FORAGE AND FODDER CROP PRODUCTION

ANS 323

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Sustainable and profitable livestock production can be achieved through proper production,
utilization and management of pastures and forages worldwide. Pasture and forage crops remained
the primary sources of feed for different categories of livestock in Nigeria.

Fodder is any agricultural foodstuff used specifically to feed domesticated livestock, such
as cattle, rabbits, sheep, horses, chickens and pigs. "Fodder" refers particularly to food given to the
animals (including plants cut and carried to them), rather than that which they forage for
themselves (called forage). Fodder includes hay, straw, silage, compressed and pelleted feeds, oils
and mixed rations, and sprouted grains and legumes (such as bean sprouts, fresh malt, or spent
malt). Most animal feed is from plants, but some manufacturers add ingredients to processed feeds
that are of animal origin.

Pasture is defined as an area of land covered with grasses, herbaceous legumes, forbs, shrubs and
trees used for livestock feeding or environmental protection. This is usually referred to as
grassland. Forage refers to any aboveground plant material used for feeding livestock, but
excluding concentrates and other industrial by-products while fodder is
any agricultural foodstuff used specifically to feed domesticated livestock, such
as cattle, rabbits, sheep, horses, chickens and pigs. "Fodder" refers particularly to food given to the
animals (including plants cut and carried to them). Fodder includes hay, straw, silage, compressed
and pelleted feeds, oils and mixed rations, and sprouted grains and legumes.

Pastures and forages could be artificially sown or occur naturally. Natural or native pastures are
found in rangelands, river banks, road sides and abandoned lands while sown pastures are found
in commercial farms, universities, colleges of agriculture and some research institutes in Nigeria.
It is imperative to note that pasture and forage crops have diverse advantages in the current
dynamic and highly challenged system of livestock production. The study of pasture and forage
production enable us to understand the linkage between the various ecosystems (biotic and a biotic)
within the grassland or rangeland. This will motivate us to come up with methods of conserving
and protecting our environment from destruction through poor management. It also teaches us how
to produce qualitative forage for sustainable livestock production. This will in turn help to boost
the income level of farmers and improvement of livelihoods. Similarly, study of pasture and forage
production will assist in providing employment and recreational opportunities to a lot of people in
Nigeria. Some industries such as pharmaceutical industries will be encouraged to expand their
economic base since most of these pasture and forage crops have strong aesthetic values.

DEFINITION AND CLASSIFICATION OF PASTURE AND FORAGE CROPS

Pasture production is paramount to the development of any livestock enterprise especially under
situations where profit gain and environmental sustainability are the goals of the production.
Naturally, nature has set plants to be the primary producers of energy to other animals including
man. There is a direct or indirect relationship between pasture species and livestock performance
depending on the management. While ruminant livestock such as cattle, sheep and goats can graze
or browse the pasture, others such as pigs, poultry, rabbits and equines (donkeys and horses) have
the ability to ingest some amount of fibrous forages, which ferment in the caeca and provide the
animals with some energy for physiological activities.

DEFINITION OF PASTURE
Pasture can be defined in many ways depending on purpose:

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 • Pasture is defined as an area of land occupied with forage plant species either
natural or planted by man for the purpose of providing qualitative feed to livestock at the
right quantity.
• It could refers to any forage specie valuable as livestock feed

CLASSIFICATION OF PASTURE PLANTS

Pasture plants can be classified into the following:

a) Grasses: These belong to the family Gramineae. They are characterized by high energy,
low crude protein, fast growth rate, cylindrical stems and leaves. The leaves have parallel venation
pattern and stem is hollow. They have fibrous rooting system with light and small seeds. Other
related family members in this family include maize, millet sorghum, barley and rye.

b) Legumes: These belong to three different families (Mimosoideae, Caesalpinoideae and

Papilionaceae) depending on the nature and shape of their flowers. They have broad leaves with
net venation pattern. They are herbaceous plants with flowers occurring mainly at the terminal
buds. However, it is also possible to have flowers in other parts of the plant such as auxiliary
branches. These flowers produce seeds in pods. Examples include Centrosema pascourum,
Alysicarpus varginalis and Mucuna pruriens.

c) Grazed Plants: These are short herbs that are consumed with both leaves and stems
together. Examples include: Brachiaria ruziziensis, Sorghum almum (Columbus grass), Arachis
pintoii and Digitaria smutsii.

d) Browed Plants: These are woody plants whose leaves and twigs (soft stems and buds) are
eaten while the woody stem is left uneaten. e.g. Leucaena leucocephala, Gliricidia sepium and
Gmelina aborea.

e) Annuals: These are plants that complete their life cycle within one growing season and
survive the dry season as seeds. e.g. Chloris gayana, Brachiaria mulato II, Pennisetum purpureum
and Hypherrania rufa.

f) Biennials: These are plants that complete their life cycle in two seasons. First season is for
vegetative growth and second season for reproductive growth. e.g. Panicum maximum (Elephant
grass), Andropogon tectorum (Southern Gamba grass) and Cynodon dactylon (Bermuda grass).

g) Perennials: These are plants that grow throughout the year for many years producing
flowers and seeds without dying such as Gmelina aborea tree, Ziziphus mauritiana tree, Ficus
thonningii tree and Acacia albida tree.

h) Weeds: These are non-planted plant species that invade an area by itself. e.g. Sorghum
bicolor, Amaranthus spinosis and Tridax procumbens.

COMMON FORAGE CROPS USED IN LIVESTOCK FEEDING

The most common forage crops used in livestock feeding in Nigeria include the followings:
• Maize plant used in making silage
• Sugar Beet used in making hay and silage
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 • Sorghum almum (Columbus Grass)
• Lablab (Lablab purpureus L. Sweet)
• Andropogon gayanus (Northern Gamba Grass
• Andropogon tectorum (Southern Gamba Grass)
• Hyparrhenia rufa (Shuchi Grass)
• Pennisetum typhoides cv Maiwa
• Stylosanthes guianensis cv Schofield stylo
• Stylosanthes hamata cv Verano stylo
• Brachiaria decumbens (Signal Grass)
• Digitaria smutsii (Woolly Finger Grass)
• Giliricidia sepium (Almond Blossom)

Pasture weeds: When a pastureland is left unattended in terms of management practices for years,
there is a tendency for weeds to invade the pasture. These weeds could be controlled manually by
removing them with hand or through cutting with cutlasses. The farmer may decide to use
chemicals such as pre or post-emergence herbicides at the time of pasture establishment, mainly
for broad-leaved weeds. Weeds reduce the quality of pasture especially when they invade large
portion of land in the pasture. They also compete vigorously with the pasture plants for space,
nutrients, light intensity and moisture content. Examples of common pasture weeds in Nigeria
include: Amaranthus caudatus (waterleaf), Crinum ornatum (Lily), Solanum incanum (Graden
egg), Cyperus rotundus; Kyllinga sp.(Nut Grass), Cucurbita maxima-C. pepo (Pumpkin) etc.

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MORPHOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF GRASSES, LEGUMES AND SHRUBS
Pasture and forage crops have unique characteristics that can easily be used to identify them in the
field. These morphological differences have direct effect on the forage yield and quality of the
plants. Animals graze the leafy parts of the plants first before other parts are eaten. This is because
the leaves are more palatable and nutritious compared to the stems or branches.

MORPHOLOGY OF GRASSES
Grasses have two different parts. These include:
• The root
• The shoot

The root of grasses is fibrous in structure and it occurs in tussock or bunch depending on the specie.
However, some grass species such as Sorghum bicolar may have a long fibrous rooting system
that could go deep into the soil in search of moisture. The root contains small root hairs that are
used for absorption of water and minerals from the soil. Generally, the roots of grasses are shallow
compared to those of legumes and shrubs. Some grasses have rhizomes
(underground storage organs that assist the grass to survive harsh conditions such as drought).

The shoot of grasses is divided into two parts-the stem and the inflorescence (flower). The stem is
made up of the leaves, nodes and inter-nodes. The leaves are attached to the stem at the leaf sheath
(a thin leathery cover that holds the leaf). The leaves of grasses have parallel venation pattern with
a central mid-rib at the centre. The leaf blade is found at the edges, which could be very sharp in
some species. Some hairs may be present under the leaf blade in some grass species. The
inflorescence or flower is the reproductive part of the grass. It is found at the top most end of the
plant. It is made up of spikes and spikelets. Other patterns of arrangement of flowers on the spike
are possible. It is important to note that in some grass species, there may be many stems when the
grass has stolons (structures that enable the stem to extend to other parts thereby forming a network
of stems).

MORPHOLOGY OF LEGUMES
Legumes are divided into four different parts:
• Root
• Branches
• Leaves
• Flowers

The root of legumes occur as tap root system with a central tap root that penetrates deep into the
soil to provide more support and absorb moisture. There are lateral roots and root hairs that
function as points of entry of solutes (water and minerals) from the soil to the stem or from the
stem back to the soil, through osmotic processes. Roots of legumes possess some nodules (smaller
or larger swellings that house some bacterial strains that assist in fixing atmospheric nitrogen into
the soil). The size of the nodule depends on the specie.

The stem of legumes is divided into smaller and larger branches, which terminate as flowers. There
could be many auxiliary branches on the main stem and each could results into production of
flowers. Also, the branches are subdivided into nodes and internodes.

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Leaves of legumes occur in triplicate (i.e. three leaflets making one leaf). There is a central petiole
that holds the leaflets together. The leaves have net venation pattern and their size depends on the
species. Different arrangement of leaflets on the stem and branches is observed in the legumes.

Flowers are found to exist in two places in legumes. They either occur at each terminal buds or at
the end of the branches. However, regardless of their position, they are made up of calyx (base
leaves), corolla that contains the petals (not more than five), stamens (male part) and the ovules
(female part). The size of the flower depends on the species but most flowers are flamboyant, with
fragrance smell, which is highly attractive to pollinating insects.

MORPHOLOGY OF SHRUBS

Shrubs have the same morphological structure with forage legumes. The only difference between
them is that shrubs contain more woody stems than forage legumes and they have more leaves,
flowers and seeds. Also, the height of shrubs could be up to 4 meters, unlike forage legumes whose
height might be 1 meter or even less.

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 TYPES OF PASTURES BASED ON PRODUCTIVITY AND USES

NATIVE PASTURES
Established Pastures are categorized into different classes for easy identification and uses. Native
pastures established themselves naturally in most cases. However, livestock farmers may decide
to establish them either by seed or through vegetative means. In Nigeria, native pastures are found
in the natural rangelands. These pastures suffer mismanagement by users, which leads to many
social problems in our societies

Definition of Native Pastures

Native pastures are otherwise known as the natural grasslands. They could be natural or derived
from slashed or burnt bushes. Derived natural pastures occur when forests or bushes are cleared
for crop production purposes. They may consist mainly of indigenous species or in some situations
the introduced (exotic) species. Examples of natural pastures include: Eragrostis turgida (Toad’s
wheat), Eragrostis ciliensis (Vomiting of a cat), Indigofera conjugate (Indigo), Isoberlinia doka
(Black Doka), Hibiscus sabdariffa (Roselle Plant), Pennisetum pedicellatum (Kyasuwa Grass).
Native pastures are low in quality especially when harvested at late stage of growth.

Management of Native Pastures

Native pastures can be managed in different ways depending on farmer’s choice. However, in
Nigeria, these pastures are usually managed through various methods either directly or indirectly
based on location of the pastureland. Where livestock production is considered as a serious
business, management of these pasture include the following methods:

• Grazing: This involves the use of livestock to reduce the amount of biomass produced by
these pastures within a given period of time. Livestock such as ruminant animals (e.g.
cattle, sheep, goats, alpacas etc) depend on pastures to acquire the necessary energy for
normal physiological activities. Therefore, grazing of native pastures by livestock help to
facilitate the pasture growth and reduce the amount of water loss from the shoot. Moreover,
grazing helps the pastures to utilize the sunlight energy from the sun faster through the
young and fresh re-growth as a result of grazing.
• Burning: This is mainly done in order to eliminate the dead and lignified leaves and
stems/branches that fall on top of the soil in the natural rangelands. The pasture growing
in such locations are completely burnt to ashes. Thereafter, a new vegetative material
comes up immediately after the first rain. Pastures will not be eliminated due to burning
because they have underground stolons and rhizomes, which help them to survive such
fires and also, the ash generated from the process serves as a good source of mineral
nutrients to the pastures.
• Slashing with cutlasses or mower: This can be done either manually using cutlasses or
mechanically using a mowing machine. The main idea here is that when these pastures are
cut at certain height, the biomass density of the shoot reduces thereby creating more spaces
for sunlight to penetrate the remaining portions left. This will make them to phosynthesized
faster and deposit more carbohydrates and nitrogen for good livestock performance. Also,
the livestock mainly in the form of conserved forage utilizes the pastures better. This will
also help to improve farmers’ income.
• Division into paddocks or large fences demarcated with barb wires and angle irons: This is
a situation whereby the native pastures are completely demarcated with barb wires and
angle irons in order to improve the grazing efficiency of the pastures by livestock. Certain
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 number of livestock is allowed to graze a paddock without over/under-stocking the
pastures. In Nigerian situation, the fencing can be cheaply done using other materials such
as Jatropha curcas or Gliricidia sepium plants. However, these plants are less effective
than the barbwire fencing, although barbwires and angle irons are expensive to purchase.
• Sod seeding: This refers to the process of planting seeds of improved pastures in an existing
native pastures. This can be done by some artistic designs to be decided by the manager of
the rangeland or pastures. Sod seeding of native pastures is hardly done in Nigeria because
the rangelands are under the jurisdiction of the government rather than individuals or
communities. Sod seeding helps to improve the productivity of pastures.
• Fertilization: This involves applying organic or in-organic fertilizers to native pastures for
improved biomass production and quality. Grasses require nitrogen fertilization more than
legumes. This helps them to accumulate more carbohydrates and energy thereby making
them better forage materials for livestock.
• Frequent defoliation: This refers to the systematic cutting of pasture species in the field
through the use of a mowing machine or cutlasses. The defoliation is done frequently at
fixed intervals, such as two weeks intervals etc. This will help to facilitate re-growth of the
existing native pastures thereby improving their productivity.

Limitations of Native Pastures

The following limitations have been identified in native pastures:
They have shorter growing seasons than improved pastures especially in low rainfall areas
because they are adapt to the environment
• They have low nutritive values compared to improved species. This is due to the
accelerated maturity as a result of high temperatures and rainfall in humid areas
• Native pastures are highly unstable due to climatic fluctuations, evolution, migration of
species, weed invasion and fires

IMPROVED PASTURES
Improved pastures are pastures that have undergone breeding, selection and improvement for better
yield and livestock performance. They differ from native pastures because they are mainly exotic
or are imported from other countries. They can also be introduced from one region to another
within the same country. Therefore, their management practices differ from the native species.
They produce higher biomass of superior quality than the native pastures. However, the cost of
establishing and maintaining improved pastures is always a course for concern to the farmers.

Definition of Improved Pastures

Improved pastures are pastures that produce higher quality forage to livestock. These pastures
could also be used for land management such as control of erosion. They could be fully sown
pastures, which could be sole specie pastures or mixed grass-legume pastures. Sometimes, native
pastures could be over-sown with improved legumes. These pastures persist under heavy doses of
artificial fertilizers, especially grass species. Therefore, mixed grass-legume pastures are better,
provided they are well adapted to the environment, adequately fertilized and not overgrazed.
Examples of improved pasture species in Nigeria include: Brachiaria brizantha (grass), Mucuna
pruriens (legume), Digitaria smutsii (grass), Arachis pintoi (legume) etc.

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Management of Improved Pastures
Improved pastures are managed in the same way other crops are managed in the farm. The
management of these pastures starts at establishment phase. The following steps are important
for successful establishment and high quality biomass in these pastures:
• Selection of a fertile land for establishment
• Good and timely land preparation
• Choice of the right pasture specie
• Use of correct seed rate depending on the cost of the seeds and availability
• Use of the recommended seeding depth during planting
• Proper control of weeds
• Timely fertilization
• Defoliation/removal of shoots for forage conservation or livestock feeding

Limitations of Improved Pastures

The following limitations have been identified in improved pastures:
• They are expensive to establish and maintained
• They may not establish well in the locality where the farmer intends to establish them
• Seeds of improved pastures are difficult to acquire by farmers
• Some improved pastures are not suitable for temporary use due to their growing habits

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 PASTURES ASSOCIATED WITH CROPS
Pasture species are incorporated into other crops for optimum benefits ranging from environmental
protection to other economic benefits. Both native and improved pasture species can be used for
this purpose. The major advantage of this system is increase in grain and forage yield of the crops
(e.g. maize crop), which could translate into improved economic gain by farmers. However, in
some situations, drastic drop in grain yield may results, especially when the crop and pasture
species are planted on the same land, and on the same day.

Pastures Associated with Field Crops

Pastures are integrated into field crops such as cereal crops (e.g. maize, millet, sorghum etc).
This has been an old practice in the Nigerian farming system. For example, farmers in northern
Nigeria have been incorporating groundnut into millet or sorghum fields for fear of complete crop
failure due to drought and expectation of higher grain yield of the cereal crop. The pasture species
provide extra nitrogen to the cereal crop through biological processes. This further helps to
maintain the soil health.

Pastures Associated with Tree Crops

Improved grasses and legume pasture species can be planted in plantations of coconut, oil palm,
rubber and fruit trees. This will assist in replacing weeds and native pasture species common in
such areas. The pasture species can be used indirectly for ‘cut and carry system’ of livestock
feeding or directly for grazing. The following are advantages of this system
• There is higher returns from combined land use
• Increased nut recovery in coconut plantation
• Reduction in weed population
• Increase in income and financial base of farmers
However, there is a problem of competition for nutrients by both the pasture species and the tree
crops. Therefore, additional fertilizers are needed to supply the required nutrients. Also, reduction
in light penetration due to canopy cover may affect the pasture species grown underneath.

Ley Pastures
Pasture species are sometimes planted together with field crops. Browse plants such as Leucaena
leucocephala, Gliricidia sepium, Gmelina aborea etc are commonly used for this purpose. The
main difference between ley pastures and pastures associated with crops is that in ley pastures
browse plants are mainly used as pasture species rather than other grass and legume species.
These types of pastures are mainly established for temporary use and they have the following
advantages:
• They help to improve soil fertility
• They help farmers to control weeds, disease pathogens and pests
• They provide fencing materials to farmers
• They help to increase yield of cereal crops
• They help to combat climate change

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 TYPES OF PASTURES BASED ON DURATION

TEMPORARY PASTURES
These are pastures established as part of rotation system either to provide feed for livestock or for
other purposes such as control of erosion, pests and diseases or moisture conservation. They could
also serve as sources of nutrients to the soil, thereby improving the fertility of the soil. Both annual
and perennial species can be used but they have to be easily eradicated. They are of high
productivity because they are established on good soils. They last for a period of 3-5years.

Establishment of Temporary Pastures

Temporary pastures are established on already fertile lands that are relatively plain and not rocky.
The site should be well prepared through ploughing, harrowing, leveling and ridging. The right
quantity of seeds should be purchased from a reliable source, before sowing. The agronomic
procedure is similar to that of establishing field crops. However, there is need for prompt
fertilization and weeding especially during the first year of establishment.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Establishing Temporary Pastures

Establishing temporary pastures has the following advantages:
• The farmer could integrate livestock production into pastures
• There is less use of chemicals to control insects, pests and diseases in the farm
• The fertility of the soil improves
• They can easily be eradicated

However, the following disadvantages affect the establishment of these pastures:

• These pastures may not serve the purpose upon which they are established to achieve
• Farmers may require additional expenses to purchase fertilizers especially in grass species
• They may not withstand heavy defoliation or grazing by livestock

SEMI-PERMANENT PASTURES
These are pastures that are established as part of rotation system usually due to a break in cropping
phase. The cropping phase can be broken for several reasons such drastic decrease in prices of
crops, disease outbreak, low soil fertility or change in decision by the farmer. Therefore, livestock
production is integrated into these pastures for a short period of time, usually 5-10years before the
pastureland is re-converted into cropping land again.

Establishment of Semi-Permanent Pastures

Semi-permanent pastures are established on fertile soils that are not waterlogged and undulating.
The site should be well prepared following recommended agronomic procedures. Leguminous
forages such should carefully follow plots that were previously planted with cereal crops such as
Mucuna pruriens and vice versa.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Establishing Semi-Permanent Pastures

Establishing semi-permanent pastures has the following advantages:
• The farmer has the liberty to revert back to crop cultivation any time he/she desires
• The soil is adequately protected from direct heating by sunlight
• The soil organisms are properly conserved thereby improving the soil health
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 • The income level of farmers increases through sales of forage or other crops

However, the following disadvantages affect the establishment of these pastures:

• Sometimes these pastures may serve as potential sources of pests in the farm
• Some may be difficult to eradicate using local implements such as hoes
• They may not established well especially when poorly managed due to competition with
other crops

PERMANENT PASTURES
Permanent pastures are mainly established for the purpose of feeding livestock. They can be native
or sown pastures. These pastures last for several decades. They consist of annual and perennial
species that have underground storage organs (rhizomes and stolons). These structures help the
pasture species to survive the dry season and other harsh conditions such as fire incidence, intense
defoliation and overgrazing. When pasture specie is not producing viable seeds annually, such
species can be used in permanent pastures. These pastures are however very difficult to be
eradicated. They are planted on fertile soils. These type of pastures are usually common in highly
profitable livestock enterprises such dairy and beef enterprises.

Characteristics and Establishment of Permanent Pastures

Permanent pastures are characterized by species that contain underground rhizomes and stolons.
These are storage organs that assist these pastures to survive harsh conditions. There is no need of
reseeding these pastures once they are well established. They could be single or mixed species
pastures. They are established on fertile soils that are not waterlogged and rocky. The site should
be well prepared following recommended agronomic procedures. Once established, these pastures
are difficult to be eradicated.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Establishing Permanent Pastures

Establishing permanent pastures has the following advantages:
• These pastures help to retain the structure of soils due to the underground organs
• They provide large quantity of forage to livestock
• They resist natural and human hazards such as fire outbreaks and drought
• They can easily cover a large area of land through rapid seed production
• Farmers can get extra income from sales of harvested forage

However, the following disadvantages affect the establishment of these pastures:

• They are very expensive to established and maintained
• Livestock may be forced to feed on only one pasture species without choice
• They can serve as potential hosts of some disease vectors such as snails etc.

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 PASTURES IN NIGERIAN AGRICULTURE

ROLE OF PASTURES IN NIGERIAN AGRICULTURE

Subsistence farmers with very few resources and low farm outputs dominate Nigerian agriculture.
However, crop-livestock integrated system is most commonly found throughout Nigeria. Although
improved pastures are established only in some research institutes, universities and other private
farms, majority of farmers utilize pastures from natural rangelands. Rearing animals on pastures
in Nigeria helps to reduce the cost of production, since farmers pay nothing before they utilize the
abundant pasture resources in Nigeria. Pastures are the backbone of Nigerian livestock industry
because of their significant role in sustaining the livestock sector and Nigerian economy.

Advantages of Pastures in Nigerian Agriculture

Pastures have the following advantages in Nigerian farming systems:
• They help to provide feed for livestock especially during the rainy season period
• They help to protect and conserve the soil thereby preventing damages
• They are used as part of rotation system such as ley pastures
• They are used for site stabilization in dams, under bridges and in lawns etc
• They serve as sources of income to many Nigerians through sales of conserved forage
• They are used in recreational centers such as stadia, polo grounds, open spaces etc
• They serve as sources of vitamins e.g. vitamins A and B which are needed for healthy
living
• Products from pasture finished livestock are higher in omega-3 and conjugated linoleic
acids which help to decrease blood cholesterol level and decreases cancer risks
• They serve as a source of employment to Nigerians especially in the area of forage
conservation and marketing

Constraints to Successful Pasture Production in Nigerian Agriculture

Although pasture production offer numerous advantages to Nigerian economy, but there are some
challenges facing the sector, which militates against its success since 1950’s to date. These
constraints include:
• Climatic factors in Nigeria do not favour the production of some exotic pasture species
especially in Sahelian areas of the country
• Presence of dense forests especially in southern parts of Nigeria hinder successful
pasture establishment
• Lack of awareness by farmers about the importance of pasture production especially
during dry season periods in Nigeria
• Lack of interest in pasture production by majority of farmers in Nigeria due to easy
access to our natural rangelands
• Lack of good management of our natural rangelands
• Traditional beliefs by farmers affect the success of pasture establishment in Nigeria
• Inadequate lands due to high human population and competition with crops
• Use of unproductive lands for pasture production by farmers rather than fertile soils
• Lack of knowledge about pastures and their production procedures in Nigeria

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Relationship between Pastures and Other Ecosystem Components
In grassland ecosystem, there are some existing relationships between various components of the
system. These relationships help to maintain balance in the system, thereby providing livestock
with nutritious feed. The components affected are:
• Soil
• Plants/Pasture Species
• Animals
• Man
• Climate

FACTORS AFFECTING SUCCESSFUL PASTURE ESTABLISHMENT IN NIGERIA

There are many factors affecting pasture production in Nigeria, ranging from climatic, soil and
socio-economic factors. There is a positive correlation between the amount of vegetation cover
and soil moisture content. Also, the types of soil upon which pastures are grown affect their
productivity. Farmers in Nigeria have different socio-economic beliefs which play significant roles
in pasture establishment and utilization. Nigeria has different climatic zones with wide variations
in the amount and intensity of rainfall received, hence differences in vegetation cover.

Use of Native Pasture Species in Nigerian Agriculture

In Nigeria, majority of farmers use native pasture species instead of improved species. This is
because of availability of forage in natural rangelands, riverbanks and roadsides e.g. Amaranthus
caudatus, Eragrostis ciliensis, Andropogon gayanus, Hyparrhenia rufa etc, particularly during the
rainy season period. Although these species are abundant all year round, but their quality decreases
progressively with advancing maturity. Therefore, they need to be over sown with improved
pasture species for improved livestock performance. However, farmers have to be aware of this
technology for easy acceptance and adoption.

Climatic and Soil Factors

Nigeria is endowed with different climatic zones, which support the growth of pasture species
based on location. The amount of rainfall received, relative humidity (amount of water vapour in
the atmosphere), environmental temperature and other weather elements such as sunshine and
wind, affect pasture production in Nigeria. The quantity and quality of forage produced depend on
these factors. Other factors are related to soil type, fertility and topography. Improved pasture
species established on fertile soils that are relatively plain for better yield and quality.

Socio-Economic Factors
The following factors affect pasture productivity in Nigerian agricultural system:
 Overgrazing natural rangelands
 Ignorance of farmers about the importance of pasture farming
 Inadequate policies on pasture resources and improvement in Nigeria
 Fluctuating demands and supply of livestock products due to fluctuating income
 Inadequate and costly pasture seeds that are unaffordable by majority of farmers in Nigeria
 Poverty of farmers
 Lack of farmers’ organizations on pasture production and marketing in Nigeria 
Insecurity issues prevent farmers from expanding their enterprises
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 PASTURE ESTABLISHMENT FOR FORAGE AND SEED PRODUCTION

STEPS IN PASTURE ESTABLISHMENT

Some operational activities are done for successful pasture establishment. These activities are
necessary because they help the pasture species to survive in a new environment, full of challenges
(e.g. pests and diseases, nematodes etc). A well-managed pasture can easily adapt to the new
environment perhaps due to proper soil moisture, air, nutrients and the right soil structure.
However, there should be favourable climatic condition and good management practices. Badly
managed pastures will poorly establish regardless of whether they are native or exotic species.

Pre-Planting Operations in Pasture Establishment

The following operations are necessary before successful pasture establishment in Nigeria:
 Site selection-This will depend on the locality upon which the pasture is to be established.
However, the site should be good for cultivation of field crops, and it should be plain and
not rocky
 Land clearing-This should be done either manually, chemically, mechanically or through
burning. However, cost: benefit ratio of such methods should be ascertained before making
decision.
 Seedbed preparation-Seed beds should be prepared through good land preparation. This
can be achieved through ploughing, harrowing, leveling and construction of ridges, in case
of large seeded legumes
 Seed treatment-Pasture seeds should be treated with fungicides and insecticides before
planting. Sometimes, seeds are treated using hot water to break their dormancy. This
process is known as scarification. Also, some pasture seeds such as Lablab purpureus are
inoculated with rhizobium strain of bacteria to facilitate germination and establishment.
However, the quantity of seeds (seed rate) to use has to be determined on per hectare basis.
The sowing depth has to be shallow for grass species (2cm) and medium for legumes (5-
7cm)

Planting/Sowing Methods
Pasture seeds can be planted or sown using three methods (planting, drilling and broadcasting).
Planting is done mainly for large seeded legumes such as Mucuna pruriens, Lablab purpureus etc.
These pasture seeds are planted using inter and intra-row spaces available (25cm×75cm) for
optimum plant population. In drilling, there is no intra-spacing, rather the seeds are drilled evenly
with a single and continuous hole. For broadcasting, the seeds are broadcasted in the field. Drilling
and broadcasting methods are done for small seeded legume and grass seeds. Sometimes, it is
advisable to use a carrier agent such as sand, fertilizer or sawdust during planting to enable seeds
to be placed in the intended location, especially on a windy day.

Post-Planting Operations
After an encouraging germination of the pasture species, some operations are expected for better
establishment, forage yield and quality. These operations include the followings:
 Weeding-This can be achieved manually, through the use of hand hoes, chemically using
herbicides or mechanically, using tractor coupled implements such as a weeder. Weeding
should be done at 2-3 weeks after planting depending on the intensity of weeds and also
the management. In commercial pasture production, weeding is done mechanically for
better results

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  Fertilizer application- Fertilizers should be applied after weeding for improved
performance. Some farmers apply fertilizers such phosphatic fertilizers e.g. Single Super
Phosphate (SSP) during land preparation. However, other fertilizers such as nitrogenous
fertilizers have to be applied to the pasture especially if it is a sole grass pasture.
 Defoliation-This refers to the cutting of plant shoot with the aim of improving the growth
performance and getting high quality forage. The pasture species can be defoliated 2-3
times in a year depending on the species, environmental conditions and management.

PASTURE HARVESTING AND PROCESSING METHODS

Pastures are harvested at certain stages of their growth for conservation and subsequent utilization
during periods of feed scarcity. Pasture harvesting is necessary for better supply of high quality
feed, because forage dry matter progressively decreased with advancing maturity. The quality of
conserved forage depends on harvesting method and the moisture content at the time of harvest
and storage. Different machineries are used in harvesting pasture species in Nigeria, due to their
high efficiency compared to manual methods such as using cutlasses etc.

Growth Stages of Cutting Pasture

There are three growth stages of cutting pasture species in Nigeria:
 Pre-Flowering Stage: This is a stage in pasture growth in which the pasture specie has more
vegetative growth before setting flowers for seed production. This period starts from early
stage of growth (3weeks after planting), up to 8 or 9 weeks post planting period in grass
species. However, in legume species, the period depends on the specie and management
practices applied. During this stage, there are more leaves in the shoot and the stems are
not hard (lignified). The moisture content of forage at this stage is usually high with little
dry matter content. Therefore, more material needs to be harvested before conserving for
future use.

 Flowering Stage: At this stage, the pasture specie produces flowers for seed production.
Fertilized ova result into immature seeds, which can be grazed by livestock or even
defoliated for conservation. This stage is known as the bloom stage. The amount of dry
matter at this stage supersedes the moisture content, and therefore farmers normally harvest
their pastures at this stage depending on the type of enterprise.

 Post-Flowering Stage: During this stage, seeds are set by the pasture specie. However, the
moisture content of the seeds is still high compared to dry seeds. This stage is sometimes
known as the dough stage in maize plant for silage. The forage at this stage contains high
level of fibre for structural support. Livestock feed very little quantity of the forage material
at this stage, even though the moisture content is very low.

Moisture Reduction Techniques in Pastures

Forages are made up of water and dry matter components. The amount of these components
depends on stage of growth of the forage. However, moisture remains the most important factor to

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be considered before using or storing any material for future use. Therefore, moisture content can
be reduced from the forage by wilting the material for some few days after cutting. Thereafter, the
wilted forage can be further sliced into fine, smaller cuts to facilitate moisture loss. Also, there has
to be frequent turning of the forage material while in the field depending on the dimension, density
and structure of the swath.

Preservation Methods in Pastures

Pastures can be preserved in many forms based on interest of the farmer. These preservation
techniques include the followings:

 Hay- This refers to conserved forage that is in dried stage. Spreading the forage in the sun
or inside barn can do the drying process either. However, sun cured hay is cheaper to make
than the barn cured hay, but barn cured hay is more qualitative than sun cured hay. This is
because of less leaf losses in the barn compared to the field. Hays are stored as rectangular
or round bales, cubical bales or as stacks. The quality of hay depends on the stage of cutting
the forage and climatic condition.

 Silage- Silage is conserved forage that has undergone complete anaerobic fermentation for
a period of 3 weeks. Fresh forage material is harvested at appropriate stage of pasture
growth. The material may be allowed to wilt or used directly to make silage while the
moisture content is still high. The forage has to be cut into smaller pieces before
transporting into silo. A silo is a structure for making silage. After uploading the forage in
the silo, it has to be well consolidated. Some additives are added in the material to facilitate
intake. Finally, a polythene material is used to cover the silo completely for a period of
three weeks. Silage is more acceptable to livestock than hay because of its quality.
However, it is more expensive to make than hay.

 Pellets: Pastures can also be preserved in form of pellets. This is possible by using
pelletized machine after drying the forage into hay. This will facilitate packaging, easy
handling and transportation of the forage from one place to the other. Also, its acceptability
to livestock is higher compared to hay.

PASTURE MANAGEMENT AND IMPROVEMENT

Pasture management refers to all possible activities and decisions taken by the management with
the aim of improving the pasture in terms of forage yield and quality. This is particularly important
because animals require pasture throughout the year, while pasture growth is restricted to certain
months in a year. The major components that are considered in pasture management are the soil,
plant, animals and their interactions. However, the decision on how to go about managing the
pasture is solely based on manager’s decision.

Choice of Pasture Species

The success of any pasture depends on good choice by the farmer at the beginning of establishment
process. This is because there are some variations within and between pasture species. Therefore,
the specie chosen should have the following characteristics:
 Should be easy to establish
 Should have high dry matter yield
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  Should be of high quality in terms of crude protein content
 Should not be expensive
 Should not be dangerous to the environment
 Should be easily eradicated when the need arises
 Should be acceptable to livestock

Germination Percentage of the Specie

Pasture species are affected by environmental extremes and therefore they have to be managed
well for better results. Pasture seeds vary in weight and size. However, the bigger the size, the
better the germination rate and vice versa, due to food reserves in the seed cotyledon. Sometimes
germination percentage can be low due to long shelf life, presence of inert materials such as stones
etc, low viability, poor storage or hard seed coat. When low germination is observed, the seeds can
be treated using different techniques such as scarification, for improved germination and
establishment.

Establishment and Eradication of Pasture Specie

Pastures can be established either from seeds or vegetative parts such as stem cuttings. Certain
desirable characters are considered in established pasture specie. These include:
 Ease of establishment
 Persistency of yield
 Resistance to drought and climatic variations
 Spread of growth period and yield distribution
 Quality of yield
 Seed production
 Ease of eradication

FERTILIZER APPLICATION
Fertilizers are needed in pastures for better establishment and quality. This is due to the supply of
necessary nutrients (macro and micro) that are highly essential for pasture growth. Lack of these
nutrients in the soil can lead to poor growth and performance of pasture species. Different pasture
species have different fertilizer requirements. For example, grass species require more of
nitrogenous fertilizers than phosphorus, although phosphorus is also critical to the survival of the
species. Legumes need more of phosphorus and calcium rather than nitrogen.

Types of Fertilizers for Pasture Species

There are two types of fertilizers used in pasture management. These include: -organic fertilizers
or farm yard manure and chemical fertilizers. All of these fertilizer sources supply the same type
of nutrients to pastures. However, the rate of release of these nutrients differed between the
fertilizer sources. Organic manures are very slow in the release of nutrients compared to chemical
fertilizers. Chemical fertilizers are further categorized into straight (e.g. Urea 46%N) and
compound fertilizers (e.g. NPK [Link]) depending on the number of chemicals they contain.

Methods of Application of Fertilizers to Pasture Specie

Fertilizers can be applied to pastures either during land preparation or at planting. Phosphatic
fertilizers such as Single Super Phosphate (SSP) can be applied at single dose during land
preparation because it is immobile in the soil. However, nitrogenous fertilizers such as urea can be
applied in split doses to capture the highly mobile nitrogen in the soil. Therefore, it is advisable to
18
apply nitrogenous fertilizers to pastures at 3 and 6 weeks after planting for better results. Fertilizers
are mainly applied using broadcasting method but they can also be drilled. However, spot
application is only possible in pasture species such as forage maize.

Sources of Nutrients in Pasture Species

Nutrients in pastures can come from different sources, which may include the following:
 Fertilizer application
 Urine of livestock
 Faeces/dung of livestock
 Decay of organic matter in the soil
 Atmospheric deposition e.g. SO42-, NO32-
 Activities of soil living organisms such as bacteria

DEFOLIATION OF PASTURE SPECIES

Defoliation is one of the pasture management practices in Nigeria. It refers to cutting of shoot of
pasture species using manual or mechanical methods so as to facilitate re-growth in pastures. The
newly grown forage after defoliation is more nutritious than the defoliated part. The farmer for
future use will recover more forage material. However, the amount of forage to be defoliated
depends on the pasture species. Some species are able to withstand defoliation while others cannot.
This can be judged from the reaction of pasture species after defoliation.

Frequency of Defoliation in Pasture Species

The pasture specie can be frequently or in-frequently defoliated for better management. Frequent
defoliation refers to defoliation at specific time interval such as after every two weeks. While
infrequent defoliation refers to pasture defoliation at different time interval e.g. one week, three
weeks or four weeks interval. Here, there is no consistency in the time the pasture is defoliated.
Frequency of defoliation is determined by the reaction of pastures to grazing or defoliation.

Intensity of Defoliation in Pasture Specie

The extent to which pastures are defoliated depends on the management and growth habit of the
pastures. Some pasture species are defoliated at the height of 10cm to15cm above the soil. Others
can be defoliated up to 5cm above the soil. If the pasture sward is very dense, intense defoliation
is possible. However, when pasture sward is sparsely distributed, than intense defoliation is not a
good management procedure.

Morphological Structures of Pasture Species

Defoliation process depends on morphological structure of pasture species. Those species that
grow erect are better for defoliation using mechanical method such as tractor etc. Examples include
Brachiaria brizantha, Desmodium intortum, Andropogon gayanus etc. Others such as Mucuna
pruriens, Stylosanthes hamata, Centrosema pascuorum etc grow horizontally, and therefore their
structure does not warrant defoliation. Rather, livestock on the field can graze them. Defoliation
of such forage species is not a good option because it will facilitates leaf losses and shattering
during defoliation.

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 FORAGE CONSERVATION TECHNIQUES
Forage conservation is one of the methods of pasture management in Nigeria. Excess forage is
conserved during the period of abundance to be used during period of scarcity. In order to avoid
excessive spending on purchase of expensive concentrate feeds, farmers harvest forages during
peak period of growth and preserve in form of hay, silage or stacks. Although the quality of these
conserved forages vary greatly, but they are reliable methods used in Nigerian livestock industry
to address the issue of feed scarcity.

Hay
Hay is dry forage formed after wilting, sun drying, turning and packaging of the dry forage
material. The packaging process can be done either with a baling machine or manually using hand.
Hay is the most common method of forage conservation in Nigeria. It has the following advantages
over silage:
 It is easier and faster to make compared to silage
 It has high dry matter content
 It requires less labour than silage
 It is cheaper than silage
 It can be done anywhere provided the farmer is experienced
 It provides bulkiness in the rumen which aid the rumen micro-organisms

Silage
Silage is fermented forage used for supplementing livestock either throughout the year or during
the period of feed scarcity. It requires high technical man power and is more expensive than hay,
especially in intensively managed farms. However, it has the following advantages:
 It is more qualitative than hay
 It has high acceptability by livestock than hay provided it is well prepared
 It is independent of weather
 It can be integrated with other farm operations such as mowing and grazing
 It can smoother weed seeds
 It can easily be degraded by rumen microbes

Stacked Hay
This refers to dry forage prepared by reducing moisture content while the forage is in the field.
The difference between stack hay and hay is that stack hay is normally kept for temporary use
whereas hay can be stored for years without spoiling. This type of hay is commonly seen in rural
areas where farmers store hay from their crops such cowpea and groundnut haulms. It is mostly
seen on top of trees and rooftops in villages and along the road. Stacked hay has the following
advantages:
 It is most suitable for smallholder livestock enterprises in Nigeria
 It does not require much labour to prepare
 It requires less space than hay and silage
 It supplies livestock with the much required energy and protein during critical periods 
It is free from fire outbreak which may ravage the livestock industry

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 WEEDS CONTROL
Weeds are part of pastures especially in Nigeria where pastures are poorly managed. There are
many types of weeds that can easily multiply and take over the pastures within a short period of
time. Hence, weeds invade new areas of lands in Nigeria due to plant migration, invasion and
climatic fluctuations. These weeds must be controlled for sustainable pasture production as well
as livestock survival and strong economic base in the country. Some of these weeds are poisonous
to livestock and should not be allowed to persist in pastures.

Definition and Types of Weeds

Weeds are unwanted plants in pastures that have not been planted by the farmer. They are of
different genus and species with the pasture plants, and therefore, when allowed to grow with the
selected species, they can easily adulterate the pasture. There are two types of weeds in pastures.
These are:
 Narrow leaved weeds-mainly grasses
 Broad leaved weeds-mainly legumes

There is need to control these weeds before and after planting because at the initial stage of pasture
establishment, the pasture species grow very slowly, while weeds grow very fast, thereby
smothering the pasture species. However, it is important to note that there are weeds that are
beneficial to livestock and farmers (non-toxic weeds) as against toxic weeds which cause economic
loss and environmental hazards.

Economic implications of Weeds in Pastures

Weeds in pastures have serious economic implications which may affect the goal of the farm.
These implications include the following:
 Weeds reduce forage yield and quality due to existing competition in the pasture
 Weeds cause serious economic loses to farmers
 Weeds reduce the lifespan of pastures
 Some weeds are poisonous to livestock and herders
 Weeds affect pasture seed quality and viability
 Some weeds serve as hosts to certain pests and diseases

Methods of Weeds Control

Weeds are controlled using different methods depending on farmer’s choice and resources
available. The following methods are commonly used:
 Manual method- This involves identifying weeds in pastures and physically removing them
by hand pulling. They can be gathered in one place, burnt and buried.
 Chemical method- Weeds can be controlled using chemical means such as herbicides.
However, there are some negative implications to the environment and farmers.
 Cultural method- This involves weeds control using biological means such as grazing
livestock or other species that can eliminate the weeds through competition etc

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 GRAZING MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS
Grazing management system involves pasture manipulation under grazing condition with the
sole aim of feeding livestock and environmental control. Grazing livestock on pastures help to
reduce the cost of production and improves the quality of livestock products. The type of grazing
management adapted by farmers depends on resources available and management decision.
However, not all grazing management systems are suitable to farmers in Nigeria, due to their
costs or technical complications.

Definition of Grazing Management System

Grazing management system refers to all necessary decisions taken by the manager or farmer in
order to improve livestock performance under grazing condition. Such decisions may include:
 Prevention of early morning grazing of pastures to avoid diseases and pests
 Occasional checking of noxious and toxic plant species in pastures
 Defoliation of excess forage for conservation
 Supplementation of concentrates and mineral licks
 Provision of watering points in the pastures
 Fencing of pasture paddocks to maximize output
 Careful utilization of pasture resources to avoid feed deficit etc

Advantages and Disadvantages of Grazing Management Systems

Grazing management systems have some advantages and disadvantages to the farmer, livestock
and the environment. The advantages of grazing management system include the following:
 It helps to improve livestock performance in terms of live weight gain, milk yield etc
 It facilitates easy control of livestock by the farmer
 It reduces the risk of theft through rustling etc
 It assists in making management decisions concerning the farm
 It helps to combat certain pests and disease vectors in the pasture e.g. snails
 It helps to minimize pasture lose through trampling and fouling by livestock
 It helps to encourage pasture re-growth through defoliation and grazing
 It helps to boost farmer’s income and financial stability of the farm
 It encourages the proliferation of organic farms and products in Nigeria

Disadvantages of Grazing Management Systems

There are some disadvantages of grazing management system in Nigeria. These include:
 Cost implication of fencing and general maintenance of paddocks is high
 Some soil related diseases are difficult to control such as Nematode infections
 The technical knowledge required for successful execution of grazing systems is lacking
by farmers in Nigeria
 Some grazing systems require the use of electricity which is lacking or expensive in Nigeria
 Majority of farmers are subsistence as such the output cannot pays for the huge amount of
money spent in setting such structures e.g. paddocks
 Movement of livestock is restricted to the area in paddocks only. This may affect their
health
 Animals are also forced to feed on only one type of pasture species in intensively managed
farms

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 TYPES OF GRAZING MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS
There are many grazing management systems adapted by farmers in Nigeria and elsewhere.
These systems are further categorized based on the size of livestock owned by farmers and the
area of land for grazing. Where the land is scarce, such as in cities and urban areas, grazing of
livestock is rarely possible, because of traffic and human inconveniences. Therefore, farmers
adopt other means of feeding their livestock to suit the condition they found themselves.

Zero Grazing Management System

This is a grazing management system that is mostly common in urban and peri-urban areas of
Nigeria where forage materials are cut and brought to housed animals for feeding. It is sometimes
refers to as cut and carry system. It has the following advantages:
 It saves labour in grazing livestock
 It saves costs and time of the farmer
 Farmers determine the type of forage to be fed to livestock
 It helps to clear roadsides and natural rangelands from excess forages during rainy season
 It helps to facilitates re-growth of forages

It may however, have some disadvantages. These include:

 Livestock are forced to feed on only one type of feed provided
 There may be problem of forage rejection or low intake by livestock
 Sometimes it may be laborious especially when the distance is far away from the farm

Semi-Intensive Grazing Management Systems

These are grazing management systems in which livestock are allowed to have access to pasture
for a very long time during the day before they are returned to their pens. Examples of these grazing
systems are-continuous and deferred grazing management systems. The advantages of this system
of grazing management include the following:
 It helps to improve the quality of livestock products e.g. milk yield etc
 It gives animals the liberty to exercise in the pasture
 It helps to distribute urine and dung evenly in the pasture
 It facilitates the growth of desirable pasture species
 It helps to conserve natural rangelands and pasture resources
 They are cost effective to the farmer

The main disadvantage of this system is that livestock may be exposed to the problem of toxic
pasture species which are undesirable in the pasture.

Intensive Grazing Management Systems

These are grazing management systems in which livestock are completely prevented from grazing
outside the farm. These systems are highly efficient in terms of outputs but are expensive to
establish. Examples of these systems include- rotational grazing, strip/rationed grazing and straight
creep grazing systems. The following advantages are recognized in these systems:
 Increased livestock productivity
 Increased income level to farmers
 Reduction of mortality of young animals
 Easy control of livestock by the herder
 Easy identification and control of diseases and disease vectors
23
However, the following are some disadvantages of these systems:
 Movement of livestock is restricted to the area in paddocks only. This may affect their
health
 They are very expensive to establish by farmers
 Animals are also forced to feed on only one type of pasture species in intensively managed
farms

There are many types of grazing management systems. However, farmers in Nigeria practice not
all these systems. These include the following:
 Zero grazing/Cut and carry system-This involves cutting the pasture from the field and
feeding it to livestock in their pens.
 Continuous grazing system-This system involves keeping the animals in pasture for
grazing throughout the year.
 Deferred grazing system- In this system, some parts of the pasture are prevented from
grazing by livestock until certain times of the year
 Rotational grazing- This involves grazing livestock in paddocks for certain number of days
before they are move to another paddock
 Strip grazing system-In this system, livestock are allowed to graze an area demarcated with
electrical strip. Animals are lightly shocked when they touch the strip
 Straight Creep grazing system-This involves a creep area for young animals and a base
pasture for the dam or mother. It is done to improve growth of young animals
 Forwards Creep grazing system-This involves the use of base pasture for animals with high
nutrient requirements e.g. young animals first, before others
 First and Last Suizers grazing system-This system considers different classes of livestock
for grazing at the same time e.g. cattle, sheep and goats

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