving in the same average direction both in the case of
electron or hole conductivity. This cannot explain the opposite sign of the Hall effect observed. The difference is that electrons in
the upper bound of the valence band have opposite group velocity and wave vector direction when moving, which can be
effectively treated as if positively charged particles (holes) moved in opposite direction than the electrons do.
For a simple metal where there is only one type of charge carrier (electrons) the Hall voltage VH is given by
where I is the current across the plate length, B is the magnetic flux density, d is the depth of the plate, e is the electron
charge, and n is the charge carrier density of the carrier electrons.
The Hall coefficient is defined as
where j is the current density of the carrier electrons, and Ey is the induced electric field. In SI units, this becomes
As a result, the Hall effect is very useful as a means to measure either the carrier density or the magnetic
field.
One very important feature of the Hall effect is that it differentiates between positive charges moving in one
direction and negative charges moving in the opposite. The Hall effect offered the first real proof that electric
currents in metals are carried by moving electrons, not by protons. The Hall effect also showed that in some
substances (especially p-type semiconductors), it is more appropriate to think of the current as positive
"holes" moving rather than negative electrons. A common source of confusion with the Hall Effect is that
holes moving to the left are really electrons moving to the right, so one expects the same sign of the Hall
coefficient for both electrons and holes. This confusion, however, can only be resolved by modern quantum
mechanical theory of transport in solids.[3]
It must be noted though that the sample inhomogeneity might result in spurious sign of the Hall effect, even
in ideal van der Pauw configuration of electrodes. For example, positive Hall effect was observed in
evidently n-type semiconductors.[4]
[edit]Hall effect in semiconductors
When a current-carrying semiconductor is kept in a magnetic field, the charge carriers of the semiconductor
experience a force in a direction perpendicular to both the magnetic field and the current. At equilibrium, a
voltage appears at the semiconductor edges.
The simple formula for the Hall coefficient given above becomes more complex in semiconductors where the
carriers are generally both electrons and holes which may be present in different concentrations and have
different mobilities. For moderate magnetic fields the Hall coefficient is [5]
where is the electron concentration, the hole concentration, the electron mobility , the
hole mobility and the absolute value of the electronic charge.
For large applied fields the simpler expression analogous to that for a single carrier type holds.
with
[edit]Quantum Hall effect
Main article: Quantum Hall effect
For a two dimensional electron system which can be produced in a MOSFET. In the
presence of large magnetic field strength and low temperature, one can observe the
quantum Hall effect, which is thequantization of the Hall voltage.
[edit]Spin Hall effect
Main article: Spin Hall effect
The spin Hall effect consists in the spin accumulation on the lateral boundaries of a
current-carrying sample. No magnetic field is needed. It was predicted by M.I.
Dyakonov and V.I. Perel in 1971 and observed experimentally more than 30 years later,
both in semiconductors and in metals, at cryogenic as well as at room temperatures.
[edit]Quantum spin Hall effect
Main article: Quantum Spin Hall Effect
For HgTe two dimensional quantum wells with strong spin-orbit coupling, in zero
magnetic field, at low temperature, the Quantum Spin Hall effect has been recently
observed.
[edit]Anomalous Hall effect
In ferromagnetic materials (and paramagnetic materials in a magnetic field), the Hall
resistivity includes an additional contribution, known as the anomalous Hall effect (or
the extraordinary Hall effect), which depends directly on the magnetization of the
material, and is often much larger than the ordinary Hall effect. (Note that this effect
is not due to the contribution of the magnetization to the total magnetic field.) Although a
well-recognized phenomenon, there is still debate about its origins in the various
materials. The anomalous Hall effect can be either an extrinsic (disorder-related) effect
due to spin-dependent scatteringof the charge carriers, or an intrinsic effect which can be
described in terms of the Berry phase effect in the crystal momentum space (k-space).[6]
[edit]Hall effect in ionized gases
(See electrochemical instability)
The Hall effect in an ionized gas (plasma) is significantly different from the Hall effect in
solids (where the Hall parameter is always very inferior to unity). In a plasma, the Hall
parameter can take any value. The Hall parameter, β, in a plasma is the ratio between the
electron gyrofrequency, Ωe, and the electron-heavy particle collision frequency, ν:
where
e is the elementary charge (approx. 1.6 × 10-19 C)
B is the magnetic field (in teslas)
me is the electron mass (approx. 9.1×10-31 kg).
The Hall parameter value increases with the magnetic field
strength.
Physically, the trajectories of electrons are curved by the
Lorentz force. Nevertheless when the Hall parameter is low,
their motion between two encounters with heavy particles
(neutral or ion) is almost linear. But if the Hall parameter is
high, the electron movements are highly curved. The current
density vector, J, is no more colinear with the electric
field vector, E. The two vectors J and E make the Hall
angle, θ, which also gives the Hall parameter:
β = tan(θ)
[edit]Applications
Hall probes are often used as magnetometers, i.e. to
measure magnetic fields, or inspect materials (such as
tubing or pipelines) using the principles of magnetic
flux leakage.
Hall effect devices produce a very low signal level and
thus require amplification. While suitable for laboratory
instruments, the vacuum tube amplifiers available in the
first half of the 20th century were too expensive, power
consuming, and unreliable for everyday applications. It
was only with the development of the low
cost integrated circuit that the Hall effect sensor became
suitable for mass application. Many devices now sold
as Hall effect sensors in fact contain both the sensor as
described above plus a high gain integrated circuit (IC)
amplifier in a single package. Recent advances have
further added into one package an analog-to-digital
converter and I²C (Inter-integrated circuit
communication protocol) IC for direct connection to
a microcontroller's I/O port.
[edit]Advantages over other methods
Hall effect devices when appropriately packaged are
immune to dust, dirt, mud, and water. These
characteristics make Hall effect devices better for
position sensing than alternative means such as optical
and electromechanical sensing.
Hall effect current sensor with internal integrated
circuit amplifier. 8 mm opening. Zero current
output voltage is midway between the supply
voltages that maintain a 4 to 8 volt differential.
Non-zero current response is proportional to the
voltage supplied and is linear to 60 amperes for this
particular (25 A) device.
When electrons flow through a conductor, a magnetic
field is produced. Thus, it is possible to create a non-
contacting current sensor. The device has three
terminals. A sensor voltage is applied across two
terminals and the third provides a voltage proportional
to the current being sensed. This has several advantages;
no additional resistance (a shunt, required for the most
common current sensing method) need be inserted in the
primary circuit. Also, the voltage present on the line to
be sensed is not transmitted to the sensor, which
enhances the safety of measuring equipment.
[edit]Disadvantages compared with other methods
Magnetic flux from the surroundings (such as other
wires) may diminish or enhance the field the Hall probe
intends to detect, rendering the results inaccurate. Also,
as Hall voltage is often on the order of millivolts, the
output from this type of sensor cannot be used to
directly drive actuators but instead must be amplified by
atransistor-based circuit.
[edit]Contemporary applications
Hall effect sensors are readily available from a number
of different manufacturers, and may be used in various
sensors such as rotating speed sensors (bicycle wheels,
gear-teeth, automotive speedometers, electronic ignition
systems), fluid flow sensors, current sensors,
and pressure sensors. Common applications are often
found where a robust and contactless switch or
potentiometer is required. These include:
electric airsoft guns, triggers of
electropneumatic paintball guns, go-cart speed controls,
smart phones, and some global positioning systems.
[edit]Ferrite toroid Hall effect current transducer
Hall sensors can detect stray magnetic fields easily,
including that of Earth, so they work well as electronic
compasses: but this also means that such stray fields can
hinder accurate measurements of small magnetic fields.
To solve this problem, Hall sensors are often integrated
with magnetic shielding of some kind. For example, a
Hall sensor integrated into a ferrite ring (as shown) can
reduce the detection of stray fields by a factor of 100 or
better (as the external magnetic fields cancel across the
ring, giving no residual magnetic flux). This
configuration also provides an improvement in signal-
to-noise ratio and drift effects of over 20 times that of a
bare Hall device. The range of a given feedthrough
sensor may be extended upward and downward by
appropriate wiring. To extend the range to lower
currents, multiple turns of the current-carrying wire may
be made through the opening. To extend the range to
higher currents, a current divider may be used. The
divider splits the current across two wires of differing
widths and the thinner wire, carrying a smaller
proportion of the total current, passes through the
sensor.
The principle of increasing the number of windings a
conductor takes around the ferrite core is well
understood, each turn having the effect of multiplying
the current under measurement. Often these additional
turns are carried out by a staple on the PCB.
[edit]Split ring clamp-on sensor
A variation on the ring sensor uses a split sensor which
is clamped onto the line enabling the device to be used
in temporary test equipment. If used in a permanent
installation, a split sensor allows the electric current to
be tested without dismantling the existing circuit.
[edit]Analog multiplication
The output is proportional to both the applied magnetic
field and the applied sensor voltage. If the magnetic
field is applied by a solenoid, the sensor output is
proportional to the product of the current through the
solenoid and the sensor voltage. As most applications
requiring computation are now performed by small
(even tiny) digital computers, the remaining useful
application is in power sensing, which combines current
sensing with voltage sensing in a single Hall effect
device.
[edit]Current sensing
By sensing the current provided to a load and using the
device's applied voltage as a sensor voltage it is possible
to determine the power dissipated by a device.
[edit]Position and motion sensing
Hall effect devices used in motion sensing and motion
limit switches can offer enhanced reliability in extreme
environments. As there are no moving parts involved
within the sensor or magnet, typical life expectancy is
improved compared to traditional electromechanical
switches. Additionally, the sensor and magnet may be
encapsulated in an appropriate protective material.
[edit]Automotive ignition and fuel injection
Commonly used in distributors for ignition timing (and
in some types of crank and camshaft position sensors
for injection pulse timing, speed sensing, etc.) the Hall
effect sensor is used as a direct replacement for the
mechanical breaker points used in earlier automotive
applications. Its use as an ignition timing device in
various distributor types is as follows. A stationary
permanent magnet and semiconductor Hall effect chip
are mounted next to each other separated by an air gap,
forming the Hall effect sensor. A metal rotor consisting
of windows and tabs is mounted to a shaft and arranged
so that during shaft rotation, the windows and tabs pass
through the air gap between the permanent magnet and
semiconductor Hall chip. This effectively shields and
exposes the Hall chip to the permanent magnet's field
respective to whether a tab or window is passing though
the Hall sensor. For ignition timing purposes, the metal
rotor will have a number of equal-sized tabs and
windows matching the number of engine cylinders. This
produces a uniform square wave output since the on/off
(shielding and exposure) time is equal. This signal is
used by the engine computer or ECU to control ignition
timing. Many automotive Hall effect sensors have a
built-in internal NPN transistor with an open
collector and grounded emitter, meaning that rather than
a voltage being produced at the Hall sensor signal
output wire, the transistor is turned on providing a
circuit to ground though the signal output wire.
[edit]Wheel rotation sensing
The sensing of wheel rotation is especially useful
in anti-lock brake systems. The principles of such
systems have been extended and refined to offer more
than anti-skid functions, now providing extended
vehiclehandling enhancements.
[edit]Electric motor control
Some types of brushless DC electric motors use Hall
effect sensors to detect the position of the rotor and feed
that information to the motor controller. This allows for
more precise motor control
[edit]Industrial applications
Applications for Hall Effect sensing have also expanded
to industrial applications, which now use Hall Effect
Joysticks to control hydraulic valves, replacing the
traditional mechanical levers. Such applications include;
Mining Trucks, Backhoe Loaders, Cranes, Diggers,
Scissor Lifts, etc.
[edit]Spacecraft propulsion
A Hall effect thruster (HET) is a relatively low power
device that is used to propel some spacecraft, once they
get into orbit or farther out into space. In the
HET, atoms are ionized and accelerated by an electric
field. A radial magnetic field established by magnets on
the thruster is used to trap electrons which then orbit
and create an electric field due to the Hall effect. large
potential is established between the end of the thruster
where neutral propellant is fed and the part where
electrons are produced, so electrons trapped in the
magnetic field cannot fall down the potential, and thus
are extremely energetic allowing them to ionize neutral
atoms. Neutral propellant is pumped into the chamber
and is ionized by the trapped electrons. Then positive
ions and electrons are ejected from the thruster as a
quasineutral plasma, creating thrust.
[edit]The Corbino effect
Corbino disc - dashed curves representlogarithmic
spiral paths of deflected electrons
The Corbino effect is a phenomenon involving the Hall
effect, but a disc-shaped metal sample is used in place
of a rectangular one. Because of its shape the Corbino
disc allows the observation of Hall-effect–
based magnetoresistance without the associated Hall
voltage.
A radial current through a circular disc, subjected to a
magnetic field perpendicular to the plane of the disc,
produces a "circular" current through the disc. [7]
The absence of the free transverse boundaries renders
the interpretation of the Corbino effect simpler than that
of the Hall effect.