The Power Card or Indicator Diagram is a graphical representation of pressure and
volume within the engine cylinder. From the diagram the Indicated Power or IP for
the cylinder can be calculated.
To explain what actually happens let's first look at a simple example:
If a gas is expanded in a cylinder at a constant
pressure of say 20 bar (2000000N/m2) and the volume in
the cylinder increases from 0.075m3 to 0.525m3, then
the work done by the expanding gas is represented by the
coloured area of the graph which in this case
is pressure × change in volume or p(V2-V1)
pressure (N/m2) × change in volume (m3) =
Nm3/m2 which cancels down to Nm or Joules (the basic
unit of work)
inserting values: 20 × 105(0.525 - 0.075) = 9 × 105 J or
900kJ
Similarly, if the piston was pushed up the cylinder and the pressure remained
constant at 20 bar then the work input would be 900kJ (if we used the formula p(V2-
V1) then the answer would be 20 × 105(0.075 - 0.525) = -9 × 105 J or -900kJ:- the
negative figure indicates work input)
When a piston is moving downwards on the power
stroke in a diesel engine, the pressure does not remain
constant. However this does not change the principle
that the work done is represented by the area under the
expansion curve as shown on the diagram
When the piston moves up the cylinder compressing
the charge of air, this takes work. Again this is
represented by the area under the compression curve,
but this time remember that this is work that is having
to be put into the engine.
It should be evident therefore that the actual work
obtained per revolution of the two stroke engine is
represented by the area under the expansion curve
minus the area under the compression curve.
Ok, this is all very well, you may say, but how do we draw this diagram, let alone
measure the area under the curves and calculate the work output?
First things first...
To measure the pressure in the cylinder at
any time during the cycle, use is made of a
tapping in the cylinder head, terminating in a
valve known as an indicator cock. The
indicator cock is fitted with a male screw
thread on its outlet, and using this thread the
piece of equipment shown, known as the
engine indicator is mounted.
When the indicator cock is opened, the gas
pressure in the cylinder acts on the under
side of a piston moving it upwards against a
spring.
As the piston moves upwards, so a marker,
connected through a parallel link motion will
move up a drum, tracing a vertical line on a
piece of paper wound around the drum. The
height of the line is proportional to the
maximum pressure in the cylinder.
The manufacturer of the equipment gives the
relationship between the pressure rise and the
vertical distance the marker will move. This
is known as the spring constant.
The drum is spring loaded and free to rotate backwards
and forwards by pulling and releasing a cord which is
wrapped round the drum.
The end of this cord is fixed to a cam operated linkage
so that the drum rotates forwards and backwards as the
piston moves up and down the cylinder.
This means that as the marker is moving up and down,
the drum is rotating backwards and forwards in time
with the engine. The indicator diagram or power card is
traced out on the paper as shown.
INDICATOR MOUNTED ON ENGINE
The next thing to do is measure the area of
the diagram. This could be done
mathematically using the mid-ordinate
rule, or by using a piece of kit known as a
planimeter (shown below). The outline of
the powercard is traced using the
planimeter and the area read off the scale.
The length of the diagram is also
measured.
If the total area of the diagram is divided
by the length, the average or mean
height of the diagram will be obtained.
Looking at it another way, we now have
an indicator diagram of a rectangular form
with the same area and length as the
original power card.
Because the mean height of the diagram can be converted into a pressure by
multiplying by the spring constant, a pressure known as the mean indicated
pressure or MIP can be obtained.
The length of the diagram is representative of the swept volume of the cylinder.
This volume can be obtained by multiplying the cross sectional area of the cylinder
by the stroke.
If the MIP is multiplied by the swept volume, the work done per cycle will be
obtained.
E.G.
Area of diagram = 840mm2
Length of diagram = 105mm
Mean height of diagram = 8mm
Spring constant = 200kN/m2 per mm.
MIP = 8 × 200 = 1600N/m2
Diameter of cylinder = 960mm (radius 0.48m)
Stroke of piston = 2.5m
Work per cycle (or revolution) = 1600 × × 0.482 × 2.5 = 2895 kNm or kJ
If this figure is now multiplied by the number of power strokes/sec, the power output
of the cylinder will be obtained. (work done per second)
E.G. 90RPM = 1.5revs/sec.
2895 × 1.5 = 4343kW
This process is repeated for each cylinder on the engine. The total indicated power
for the engine can therefore be calculated, and individual power outputs for
respective cylinders compared to each other.
The formula to remember is
IP = MIPLAn
where IP = indicated power
MIP = mean indicated pressure
L = length of stroke
A = cross sectional area of cylinder
n = number of power strokes/second
NOTE: The number of power strokes/second is the same as the revs/second for a 2
stroke engine, and revs/second ÷ 2 for a 4 stroke engine.
The powercard for a 4 stroke engine is
exactly the same as for a 2 stroke
engine except that on the exhaust and
inlet strokes, a horizontal line is
traced.
Although the pressure in the cylinder
is different for the inlet and exhaust
strokes, the difference is to small to
be shown on the scale of the diagram.
Modern engines use pressure transducers to measure the pressure in the cylinder.
The position of the piston is obtained from a pick up mounted to read the position of
the crankshaft. This information is relayed back to the engine computer which will
then draw the power card, and calculate the indicated power for you. However, the
principle is the same, and it is this principle that marine engineers have to
understand.
The conventional power card as used for measuring indicated power in the cylinder
has its limitations. Because it is a pressure/volume diagram, the piston piston
movement and therefore volume change is very small either side of Bottom Dead
Centre and Top Dead Centre (i.e. each end of the diagram), and so what is
happening at the end of compression and start of combustion is squeezed into a very
small area.
In the example shown,
which is a powercard for
an engine of 2.5m stroke
with a conrod length of
2.88m, the piston
displacement per degree of
crank angle is greatest at
about 70° ATDC where
the displacement is almost
24mm/degree. Compare
this with the movement at
10° ATDC where the
piston displacement is only
5mm/degree.
This means that because
the indicator drum
movement is in direct
relation to the piston
position, between about 50
and 90° of crank angle
represents the largest
change in volume on the
diagram, and it is here that
the drum on the engine
indicator equipment is
moving at its fastest. Note
also that the mid point on
the diagram is not at 90°
because on an engine of
this stroke and conrod
length, the mid stroke is
reached at about
77°ATDC.
If the drive to the indicator
drum is moved 90° out of
phase with the piston position,
then the drum will be moving
at its fastest as the piston
comes over TDC and BDC.
This means that the pressure
rise in the cylinder about TDC
is shown over a wider
horizontal axis and because of
this, faults with timing and
injection can be identified.
Instead of advancing the cam by
90°, conditions in the cylinder
around TDC can be assessed by
rotating the drum by pulling on the
cord at the the critical moment as
the piston comes over TDC. This
is known as a draw card.
As can be seen from the above diagrams, a draw card can show up faults such as
early or late combustion of the fuel. This could be due to incorrect timing or because
of varying ignition delays.
Other faults which can be seen are a leaking or blocked fuel injector and
afterburning.
Not all engines are fitted with the equipment to take power cards. However, a draw
card can be taken on any engine fitted with an indicator cock. A competent engineer,
with practice, can take a draw card on an engine running at up to 450rpm
Indicator cards should be taken under steady conditions when the weather is calm. The load on
the engine should be between 85 and 100%. Liaise with the OOW that there is no intended
change of course which could vary the load on the engine.
Run the engine at full load for 30 minutes before taking the cards, especially if it has been
running at low load in the previous 24 hours. This is to burn off any carbon in the cylinder.
Blow through the indicator cocks to prove they are clear and to remove any particles of carbon.
Ensure that the indicator equipment is in good condition and that the piston is free to move in
the cylinder. Ensure that the correct spring is fitted.
Fit the pressure sensitive paper to the drum
Before fitting the indicator equipment to each cylinder blow the indicator cock through.
Fit the equipment to the indicator cock. Press the pen against the drum and pull the cord to
rotate the drum by hand to draw the atmospheric line.
Unlock the indicator cam drive and drop it onto the cam. Attach the cord to the drive. The
drum will now be rotating back and forward in synch with the piston position.
Open the indicator cock fully. Press the pen against the paper and trace out the indicator card.
Release the pen and shut the indicator cock. Disconnect the cord from the cam drive. Remove
the equipment from the indicator cock and remove the paper with the indicator diagram from
the drum.
Record exhaust temperature, fuel rack setting, scavenge pressure and temperature
Repeat for all the engine cylinders.
A set of draw cards should also be taken.
Indicator cards should be taken at regular intervals as part of the planned maintenance for the
engine. They should also be taken after any major overhaul of the engine or changes to the fuel
injection equipment, or adjustment of the camshaft to allow for elongation of the timing chain.
An evenly balanced engine is desirable because it ensures that the engine is operating at its
maximum efficiency and will prevent overloading of individual cylinders which can lead to
excessive bearing loading and crankshaft vibrations and stresses.
Cylinder power output is directly proportional to the Mean Indicated Pressure which is again
proportional to the amount of fuel burnt in the cylinder, but before adjusting the fuel pumps,
the draw cards (or crank angle diagram) should be examined to ensure that compression
pressures and peak pressures are the same, and that there are no faults with the fuel injection. If
compression pressure is down on an individual cylinder, it may point to poor ring sealing or
leaking valves. If the peak pressure is too low or too high, then fuel timing should be checked.
Also to be taken into account are the exhaust temperatures and fuel pump rack setting.
Adjustments should be small, and noted down. After each adjustment, wait for the engine to
settle down before retaking the cards.
Indicator diagrams taken using mechanical equipment are limited by the speed of the
engine and the skill of the operator. Normally it is not possible to obtain an accurate
powercard on engines running above 120rpm because of vibrations in the
equipment. Draw cards are reliant on the operators skill. It is possible to take
drawcards on engines running up to about 450 rpm.
Modern methods allow the computer to generate indicator diagrams and calculate
the power developed in the cylinder for engines running at any speed.
The equipment
consists of a pressure
transducer which
screws onto the
indicator cock which
is connected to the
processing unit. A
crankshaft position
detector is also fitted
to the propshaft or
engine flywheel
which measures the
crank angle to 0.25°.
The crankshaft
position is also fed
back to the
processing unit.
The indicator cock is opened and when ready the information is
stored to the processing unit. When all the cylinder readings have
been completed, the information is downloaded to a computer and
the results reviewed. The computer will draw a powercard and a
crank angle diagram. It is possible to view the cylinder diagrams
individually or overlay them on top of each other (each cylinder
being represented by a different colour).
From the crank angle diagram, faults in the injection process can be determined:
It should be noted that some slow speed two strokes (MAN B&W MC engines)
combustion is delayed until 2-3° after TDC to limit the pressure rise to 35 bar, to
prevent overloading of the crosshead bearing. This will give a slight dip in the
pressure after TDC, which should not be construed as a fault.
The light spring diagram is taken on a two stroke engine with the indicator drum in
phase with the engine piston, but with the indicator spring replaced with a much
lighter spring. It enables conditions to be examined around BDC when the exhaust
valve opens and scavenging of the cylinder is taking place.
This means that as the piston comes up on compression,
the spring will be fully compressed against the limiting
stop at about 10 bar. The compression line will then stay
horizontal as compression pressure increases in the
cylinder.
During expansion the line remains horizontal until the
exhaust valve opens (or the exhaust ports are uncovered),
when the pressure will drop in the cylinder, and the spring
will start to expand.
As the scavenge ports open the pressure rises slightly and
the remaining exhaust gas is scavenged from the cylinder.
If there is doubt over the timing of the indicator drive cam with the piston position,
then take an in phase indicator card with the fuel off the cylinder. The compression
and expansion curves should overlap. If the diagram is positive in area then retard
the indicator cam; If the diagram is negative in area, advance the indicator cam.
Engine manufacturers quote Mean Effective Pressure when giving data about their
engines. Although Mean Effective Pressure and Mean Indicated Pressure are similar
they are not the same.
Sometimes reference is made to IMEP (Indicated Mean Effective Pressure) and
BMEP (Brake Mean Effective Pressure). This really confuses the issue, but if it has
the word Indicated, then it is measured in the cylinder, so is the same as MIP (Mean
Indicated Pressure). Similarly BMEP is measured at the Brake or Flywheel.
When using an indicator diagram to calculate the power in the cylinder, the Mean
Indicated Pressure is derived by dividing the area of the diagram by its length and
multiplying the result by the spring constant. This is then multiplied by the swept
volume of the cylinder (which is a constant for that particular engine) and the power
strokes per second. So if indicator diagrams were taken for all the engine cylinders,
because the speed and the swept volume are the same, to compare the indicated
power for each cylinder, only the Mean Indicated Pressures need to be compared. To
have the engine perfectly balanced, (i.e. Indicated Power the same for all cylinders),
the Mean Indicated Pressure would have to be equal for all cylinders
If all the indicated powers for the individual cylinders were added together this
would not equal the power output of the engine. This is because of the losses
through friction between what is taking place in the cylinders and the flywheel of the
engine where power output is measured. These losses can be somewhere between 8
and 15%, although a ballpark figure of 10% is not far out.
When the engine is first erected on the testbed, it is coupled to a dynamometer (more
commonly known as a water brake) to measure the power output.
The words Brake power comes from the type of dynamometer: often called a water
brake because when put into operation it is trying to slow the engine down.
The engine power is calculated from the torque and speed figures according to the
formula: Torque × rpm / 9549, where 9549 is a constant.
The water brake dynamometers are very popular, due to their high power capability,
controllability, and relatively low cost compared to other types. They consist of a
fluid coupling where water is the drive transmission between the engine driven rotor
and the housing which is capable of rotation, but is restrained by a torque arm
connected to a meter.
The schematic shows the most
common type of water brake, the
variable level type. Water is
added until the engine is held at a
steady rpm against the load.
Water is then kept at that level
and replaced by constant draining
and refilling, which is needed to
carry away the heat created by
absorbing the energy (which in
itself is a measure of power
output of the engine). The
housing attempts to rotate in
response to the torque produced
but is restrained by the scale or
torque metering cell which
measures the torque.
When the power for the full load operation has been measured, it is assumed that the
power developed in each cylinder is equal.
Therefore the power developed by each cylinder is total power divided by the
number of cylinders.
If this figure is now divided by the swept volume × power strokes/second, the Mean
Effective Pressure (MEP) should be obtained.
For example a 10 cylinder two stroke engine of 960mm bore, 2.5 metre stroke has a
swept volume per cylinder of:
× 0.482 × 2.5 = 1.81m3
If the measured power at the flywheel is 45000kW when the engine is running at
100rpm (1.67rps), then it can be assumed that each cylinder is delivering 4,500kW.
Therefore MEP = 4500/(1.81 × 1.67) = 1492 kN/m2 = 14.92 bar.
If the MIP was measured at 16.6 bar, this would show a 10% loss through the
engine.
MEP/MIP = Mechanical Efficiency
Indicator power cards cannot be taken using mechanical equipment on a medium
speed engine because the engine is running at too fast and vibrations set up in the
drive will give an erratic irregular diagram. If a computer system is not fitted, then a
degree of engine balancing can be achieved by looking at the compression pressures
and the maximum cylinder pressure.
It should be understood that power developed in the cylinder is directly related to the
Mean Indicated Pressure (MIP), and not the peak pressure, which is related not only
to the quantity of fuel burnt but the injection timing. However if the timing of the
fuel injection is correct, and combustion conditions correct within the cylinder, then
balancing of the engine can be successfully carried out.
It may be possible to take a set of draw cards to ensure that injection timing and
cylinder combustion is correct. However if this is not possible, then an assumption
has to be made that conditions are correct and that injection equipment is in good
condition. Obviously visible signs of poor or incorrect combustion such as smoke at
the funnel or excessively variable exhaust temperatures should be investigated
before a set of readings are taken. The turbocharger should be clean and operating
efficiently, with the inlet air temperature and pressure at the normal parameters.
To measure pressure in the cylinder, a peak pressure indicator is used. This can be a
gauge type indicator as shown below or a more sophisticated digital gauge which
will measure max peak pressure, minimum peak pressure and average peak pressure
over a number of cycles It will also measure the rate of pressure rise, which if too
high can damage bearings. It is also possible to use a traditional mechanical
indicator to trace a vertical line up the paper, the height of which is proportional to
the max cylinder pressure.
The indicator is installed on the
indicator valve using the wing nut &
plug (1). When the indicator valve is
opened, the check valve (4) will rise
and fall with the engine cylinder
pressure, trapping the maximum
pressure in the pressure chamber (2),
and this average maximum pressure
can be read directly on the dual scale
pressure gauge (3). The gauge may be
conveniently positioned for ease of
reading by loosening the gauge bolt
wing nut (5). The pressure in the
pressure chamber (2) and on the
pressure gauge (3) is removed by
loosening the wing nut (5).
Shown opposite: A Kistler Digital Peak Pressure
Meter
Measuring pmax maximum peak pressure
functions:
pmin minimum peak pressure
pav average peak pressure
standard deviation of the
Sdev
peak pressure
maximum gradient of the
dp/ca
pressure trace
r/min speed
instantaneous peak
ppeak pressure of continuous
measuring function
Before taking the maximum cylinder pressures, the compression pressures should be
recorded. This is done by measuring the cylinder pressure with the fuel taken off the
unit. To do this, the engine should be run at reduced load to avoid stressing the
crankshaft. Poor compression will indicate worn rings or liner or a valve not seating
correctly. It is not possible to balance an engine successfully if it has these faults.
Once the compression pressure on all the cylinders has been obtained, the engine
load should be increased to at least 85%, although full load is preferable. ( A
generator, for safety reasons should not be loaded above 85% in case it trips off).
The engine load should be steady whilst the engine peak pressures are recorded, so
in the case of a main propulsion engine, liase with the OOW to ensure there will be
no change of course for the next 30 minutes or so.
Take the peak pressures. At the same time record the cylinders fuel pump rack
setting and the exhaust temperature. Also recorded are the inlet manifold or
scavenge air pressure and temperature.
When attempting to balance the engine attention must be paid to the difference
between maximum pressure and compression pressure for each cylinder, together
with the exhaust temperature and fuel pump setting. It is not advisable just to
increase the fuel to cylinders with lower maximum pressures. Some cylinders may
need an increase in fuel, others a decrease.
For example: If a particular cylinder has a low peak pressure, but good compression
pressure, and a low exhaust temperature, with the fuel rack a couple of points below
the average, it is perfectly acceptable to increase the fuel rack on that cylinder.
However if a cylinder has average peak and compression pressures and high exhaust
temperatures with an average rack setting, then either it should be decreased a small
amount or left alone to see the changes when other units have been adjusted. In all
cases any adjustment should be small and it must be recorded in case there is a need
to return the engine to its original settings. After each adjustment, wait and see the
effects, taking further peak pressures if necessary, before continuing.
It is not acceptable to balance the engine alone on exhaust temperatures, fuel rack
settings or peak pressures.
Engines Driving Generators
The power output of an engine driving a generator can be measured fairly accurately
by measuring the generator power output (Pw) and dividing it by the generator
efficiency. (the losses in the generator will be frictional losses in the bearings and
heat losses). This efficiency does vary slightly over the operating range of the
engine, but a figure of 0.92 will not be to far out.
The generator efficiency is defined as measured generator power / effective power
or Pw / Pe
From Manufacturers Data
Engine manufacturers sometimes produce a graph from which the power output of
the engine can be estimated. It must be said, however, that for the results to have any
validity, that the fuel injection equipment and cylinder condition must be in
optimum condition, the hull must not be fouled and the turbocharger clean and
operating efficiently. When operating with a variable pitch propeller, the pitch must
be the same for all readings (normally 100% ahead)
The type of fuel will have an effect and this must be taken into account.
The graph on the left is for a
MAN B&W medium speed
engine.
To use the graph the engines
rated speed and power output
must be known.
e.g 6200kW at 450rpm.
Next take the engines actual
speed and fuel pump settings.
In this example 432rpm at fuel
pump setting of 59
Convert the speed into a
percentage of the rated speed.
In this case 432rpm is 96% of
450.
Project the 96% of rated speed
vertically upwards on
the x axis, until it intersects
with a line drawn parallel to
the fuel pump settings for a
setting of 59 (Point A)
From point A, project a
horizontal line to the y axis and
read the % power output, in
this case 86%
Power = 0.86 × 6200 =
5330kW
Torsionmeters
A torsion meter measures the twist (in radians) in a shaft over a given length as it is
rotating. Experimental data will have established the shaft constant which when
multiplied by the rpm and the angle of twist will give the shaft power.
The shaft twist is measured electrically by using the twist in the shaft to vary the air
gap in a transformer. This will vary the resistance and thus the current.
ELECTRICAL TYPE
TORSIONMETER
Two sleeves are rigidly
fixed to the shaft having
flanges at 90° to the shaft
axis. Twist causes relative
displacement between the
flanges. Two cores are
attached to one flange and
the iron piece to the other so
that relative movement
between flange faces, due to
shaft twist, alters the air gap
of the differential
transformer.
The primary circuit is
wound to give the same
polarity and the secondary
circuits are in opposition.
With no torque the air gaps
are equal and the two
secondary circuits are equal
and opposite, but when
torque is applied air gaps
become unequal and a
current flows in the
secondary circuit which can
be read on the
galvanometer. An identical
unit is fitted in the indicator
box and by rotation of the
handle the iron piece can be
moved until the air gaps in
the indicating unit are
identical with those of the
shaft unit. This restores the
electrical equilibrium in the
secondary circuit, as
opposed equal currents the
galvanometer reads zero,
and the amount of
movement at the indicating
box dial is indicative of the
angle of twist restoration
required and hence gives the
angle of twist for the length
of shaft between the two
flange faces in the shaft
unit.
By application of the meter
constant and rev /s the shaft
MW is thus determined.
Another method is to use two position encoders between
two clamp rings in 500mm apart on the propeller shaft.
Using this method it is possible to measure the torque
absolutely contact free and with quite high accuracy.
Together with the speed, which is also measured contact
free, the power output of the engine is calculated and
displayed on a touch screen panel mounted in the control
room. On the display the actual data can be compared
with the original, pre-set load diagram.
Engine builders supply an engine load diagram with their engine to allow the
operator to establish whether the engine is being operated within limits.
The nominal propeller characteristic curve is plotted from information gained from
running on the testbed where a load is put on the engine to simulate the propeller.
This is sometimes referred to as the heavy running curve, which the engine would
follow with a badly fouled hull or in heavy seas.
The propeller curve for a fully laden ship represents the engine load with a clean hull
in calm weather. This is sometimes referred to as the light running curve. In normal
operation the engine should be operating between these two propeller lines. If the
ship is in ballast (i.e. light ship), then the operating point will move to the right of
the propeller line.
Sulzer RTA96 Engine Load Diagram
There is a defined relationship between the propeller speed and the absorbed power
in ships equipped with fixed pitch propellers.
With a given propeller this relationship mainly depends on its rotational speed.
The following formula provides us with an approximation which is adequate for the
general consideration of conventional vessels:
Its graph is called the propeller characteristic.
If an engine is in good condition and properly supplied with air (i.e. turbocharger(s)
in good order and the air and exhaust lines have low additional resistance) and the
effective strokes of the fuel pump plungers are properly adjusted, the mean effective
pressure developed under service condition according to the specific reading of the
load indicator corresponds approximately with the mean effective pressure
established for this particular position on the test bed.
In the diagram, the propeller characteristic line through the point of CMCR
(Contract Maximum Continuous Rating), i.e. nominal power at nominal engine
speed (100% power at 100% engine speed) is called the nominal propeller
characteristic. Engines which are to be employed for the propulsion of vessels with
fixed propellers are loaded on the test bed according to this propeller characteristic.
However, the power requirement of a new ship with a smooth and clean hull should
be less and correspond to the range D.
With increasing resistance, changes in wake flow conditions, due to marine growth
and ageing of the vessel’s hull, a rough or mechanically damaged propeller,
unfavourable sea and weather conditions or operation in shallow water, the propeller
will require a higher torque to maintain its speed than it did at the time of sea trial.
The mean effective pressure of the engine (and thus the position of the load
indicator) will increase accordingly. In such a case, the operating point will then be
located to the left of the original propeller curve which was established during sea
trials.
Although cleaning and re-painting will help to reduce the increased resistance of the
ship’s hull, the new condition can no longer be attained.
Whereas the thermal loading of an engine depends chiefly on the mean effective
pressure, the position of the operating point is also important; the farther left it is
situated from the propeller curve in the diagram (page 2), the poorer the air supply to
the engine and the more unfavourable the engine’s operating conditions will
become.
In order to attain optimum working conditions, the operating point of the engine for
continuous service should lie in range A on the right side of the nominal propeller
characteristic.
Range A:
The portion on the right of the nominal propeller characteristic is the service range
without continuous operating restrictions related to the selected CMCR point.
The portion on the left of the nominal propeller characteristic is the service range for
transient operating conditions (acceleration) and should be avoided for continuous
operation.
Range A’:
Maximum permissible engine power 40% CMCR from approx. 50% up to 67% of
CMCR speed.
Range B:
Service range with operational time limit, follows a characteristic: P ≈ n 2.45
This characteristic originates from the reference point 95% CMCR power and 95%
CMCR speed. With longer operating time in this range, thermal overloading and
possible resulting engine damage may be expected.
Range C:
Service range with overspeed of 104 to 108% of CMCR speed, only permissible
during sea trials to demonstrate the CMCR power in presence of authorized
representatives of engine builder.
Range D:
Recommended layout range for fixed pitch propeller, valid for the maximum
draught, clean hull under contractual
weather and sea conditions.
Range E:
Overload range permissible only for maximum one hour during seatrials in presence
of authorized representatives of engine builder.
Load Diagram for MAN B&W MC 60 Engine