Research Methodology

Types of
Social Research

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 Meaning of Research
Research in common parlance refers to a search for knowledge. Once
can also define research as a scientific and systematic search for
pertinent information on a specific topic. In fact, research is an art of
scientific investigation. The Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of Current
English lays down the meaning of research as “a careful investigation or
inquiry specially through search for new facts in any branch of
knowledge.”

Redman and Mory define research as a “systematized effort to gain

new knowledge.”

Some people consider research as a movement, a movement from the

known to the unknown. It is actually a voyage of discovery. We all
possess the vital instinct of inquisitiveness for, when the unknown
confronts us, we wonder and our inquisitiveness makes us probe and
attain full and fuller understanding of the unknown. This inquisitiveness
is the mother of all knowledge and the method, which man employs for
obtaining the knowledge of whatever the unknown, can be termed as
research.

Research is an academic activity and as such the term should be used in

a technical sense. According to Clifford Woody research comprises
defining and redefining problems, formulating hypothesis or suggested
solutions; collecting, organising and evaluating data; making deductions
and reaching conclusions; and at last carefully testing the conclusions
to determine whether they fit the formulating hypothesis. D. Slesinger
and M. Stephenson in the Encyclopaedia of Social Sciences define
research as “the manipulation of things, concepts or symbols for the
purpose of generalising to extend, correct or verify knowledge, whether
that knowledge aids in construction of theory or in the practice of an
art.”

Research is, thus, an original contribution to the existing stock of

knowledge making for its advancement. It is the persuit of truth with
the help of study, observation, comparison and experiment. In short,
the search for knowledge through objective and systematic method of
finding solution to a problem is research. The systematic approach
concerning generalisation and the formulation of a theory is also
research. As such the term ‘research’ refers to the systematic method
consisting of enunciating the problem, formulating a hypothesis,
collecting the facts or data, analysing the facts and reaching certain
conclusions either in the form of solutions(s) towards the concerned
problem or in certain generalisations for some theoretical formulation.

Types of Social Research

1. Pure and Applied Research

2. Historical and Empirical Research

3. Quantitative and Qualitative Research

4. Descriptive and Analytical Research

 Pure and Applied Research
What is Pure Research?

Pure research, also known as fundamental or basic research, is

conducted without any specific goal in mind. The main aim of pure
research is to advance knowledge and to identify or explain the
relationship between variables. Thus, it advances fundamental
knowledge about the world, and introduce new theories, ideas, and
principals as well as new ways of thinking. Pure research is the source
of most new information and ways of thinking in the world.

Pure research is driven by curiosity, intuition, and interest, and is more

exploratory in nature than applied research. Sometimes pure research
can act as a foundation for applied research

What is Applied Research?

Applied research, unlike pure research, is conducted in order to solve a

specific and practical problem. Therefore, it tends to be descriptive in
nature. However, applied research is often based on basic research or
pure research. Since it is involved in solving practical problems, it often
includes empirical methods.

Applied research is used in a variety of fields such as medicine,

technology, education, or agriculture. Studying the relationship
between genetics and cancer, observing the behaviour of children to
identify the effectiveness of various interventions are some examples of
applied research studies. Such studies always have a specific goal.
Moreover, the results of applied research are usually intended for
present use, not for future. It is also important to note that applied
research studies are always based on the information or theories
discovered through basic research.

What is the difference between Pure and Applied Research?

Pure research is conducted Applied research is conducted

without any specific goal. with a specific goal in mind.
Aim
The main aim is to advance The main aim is to solve a specific
knowledge. and practical problem.
Nature
Pure research is exploratory in Applied research is descriptive in
nature. nature.
Theories and Principles
Pure research identifies new ideas, Applied research is based on the
theories, principals and new ways theories, principals discovered
of thinking. through pure research.
Findings
Findings of pure research usually Findings of applied research
have a future use, not a current always have a current use.
use.

Historical and Empirical Research

What is Empirical Research?

Empirical research is a type of research methodology that makes use of

verifiable evidence in order to arrive at research outcomes. In other
words, this type of research relies solely on evidence obtained through
observation or scientific data collection methods.

Empirical research can be carried out using qualitative or quantitative

observation methods, depending on the data sample, that is,
quantifiable data or non-numerical data. Unlike theoretical research
that depends on preconceived notions about the research variables,
empirical research carries a scientific investigation to measure the
experimental probability of the research variables

Characteristics of Empirical Research

• Research Questions

An empirical research begins with a set of research questions that guide

the investigation. In many cases, these research questions constitute
the research hypothesis which is tested using qualitative and
quantitative methods as dictated by the nature of the research.

In an empirical research study, the research questions are built around

the core of the research, that is, the central issue which the research
seeks to resolve. They also determine the course of the research by
highlighting the specific objectives and aims of the systematic
investigation.

• Definition of the Research Variables

The research variables are clearly defined in terms of their population,

types, characteristics, and behaviors. In other words, the data sample is
clearly delimited and placed within the context of the research.

• Description of the Research Methodology

An empirical research also clearly outlines the methods adopted in the

systematic investigation. Here, the research process is described in
detail including the selection criteria for the data sample, qualitative or
quantitative research methods plus testing instruments.

• Outline

An empirical research is usually divided into 4 parts which are the

introduction, methodology, findings, and discussions. The introduction
provides a background of the empirical study while the methodology
describes the research design, processes, and tools for the systematic
investigation.

The findings refer to the research outcomes and they can be outlined as
statistical data or in the form of information obtained through the
qualitative observation of research variables. The discussions highlight
the significance of the study and its contributions to knowledge.
Uses of Empirical Research

Without any doubt, empirical research is one of the most useful

methods of systematic investigation. It can be used for validating
multiple research hypotheses in different fields including Law,
Medicine, and Anthropology.

Empirical Research in Law: In Law, empirical research is used to study

institutions, rules, procedures, and personnel of the law, with a view to
understanding how they operate and what effects they have. It makes
use of direct methods rather than secondary sources, and this helps
you to arrive at more valid conclusions.

Empirical Research in Medicine: In medicine, empirical research is used

to test and validate multiple hypotheses and increase human
knowledge.

Empirical Research in Anthropology: In anthropology, empirical

research is used as an evidence-based systematic method of inquiry
into patterns of human behaviors and cultures. This helps to validate
and advance human knowledge.

What is Historical Research?

Historical method is the collection of techniques and guidelines that
historians use to research and write histories of the past. Secondary
sources, primary sources and material evidence such as that derived
from archaeology may all be drawn on, and the historian's skill lies in
identifying these sources, evaluating their relative authority, and
combining their testimony appropriately in order to construct an
accurate and reliable picture of past events and environments.

In the philosophy of history, the question of the nature, and the

possibility, of a sound historical method is raised within the sub-field of
epistemology. The study of historical method and of different ways of
writing history is known as historiography.

The systematic collection and evaluation of data to describe, explain,

and understand actions or events that occurred sometime in the past.
There is no manipulation or control of variables as in experimental
research. An attempt is made to reconstruct what happened during a
certain period of time as completely and accurately as possible.

The Purposes of Historical Research

•To make people aware of what has happened in the past in order to:

◦ Learn from past failures and successes

◦ Apply them to present-day problems

◦ Make predictions

◦ Test hypotheses concerning relationships or trends

◦ Understand present educational practices and policies morefully

Steps Involved in Historical Research

•Defining the Problem

•Locating relevant sources: Documents, Numerical records, Oral

statements, Relics

•Summarizing information obtained from historical sources

•Evaluation of historical sources

•Internal criticism

•External criticism

Categories of Sources

•Documents are written or printed materials that have been produced

in some form or another.

•Numerical records can be considered as a separate type of source in

and of themselves or as a subcategory of documents.

•Oral Statements are stories or other forms of oral expression that

leave a record for future generations.

•Relics are any objects whose physical or visual characteristics can

provide some information about the past.

Primary vs. Secondary Sources

•A primary source is one prepared by an individual who was a
participant in or a direct witness to the event being described.

•A secondary source is a document prepared by an individual who was

not a direct witness to an event, but who obtained a description of the
event from someone else.

Data Analysis in Historical Research

•Historical researchers use the following methods to make sense out of

large amounts of data:

◦ Theoretical model leading to a content analysis

◦ Use of patterns or themes

◦ Coding system

◦ Quantitative data to validate interpretations

Quantitative and Qualitative Research

Quantitative research is based on the measurement of quantity or
amount. It is applicable to phenomena that can be expressed in terms
of quantity.

Qualitative research, on the other hand, is concerned with qualitative

phenomenon, [Link] relating to or involving quality or kind.
For instance, when we are interested ininvestigating the reasons for
human behaviour (i.e., why people think or do certain things),we quite
often talk of ‘Motivation Research’, an important type of qualitative
research.

This type of research aims at discovering the underlying motives and

desires, using in depth interviews for the purpose. Other techniques of
such research are word association tests, sentence completion tests,
story completion tests and similar other projective techniques. Attitude
or opinion research i.e., research designed to find out how people feel
or what they think about a particular subject or institution is also
qualitative research. Qualitative research is specially important in the
behavioural sciences where the aim is to discover the underlying
motives of human behaviour. Through such research we can analyse
the various factors which motivate people to behave in a particular
manner or which make people like or dislike a particular thing. It may
be stated, however, that to apply qualitative research in practice is
relatively a difficult job and therefore, while doing such research, one
should seek guidance from experimental psychologists.

Descriptive and Analytical Research

Descriptive research includes surveys and fact-finding enquiries of
different kinds. The major purpose of descriptive research is description
of the state of affairs as it exists at present. In social science and
business research we quite often useDescriptive vs. Analytical:
Descriptive research includes surveys and fact-finding enquiries of
different kinds. The major purpose of descriptive research is description
of the state of affairs as it exists at present. In social science and
business research we quite often use the term Ex post facto research
for descriptive research studies. The main characteristic of this method
is that the researcher has no control over the variables; he can only
report what has happened or what is happening. Most ex post facto
research projects are used for descriptive studies in which the
researcher seeks to measure such items as, for example, frequency of
shopping, preferences of people, or similar data. Ex post facto studies
also include attempts by researchers to discover causes even when they
cannot control the variables. The methods of research utilized in
descriptive research are survey methods of all kinds, including
comparative and correlational methods.

In analytical research, on the other hand, the researcher has to use

facts or information already available, and analyze these to make a
critical evaluation of the material.

Bibliography

Research Methodology by C.R. Kothari

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applied-research/amp/
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