Ghapter 4
Laws of flotation
Archimedes' Principlestatesthat when a body is wholly or partially immersed
in a fluid it appears to suffer a loss in mass equar to the mass of the fluid
it displaces.
The mass density of fresh water is 1000kg per cu. m. Therefore,when a
body is immersed in fresh water it will appear to suffer a loss in mass of
1000kgfor every 1cu. m of water it displaces.
when a box measuring 1cu. m and of 4000kg mass is immersed in fresh
water it will appear to suffer a loss in mass of [Link] suspendedfrom a
spring balancethe balancewould indicate a mass of 3000kg
ln air In freshwater
1cu.m
4000kg 4000kg
Fig.4.1
since the actual massof the box is not changed,there must be a force act-
ing vertically upwards to createthe apparent loss of mass of 1000kg. This
force is- called the force of buoyancy,and is considered to act vertically
upwards through a point called the centreof [Link] centre of buoy-
ancy is the centre of gravity of the underwater volume.
Now consider the box shown in Figure 4.2(a)which arso has a mass of
4000kg, but has a volume of 8cu. m. If totally immersed in fresh water it
will displace8 cu. m of water, and since8 cu. m of fresh water has a massof
8000kg,there will be an upthrust or force of buoyancy causingan apparent
Lawsof flotation 25
loss of mass of 8000kg. The resultant apparent loss of mass is 4000kg.
when released,the box will rise until a state of equilibrium is reached,i.e.
when the buoyancy is equal to the mass of the box. To make the buoyancy
produce a loss of mass of 4000kg the box must be displacing 4cu. m of
water. This will occur when the box is floating with half its volume
immersed, and the resultant force then acting on the box will be zero. This
is shown in Figure a.2().
Now consider the box to be floating in fresh water with half its volume
immersed as shown in Figure a.2@).If a massof 1000kg be loaded on deck
as shown in Figure 4.3(a)the new mass of the body will be 5000k9, and
sincethis exceedsthe buoyancy by 1000kg, it will move downwards.
4000kg
W u
4cu.m B
4000kg
4000kg
(b) (c)
Fig.4.2
The downwards motion will continue until buoyancy is equal to the
mass of the body. This will occur when the box is displacing 5 cu. m of
water and the buoyancy is 5000kg, as shown in Figure 4.3(b).
The conclusion which may be reached from the above is that for a body to
float at rest in still water, it must be displacing its own weight of water and the
centre of gravity must be vertically above or below the centre of buoyancy.
4000kg 5000kg
G1
W L W ul Ll
4cu.m B 5 c u . m 9r
B
5000kg 5000kg
(a) (b)
Fig.4.3
26 S h i p S t a b i l i t yf o r M a s t e r sa n d M a t e s
The variable immersion hydrometer
The variable immersion hydrometer is an instrument, based on the Law of
Archimedes, which is used to determine the density of liquids. The type of
hydrometer used to find the density of the water in whiih a ship floits is
usually made of a non-corrosivematerial and consistsof a weighted butb
with a narrow rectangularstem which carriesa scalefor measuringdensities
between 1000and 1025kilograms per cubic metre,i.e. 1.000and 1bz5tlm3.
The position of the marks on the stem are found as follows. First let the
hydrometer, shown in Figure 4.4, float upright in fresh water at the mark X.
Thke the hydrometer out of the water and weigh it. Let the mass be M* kito-
grams. Now replace the hydrometer in fresh water and add lead shot in the
bulb until it floats with the mark Y at the upper end of the stem, in the water-
iine. weigh the hydrometer again and let its massnow be M, kilograms.
Fig.4.4
Lawsof flotation 27
The mass of water displaced by the stem between X and Y is therefore
equal to My - M* kilograms. Since 1000kilograms of fresh water occupy
one cubic metre, the volume of the stem between X and Y is equal to
Mt-M*
- cu.m.
1000
Let L represent the length of the stem between X and Y and let'a'
representthe cross-sectionalareaof the stem:
Volume
Length
: Y'^=Y.
1000L
,o^
Now let the hydrometer float in water of density Ekglm3 with the water-
line 'x'metres below Y
Volumeof waterdisplaced: - ^"
#
:*' - *[t'- t.l---------,,,
i000 1000L
| )
But
Mass of water displaced
Volume of water displaced
Density of water displaced
M-.
- (r)
-------------
1000s
M.. M.,
Equate(I) and (Il) .'.
1000E 1000
In this equation, My, M* and L are known constantswhilst 6 and x are
[Link],to mark the scaleit is now only necessaryto selectvari-
ous values of E and to calculatethe correspondingvalues of x.
28 Ship Stabilityfor Mastersand Mates
Tonnes per centimetre immersion (TpGl
The TPC for any draft is the mass which must be loaded or discharged to
changea ship's mean draft in salt water by one centimetre,where:
water?lane area
TpC : x Densifyof water
100
wPA
.'. TPC : xo
100
WPAis in m2
p is in t/m3.
Fig.4.5
Consider a ship floating in salt water at the waterline wL as shown in
Figure [Link] ',{ be the area of the water-plane in squaremetres.
Now let a mass of 'w' tonnes be loaded so that the mean draft is
increasedby one centimetre. The ship then floats at the waterline w1 L1.
since the draft has been increasedby one centimetre, the mass loaded is
equal to the TPC for this draft. Also, since an extra mass of water equal to
the mass loaded must be displaced, then the mass of water in the layer
between WL and W1 L1 is also equal to the TpC:
Mass: VolumeXDensity
:AX_X_
7 7025 . 1.025A
ronnes tonnes
100 1000 100
1.025A : - WPA WPA
... TPC,* Also, TPC*
100 97.56 100
TPC in dock water
[Link] a ship is floating in dock water of a rerative density other than
1.025the weight to be loaded or discharged to change the mean draft by
1 centimetre (TPCd*) may be found from the TpC in salt water (Tpc,*) bi
simple proportion as follows:
TPCdw _ Relative density of dock water (RD
TPC,* Relative density of salt water (RDr*)
Laws of flotation 29
RDo*
TPC, . : x" TPC,*
7.025
Reserve buoyancy
It has alreadybeen shown that a floating vesselmust displaceits ovrn weight
of water. Therefore,it is the submergedportion of a floating vesselwhich pro-
vides the buoyancy. The volume of the enclosed spacesabove the waterline
arenot providing buoyancybut arebeing held in [Link] extra weights are
loaded to increasethe displacement,these spacesabove the waterline are
there to provide the extra buoyancy required. Thus, reserae buoyancymay be
defined as the volume of the enclosedsPacesabovethe waterline. It may be
expressedas a volume or as a percentageof the total volume of the vessel.
ExampleI
A box-shapedvessel1.05mlong, 30m beam,and 20m deep,is floating
is 19500tonnes,find thevolumeof
uprightin [Link] thedisplacement
reservebuovancy.
Mass :
Volume of water displaced = 1 9 5 0 0c u . m
Density
Volume of vessel : 1 0 5 x 3 0 X 2 0 c u . m
: 63000cu. m
Reservebuoyancy : Volume of vessel - Volume of water
displaced
[Link] : 43500cu.m
2
Example
A box-shaped barge 16m X 5m X 5m is floating alongside a ship in fresh
water at a mean draft of 3.5m. The barge is to be lifted out of the water and
loaded on to the ship with a heavy-lift derrick. Find the load in tonnes bome
by the purchasewhen the draft of the barge has been reduced to 2 metres.
[Link] Archimedes' Principle the barge suffers a loss in mass equal to the
mass of water displaced. The mass borne by the purchasewill be the differ-
encebetween the actual massof the barge and the massof water displaced at
any draft, or the differencebetween the massof water originally displacedby
the barge and the new mass of water displaced.
Mass of the barge : Original mass of water displaced
: Volume x Density
:16X5X3.5X1torrnes
Mass of water displaceat2 m draft : 1'6x 6 x 2xl tonnes
-
.'. Loadbornebythepurchase : t6x 6 x 1x (3.5 2)tonnes
Ans.: [Link]
30 Ship Stabilityfor Mastersand Mates
Example3
A cylindrical drum 1.5m long and 60cm in diameter has mass 20ke when
empty. Find its draft in water of density 1,)z4kgper cu. m if it conta"ins200
litres of paraffin of relative density 0.6, and is floating with its axis perpen-
dicular to the waterline (Figure 4.6).
[Link] drum must displace a massof water equal to the massof the drum
plus the mass of the paraffin.
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
- - -l- -
.l
I
I
\ - -,
_ _t_ -
I
I
I
-
r : Radiusof drum
Fig.4.6
Density of the paraffin : SG x 1000 kg per cu. m
: 600 kg per cu. m
Mass of the paraffin : Volume x Density = 9.2 x 600kg
:120k9
Mass of the drum : 20 kg
Total mass : 140 kg
Thereforethe drum must displace 140kg of water.
Volume of water displaced : Mass I40
cu. m
Density 1,Q24
Volume of water displaced : 0.137cu. m
Let d : draft, and r : radius of the drum, where r :
60
:30cm:0.3m.
Volume of water displaced (V) : 2
d
"rr2
Laws of flotation 31
r_ v
Tr'
0.137
[Link].s
7
: 0.484m
[Link]: 0.484m
Homogeneous logs of rectangular section
The draft at which a rectangular homogeneouslog will float may be found
as follows:
Mass of log : Volume x Density
: L x B x D x SGof log x 1000kg
Mass of water displaced : Volume x Density
: L x B X d x SGof water x 1000kg
But Massof water displaced: Massof log
. ' .L x B x d x S G o f w a t e rx 1 0 0 0: L x B x D x S G o f l o gx 1 0 0 0
or
d X SG of water : D x SG of log
Draft SG of log Relative density of log
D"pth:SG"f-"t* "@
Example1
Find thedistancebetweenthecentresof gravityandbuoyancyof a rectangu-
lar log 1.2m wide, 0.6m deep,and of relativedensity0.8when floatingin
freshwaterwith two of its sidesparallelto thewaterline.
If BM is equalto b2 determite if this log will floatwith two of its sides
L2d
parallelto thewaterline.
Nofe. The centre of gravity of a homogeneous log is at its geometrical centre
(see Figure 4.7).
Draft _ Relative density of log
Depth Relative density of water
Draft :
0'6 :( o'8
I
Draft : 0.a8ml
KB : 0.24m I seeFigure4.8
KG:0.30mJ
[Link].06m
32 Ship Stabilityfor Mastersand Mates
b:1.2 m
Fig.4.7
h' 2 1)2
BM:
12xd L2x0.48
KB asabove: +0.24m
KM:KB+BM=+0.49m
KG : -0.30m
GM : 0.19m
t)
m
0.25m
i0.1e
Gi
,l /
0.30m
0.24m
KI
I
F i g .4 . 8
Conclusion
BecauseG is below M, this homogeneous log is in stable equilibrium.
Consequently,it will float with two of its sidesparailel to the waierline.
Exercise4
1 A drum of mass 14kg when empty, is Z5cm long, and 60cm in diameter.
Find its draft in salt water if it contains 200 litres of paraffin of relative
density0.63.
2 A cube of wood of relative density 0.81has sides 30 cm long. If a mass of
2kg is placed on the top of the cube with its centre of gravity vertically
over that of the cube,find the draft in salt water.
Laws of flotation 33
A rectangulartank (3m x 1.2m x 0.6m) has no lid and is floating in fresh
water at a draft of 15cm. Calculate the minimum amount of fresh water
which must be poured into the tank to sink it.
A cylindrical salvagebuoy is 5 metres long, 2.4 metres in diameter, and
floats on an even keel in salt water with its axis in the water-plane. Find
the upthrust which this buoy will produce when fully immersed.
A homogeneouslog of rectangular cross-sectionis 30 cm wide and 25cm
deep. The 1ogfloats at a draft of 17 [Link] the reservebuoyancy and the
distancebetween the centreof buoyancy and the centre of gravity.
A homogeneouslog of rectangular cross-sectionis 5 m. long, 60cm wide,
40 cm deep, and floats in fresh water at a draft of 30 cm. Find the mass of
the log and its relative density.
Ahomogeneous log is 3m long, 60cm wide, 60cm deep, and has relative
density [Link] the distancebetween the centresof buoyancy and grav-
ity when the log is floating in fresh water.
A log of square sectionis 5m x L m x 1m. The relative density of the log
is 0.51and it floats half submergedin dock water. Find the relative density
of the dock water.
Abox-shapedvessel 20m x 6m x 2.5mfloatsatadraftof l.5minwater
of density 1013kg per cu. m. Find the displacement in tonnes, and the
height of the centreof buoyancy above the keel.
10 An empty cylindrical drum 1 metre long and 0.6m. in diameter has mass
20kg. Find the mass which must be placed in it so that it will float with
half of its volume immersed in (a) salt water and (b) fresh water.
A lifeboat, when fully laden, displaces 7.2 tonnes. Its dimensions are
7.5m x 2.5m x 1m, and its block [Link] the percentageof its
volume under water when floating in fresh water.
12 A homogeneouslog of relative density 0.81 is 3 metres long, 0.5 metres
squarecross-section,and is floating in fresh water. Find the displacement
of the log, and the distancebetween the centresof gravity and buoyancy.
13 A box-shapedbarge 55m x 10m x 6m. is floating in fresh water on an
even keel at 1.5m draft. If 1800tonnes of cargo is now loaded, find the dif-
ferencein the height of the centreof buoyancy above the keel.
t4 Abox-shapedbargeTlm X 6m X 4m displaces180tonneswhen light. If
360tonnesof iron areloaded while the bargeis floating in fresh water, find
her final draft and reserve buoyancy.
15 A drum 60cm in diameter and 1 metre long has mass 30kg when empty.
If this drum is filled with oil of relative density 0'8, and is floating in fresh
water, find the percentagereservebuoyancy.