UNIT 1: Atomic Theory

Discoveries:
Democritus: ancient atomic theory De Broglie: duality of wave and particle characteristics
JJ Thomson’s cathode ray tube: electrons; also of light
postulated protons and plum pudding model Heisenberg: uncertainty principle, greater for smaller
Millikan’s oil drop: mass of electrons and faster objects
Rutherford gold foil: nucleus of protons Schrodinger: wave equation for location of electrons
Bohr color spectrometry: quantized electron orbits Chadwick: neutron
Equations:
c= λv h
λ=
E=hv mv
Z2
E=−2.178∗10−18 J ( )
n2
Quantum Numbers:
Energy level (n) Azimuthal number Magnetic number Spin number (s)
(l) (m)

Represents Energy level, shell, Shape of orbital The axis the Rotation
or ring (sublevel) orbital lies on
(orientation)

Values Positive integers 0, 1, 2, …, n-1 -l, -1, 0, 1, l ½, -½

Aufbau: fill in lowest energy for electrons first

Hund’s rule: first put electrons alone in orbitals of equal energy, then pair
Pauli exclusion: can’t have same four quantum numbers

Atomic mass:
Atomic number: number of protons
Mass number: number of protons + number of neutrons
Molar mass: mass of 1 mole substance
Average atomic mass = m1*%m1 + m2*%m2 + …
UNIT 2: Periodic Trends
Mendeleev made first periodic table.
Column: group or family
Row: period or series
Representative elements: s and p block
Transition elements: d block
Inner transition elements: f block (lanthanides and actinides)
Metal Nonmetal Metalloid

Properties Conductors, malleable, Brittle, nonconductors, dull In between

ductile, shiny

Valence electrons Few Many In between

Ion formed Cation Anion ±

Atomic Radius ( R=.529n 2)

Group: Atomic radius increases as atomic number increases going down because atoms have a larger number of
occupied energy levels. The valence electrons are shielded from the nucleus.
Period: Atomic radius decreases as atomic number increases going right because although atoms have the same number
of occupied energy levels, the increased proton-to-electron ratio results in a stronger attraction for electrons, pulling
them closer to the nucleus
Isoelectronic elements:
With ions like Mg+2, Na+, Ne, F-, and O-2 that have the same number of electrons, the smallest ones have the most
protons

−18 12 12
Ionization Energy (Energy required to remove an electron: E=−2.178∗10 J( − ))
∞ 2 12
Group: Ionization energy decreases as atomic number increases going down because atoms have a larger number of
occupied energy levels. The valence electrons are shielded from the nucleus.
Period: Ionization energy increases as atomic number increases going right because although atoms have the same
number of occupied energy levels, the proton-to-electron ratio increases, increasing the attraction for valence electrons
and requiring more energy to remove the valence electrons.
Exceptions:
- may be removed more easily than expected because 2s electrons shield the last 2p electron from the positive nucleus.
- may be removed more easily than expected because removing an electron minimizes electron-to-electron repulsion.
Successive ionization energy:
- increases with each electron removed because of increasing proton-to-electron ratio, which results in a stronger
attraction that must be overcome with more energy
- large difference (jump) when the next electron must come from lower energy level
Electron Affinity (Energy change when an atom gains an electron; lower EA means atoms want electrons)
Group: Electron affinity increases as atomic number increases going down a group because the number of occupied
energy levels increases, so the added electron is shielded from the attraction of the nucleus
Period: Electron affinity decreases with increasing atomic number going right because although the atoms have the
same number of occupied energy levels, the proton-to-electron ratio increases, allowing for more attraction
Exceptions:
- may be higher because the electron is added to a higher sublevel, like 2p rather than 2s, and is shielded from the
nucleus
- may be higher because the electron causes electron-to-electron repulsion
- may be higher because the electron is added to a higher energy level, so it is shielded from the attraction of the
nucleus
Common Ion Charges (Oxidation States)
- Octet rule only above third period
- Others, remove electrons until each orbital is full, half-full, and/or empty
UNIT 4: Bonding
Bond: link between atoms in a molecule because when atoms get close to each other, electrons are attracted to the
nucleus of the other atom
Types of bonds:
Covalent Ionic Metallic

Description Electrons shared between 2 atoms Electrons transferred between 2 atoms Nuclei in electron cloud

When occurs Between nonmetals Between nonmetal and metal Between metals

ΔEN 0-.4 nonpolar 1.7-4 N/A

.5-1.6 polar

Which ones make polar bonds? I Have NO Freaking Clue

Naming compounds:
Ionic compounds: cation first, anion second. Use roman numeral if anion is in p, d, or f block unless Ag +, Zn+2, or Al+3. For
hydrates, the water goes last after the dot
Covalent compounds: nonmetal first, then second nonmetal. If the first one’s coefficient is not one, use a prefix. Always
use a prefix for the second one.
Lewis Structures:
Ionic compounds: show electron transfer
Na+ Cl-
Covalent compounds:
1. Determine the total number of valence electrons 3. Bond each one
2. Put the elements with the most bonds in the center 4. Add enough electrons to equal the total from step
(HONC) one, using the octet rule
Bond order: number of bonds (single=1, double=2, …)
Resonance: when two Lewis structures can be drawn
Localized vs. Delocalized bonds: localized bond is a single bond (sigma bond). The delocalized one is the other bond, for
example in a double bond, that can move around (pi bond).
Hybridization: combining orbitals of different sublevels to make an equal number of orbitals with equal energy Formal
charge: number valence electrons – number of bonds – number of nonbonding electrons. Common structures have
smaller formal charges
Exceptions to the octet rule: 1) electron poor elements Be, B, Al form 3 bonds. 2) elements with available d orbitals,
those below the second period
Polar Molecules: 1) contain at least one polar bond 2) are asymmetrical
Assigning oxidation numbers:
1. monatomic ions have oxidation number equal to charge 4. H is +1 unless it’s a hydride
2. free elements have oxidation number 0 5. O is -2 unless it’s a peroxide
3. sum of oxidation numbers in a compound is 0 6. The more electronegative element is negative
Acids and Bases:
Arrhenius acid: compound that loses H+ in solution Bronsted base: compound that accepts H +
Arrhenius base: compound that loses OH - in solution Lewis acid: compound that accepts electrons
Bronsted acid: compound that loses H + Lewis base: compound that loses electrons
Naming Acids:
If binary, use “hydro-” and then add root and “-ic”
If oxyacid,
Use per-root-ic for per-root ions Use root-ous for root-ite ions
Use root-ic for root-ate ions Use hypo-root-ous for hypo-root-ite ions
Structures:
Steric 3: trigonal planar, bent (120 degrees)
Steric 4: tetrahedral, trigonal pyramidal, bent, linear (109.5 or 180 degrees)
Steric 5: trigonal bipyramidal, seesaw, T-shaped, linear (120 and 90 degrees)
Steric 6: octahedral, square pyramid, square planar (90 degrees)
UNIT 5: Attractive Forces in Solids and Liquids
Crystal Type Examples Attractive Forces Boiling Point, Solubility in Conductor
Melting Point Water
Covalent Network Cx, Six, (SiO2)x Covalent bonds Very high No No
Ionic NH4Cl, NaCl Dipole-dipole High Yes No, but yes if
melted
Metallic Cu, Ag, Fe Metallic bonds Medium to high No Yes
Polar NH3, H2O Dipole-dipole Low Yes No
Nonpolar CH4, O2 London Very low No No
dispersion
Method for answering:
1. Identify the type of substance
2. Identify the intermolecular force
3. Explain how the force applies to the characteristic being discussed
Examples:
- Solid K conducts electricity, but KNO 3 doesn’t: K is metallic. KNO3 is ionic. K has metallic bonds. KNO3 has dipole-dipole
(ionic) bonds. K, a metal, conducts electricity because K has a sea of electrons that are delocalized, so they can move
from atom to atom. KNO3 does not conduct electricity because the electrons are not delocalized.
- SbCl3 has a measurable dipole moment, but SbCl 5 does not: SbCl3 is trigonal bipyramidal, has a polar Sb-Cl bond, and is
thus a polar molecule. SbCl5 is symmetrical so even though SbCl5 has a polar bond, SbCl5 is not a polar molecule
- Bigger molecules have bigger London dispersion attractive forces
- Like dissolves like
UNIT 6: Reactions
Types of reactions: composition, decomposition, single replacement, double replacement, burning, acid/base, redox
Solubility rules
1. Ammonium and nitrates are always soluble 5. Carbonates, oxalates, and phosphates are insoluble
2. Alkali metals are always soluble except with ammonium, nitrate, or alkali metals
+ +
3. Halogens are soluble except when with Hg , Ag , and 6. Sulfides and hydroxides are insoluble except with
Pb+2 ammonium, nitrate, alkali metals, or metals under Mg
+ + +2
4. Sulfates are soluble except with Hg , Ag , Pb , and
metals under Mg
Strong Acids: HCl, HI, HBr, H2SO4, HNO3, HClO3, HClO4
Strong Bases: soluble hydroxides (those with metals under Mg and with alkali metals or ammonium and nitrate)
Decomposition (heated):
- Metal chlorates make metal chloride + oxygen
- Metal carbonates make metal oxide + carbon dioxide
- Metal hydroxides make metal oxide + water
Decomposing Acids: H2SO4, H2SO3, H2CO3
Decomposing Base: NaOH
Complex ions (excess or concentrated):
Ag(NH3)2+1 Cu(NH3)4+2 Zn(NH3)4+2 Al(OH)4-1 Zn(OH)4-2
Anhydride:
Nonmetal oxide + water makes acid
Metal oxide + water makes base
Redox:
Cr2O7-2 in acid makes Cr+3 HNO3 concentrated makes NO2
MnO4- in acid makes Mn+2 H2SO4 makes H2S
MnO4- in base makes MnO2 H2O2 in acid makes H2O
HNO3 dilute makes NO
Don’t Race A Car Sipping Booze!