A Seminar Report on

Title of Seminar
Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the
degree of

BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING
In
ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

Submitted By
Name of the student:
Roll No.-

Under the Guidance of

XXXXXXXXX

University of Pune
ALL INDIA SHRI SHIVAJI MEMORIAL SOCIETY’S
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
PUNE-411001
Academic Year: 2021-22(Term-I)

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 ALL INDIA SHRI SHIVAJI MEMORIAL SOCIETY’S
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the seminar work entitled “ XXXXX ” is a bonafide work carried

out in the Fifth semester by “XXXXXX(19EL000)” in partial fulfillment for the award of

Bachelor of Engineering in “ ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING ” from University of Pune

during the academic year 2020-21 who carried out the seminar under my guidance.

Prof. Dr. A. A. Godbole XXXXXXX

HOD Seminar Guide

Electrical Engineering Electrical Engineering

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 SEMINAR APPROVAL
The Seminar entitled

NANOSOLAR CELL

By

XXXXXX
(19EL000)

is approved for the degree of

Bachelor of Engineering

In

Electrical Engineering

Examiner 1 Examiner 2
Name and Signature Name and Signature

Date:-

Place:-

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

It gives me a great pleasure to acknowledge the contribution of all those who have directly
or indirectly contributed to the completion of this seminar.

I express my foremost and deepest gratitude to my guide XXXX For his supervision, noble
guidance and constant encouragement in carrying out the seminar.

I am deeply indebted to Prof. Dr. A A Godbole, Head, Electrical Engineering Department

for her time to time advice and support and also for providing all the necessary facilities
available in the Institute.

Acknowledgement will not be completed if I forget to mention special thanks to all the
teaching and non-teaching staff of Electrical Engineering Department for rendering support
directly or indirectly.

Academic Year: 2021-22

Date-

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 CONTENTS
Certificate 2

Acknowledgements 3

Abstract 4

Contents 5

List of Figure 7

1 INTRODUCTION 8-9
1.1 Difference between fixed speed & Variable speed generator………..… 8

1.2 Relationship between Reactive power & voltage stability……………… 9

2 Nessicity of reactive power coordination 10-12

3 Proposed approach 13-14

3.1 Main Task ……………………………………………………………13

3.2 Selection of L-index………………………………………………………13

4 Constraints 15-16

4.1 Capability limit of generator…………………………………………..15

4.2 Transformer tap changer…………………………………………………16

4.3 Switchable var compensator……………………………………………..16

5 Choice of objective function & Algorithm 17-19

5.1 Control variable vector……………………………………………17

5.2 Dependent variable vector………………………………………...17

5.3 Choice of Algorithm…………..………………………………….19

5.4 Trust region method……………………………………………….19

6 Simulation Result 20-22

6.1 L-index result………………………………………………………21

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7 Conclusion 23

References 24

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 LIST OF FIGURE

Fig no. Name of Figure Page no.

2.1 Single line diagram of simple 8 bus system 11

2.2 Without coordination of generators 12

2.3 With coordination of generators 12

4.1 Capability curve of generator 16

6.1 L-index versus load ability margin at bus 4 21

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1. Introduction
In last few years wind power generation grow faster & rising as renewable alternatives for
the electrical supply around the world. Due to this increased penetration level of power some
problems related voltage stability occurs. Voltage stability is a very important concern for
operation of power system. We known that voltage instability and collapse have leads to
major failures. Voltage instability means inability of the power system to provide the
reactive power to the load.

Voltage stability can be improved by using reactive power. This reactive is mainly
depend on the reactive power output of the generator & other reactive power source in the
system.

1.1 Difference between Fixed speed & variable speed generators:

Fixed-speed wind turbine generators were mostly employed for the early period of
the installations of wind generators. These units require reactive power support from the grid
and are usually equipped with capacitor banks to provide the necessary reactive power.
Static synchronous compensator (STATCOM) and Static Var Compensator (SVC)
configurations were proposed to enhance the fault ride through capabilities during the
disturbance.

variable-speed wind turbine generators provide flexibility in control and hence are
becoming increasingly popular. In this class of wind turbine generating units are doubly fed
induction generator (DFIG) and induction/synchronous generator with front-end converter
(GFEC). converse to fixed-speed wind machines, these are capable of providing reactive
power to the grid. The converter and control schemes associated with these machines permit
controlling the active and reactive power output to the desired level. Further, it is possible to
control the reactive power output of these machines independently of the active power.

Proper co-ordination of reactive power between the reactive power output of generator
& other reactive power sources in wind farms helps to improve voltage stability margin of
the system.

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1.2 Relation between reactive power & voltage stability

As we know voltage stability is involves in generation, transmission, distribution.

Voltage control, rotor angle stability, reactive power consumption, protective relay operation
affects on the voltage stability. So angle stability is associated with real power transfer &
voltage stability is associated with reactive power flow in system.

Voltage stability is concerned with the ability of a power system to maintain

acceptable voltages at all nodes in the system under normal condition and after being subject
to a disturbance. so reactive power flow plays major role in providing good voltage profile.
Because reactive power flow is dependent on difference in voltage magnitude & it floe from
the higher voltage level to lower voltage [Link] between them is obtained with P-V
curve &V-Q curve.

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2. Necessity of Reactive power co-ordination
the need of coordinating the reactive power output of wind farms with other reactive
controllers in the grid is emphasized. In particular, this work focuses on steady-state voltage
stability aspect. PV curves are employed as a measure to indicate steady-state voltage
stability.

P-V curves:

The P-V curves are the most used method of predicting voltage security. They are
used to determine the loading margin of a power system. The power system load is
gradually increased and, at each increment, is necessary re compute power flows until the
nose of the PV curve is reached. The margin between the voltage collapse point and the
current operating point is used as voltage stability criterion.

Q-V curve:

With Q-V curve is possible, for the operators, to know which is the maximum
reactive power that can be achieved or added to the weakest bus before reaching minimum
voltage limit. The reactive power margin is the MVar distance from the operating point to
the bottom of the Q-V curve. The Q-V curve can be used as an index for voltage instability.
The point where dQ/dV is zero is the point of voltage stability limit.

PV curves indicate the existence of equilibrium following the disturbance. Further,

loadability margin obtained from PV curve indicates the distance of current operating point
to the point where equilibrium ceases to exist. Proper coordination of reactive power output
of wind farms with other reactive power controllers in the grid can increase the range of
existence of post disturbance equilibrium point.

To illustrate how reactive power co-ordination is helpful for maximize voltage

stability margin. consider following single diagram of simple 8-bus system in which two
wind farms are inter connected to each other as follows,

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 Fig 2.1 Single line diagram of simple 8-bus system

Case 1: Without co ordination

In this case, the effect of operating point of variable-speed induction generators on

voltage stability (Fig.2.2) is showed. Curves A and B in Fig. 2 represent the PV curves for
base case condition. Now we consider a constant power model for the load at bus 5. It can
be observed that operating induction generators at lagging power factor 1 (capacitive) would
result in higher loadability margin. Further near is obtained by considering the tripping of
one of the circuits between buses 2 and 3. Curves C and D in Fig. 2 represent the PV curves
for the post-contingency situation before any controllers act. Curve D in Fig. 2indicates the
nonexistence of post-contingency equilibrium point if all of the variable speed induction
generators are operated at leading power factor. The load characteristic does not intersect
with the PV curve. On the converse voltage instability cane avoided if the variable speed
induction generators are operated at lagging power factor (curve C in Fig. 2). This is not
necessarily true for all cases. In the same situation operating all variable speed induction
generators at lagging power factor under lightly loaded conditions will result in over
voltages. In addition, operating all the generators at lagging power factor results in masking
Phenomena.

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 Fig 2.2 without coordination of generators.

Case 2: With Reactive power co-ordination

To give advantage of coordinating consider following fig 2.3 from this it shows that
operating generators with leading power factor considerable increase in load ability margin
& voltage instability is avoided by coordinating other reactive power sources in the grid.

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 Fig 2.3 with coordination of generators

3 Proposed Approach

The main objective of this topic is to increase voltage stability margin by

coordinating the reactive power output of variable speed generators & other reactive power
sources in wind farms. For this we construct optimization framework for the voltage
stability enhancement with certain constraints related to it taken into account.

3.1 Main task

For the construction of optimization frame work following factors are need to taken
into consideration.

a) Choice of objective function and the model approximation;

b) Incorporation of constraints pertaining to reactive power output of variable

speed induction machines and other reactive power sources;

c) Choice of the algorithm.

3.2 Selection L-index

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 Load ability margin indicate the considerable increase in voltage stability margin of
system. The larger loadability margin indicates presence of any post disturbance equilibrium
point. So this framework requires certain indicator to show voltage stability margin. So we
use L-index loadability margin indicator.

The loadability margin indicator employed in this paper is the –index In comparison
with other proximity indicators such as minimum singular value of power flow Jacobian, the
relationships between -index and control variables are relatively simple and easier to handle
in an optimization framework. Using the load flow/state estimation solution, the -index is
computed as

Where Vi -voltage at the ith bus.

Vj-voltage at ith bus

Fij -sensitivity matrix

L-index mathematical relationship of control variables & dependent variables so minimizing

this index means obtaining proper relationship between them.

Improvement in steady-state voltage stability margin of the system mandates

maximization of loadability margin at all of the nodes. This in turn amounts to minimizing
the value of the L-index at all of the nodes. In order to make the first and subsequent
differentials simple, the objective function is chosen as

Certain assumptions are made as to the voltage at the generator nodes being constant and the
response of nodal currents to a current at a node under consideration. Based on this indicator

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a statement with respect to the system state can be made saying that voltage stability is
guaranteed if

L<1

In the practical application small deviations from the limit value of 1.0 have to be expected
due to the fact that the assumptions mentioned do not hold in the strict sense. Hence the
indicator L can be used to assess the system state as well as to identify critical locations in
the system. In the second part of the paper predictive methods for various contingencies in
the power system are presented. Thereby two basic categories of changes in the system have
to be distinguished, i.e., continuous changes, e.g., load change.

4. Constraints

Proper improvement in voltage stability is achieved by appropriate distributing

reactive power among the various sources reactive power which are present in wind
farms .Reactive power sources in wind farms are given below,

a) Generator excitation setting (Vg)

b) Switchable Var compensators SVC (Qmax)

c) Transformer taps (Tt)

With addressing to this sources major task here is to operation of these sources within the
minimum& maximum limits of operation. All they are having operation limits so we here to
follow that limits while maximize the voltage stability.

4.1 Capability limit of generators

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 It is well known that generators have maximum and minimum real power
capabilities. In addition, they also have maximum and minimum reactive power capabilities.
The maximum reactive power capability corresponds to the maximum reactive power that
the generator may produce when operating with a lagging power factor. The minimum
reactive power capability corresponds to the maximum reactive power the generator may
absorb when operating with a leading power factor. These limitations are a function of the
real power output of the generator, that is, as the real power increases, the reactive power
limitations move closer to zero. The solid curve in Figure 4.1 is a typical generator
capability curve, which shows the lagging and leading reactive limitations (the ordinate)
as real power is varied (the abscissa). Most power flow programs model the generator
reactive capabilities by assuming a somewhat conservative value for Pmax (perhaps 95% of
the actual value), and then fixing the reactive limits Qmax (for the lagging limit) and
Qmin(for the leading limit) according to the dotted lines shown in Fig.

Fig 4.1 Capability curve of generator

4.2 Transformer tap changer

The transformer with bulk amount of power transfer equipeed with tap [Link]
voltage impedance of transformer is very [Link] impedance of transformer for
bulk power transfer is 8 to 10% in its [Link] voltage stability point of view transformer

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operates with some degee of [Link] this result in high exciting current with respect to
terminal [Link] current is reduced during voltage sag accounting for the high
reactive power voltage sensitivity 3 to 6% reduction in reactive power for a 1% reduction in
voltage.

4.3 Switchable VAR compensator:

SVC& other reactive power comensator are used in improvement of reactive

[Link] equipment having maximum & minimum operating voltage ,current limits
.Within this limits of operation they are capable for compensation of reactive power & thus
help to cosiderable increase in voltage stability of system.

[Link] of objective function & algorithm

Proper selection of objective function is very much important in optimisation

framework so that it can optimise objective function properly &gives better [Link] this
framework it having some sets of contorl variables &dependent variables which are given
below,

5.1 Control variables vectors-

In this set oe control variable vector it having variables which directally related to
the reactive power controllers in [Link] is given as,

X=[Vg,Qsvc,Tt,Qwg]

Where Vg is generater excitation voltage ,Qsvc is Reactive power output of the

SVC contoller .Tt is tap setting of taping transformer,Qwg is reactive power output of the
wind generator. This vector se is main part of Objective functin which is resposibal for
minimising objective function & thus to obtain proper coordination to improve volage
stability.

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5.2 Dependent variable vectors-

Any modification in settings of ractive power controllers bringe out changes in other
system parameters so all these parameters are grouped as dependent variable vector which
is given below,

b=[Qg,Vsvc,Vr,Vwg]

Where Qg is reactive power output of generator,Vsvc is operating voltage across the

SVC controllers,voltage of the generator,voltage of wind generator.

To obtain solution above framework we must consider limit on the dependent &
control [Link] limits of variables is know as constrints of the optimisation
[Link] this constraints solution obtain has greater result. These limits are very much
important from generator reactive power capability [Link] variable speed
generator within this limits gives rise maximum reactive power output.

These limits are basically applied for better operation performance of Tapchanger
transformer,variable speed wind generator,SVC [Link] are given below,

bmin<b<b max

Xmin<X<Xmax

So combining both the objective &constraints which givesout new optimisation

function as follows,

5.3 Choice of Algorithm

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 The objective which obtained above contain the quadratic term & trigonometric
identities due this function become nonlinear. Optimization problems which having
nonlinear objective function are always handled in an iterative manner by solving an
approximate model around the trial point.

Linear and quadratic models are commonly employed approximations. Although

sequential algorithms are relatively simple, they are not globally convergent. Convergence
issues in these approaches arise in situations where the model approximation is inadequate
or when the initial point is far from the global solution.

Trust region methods provide the advantage of global convergence . Trust region
methods are globally convergent irrespective of the initial point and the initial trust region
radius. Trust region methods have been successfully employed for various power system
applications.

5.4 Trust region method

The traditional methodssuch as Guass-Newton methods are not always reliable

because these metods cannot ensure the convergence [Link] these methods are not
globally convergent & they produses some [Link] requirement for these methods is
high.&highlly time consuming.

In order to avoid all these disadvantages a robust,highally convergent,time saving

method known as Trust region method is [Link] Trust region framework solution for the
iterative equations are [Link] in this model it stared around the some initial
point & end with approximate model. This method give supierior convergence property
when it is start at nearer to solution [Link] basic algorithm is given as below,

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[Link] Result:

The basic purpose for using Trust region framework is coordinating reactive power
sources in order to improve the voltage stability margin of [Link] in voltge
stability is viewed with help of [Link] maim problem formulation is done in trust
region framework & it gives the correct solution of this problem.

Result for Simple 8-bus system

The trust region method algorithm helps to determinig the optimal settings &
continous power flow for drawing P-V curve.

For optimal & suboptimal Setting of simple 8 bus system is shown in following table
given below,

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 This table shows appropriate settings for variable speed generator & other reactive
power sources in the wind [Link] it observed that proper coordination of various reactive
power resource result in larger loadability margin which gives better voltage profile.

From table it indicates that without coordinatin all the reactive power resources
with main variable speed generator require 7MVar reactive support at bus [Link] if co
ordinating all the reactive power sources with variable speed generator requires ‘0’MVar at
bus [Link] result in maximum loadability margin with all the reactive power source whin the
their maximum capability limit.

6.1 L-index result

L-index basically used to show the incrment in the loadability margin. This index
having realationship between control variables & Dependent variables.L-index actually
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shows voltage stability enhansment. Improvement in steady-state voltage stability margin of
the system mandates maximization of loadability margin at all of the nodes. This in turn
amounts to minimizing the value of the -index at all of the nodes.L-index is as shoen in
below fig.

Fig 6.1 L-index versus loadability margin at a bus 4

Enhancement in the steady-state voltage stability can be achieved by maximizing the

loadability margin. A larger loadability margin would indicate a wider range over which
the post-disturbance equilibrium point exists. Hence, effective implementation of proposed
reactive power optimization framework requires an indicator that can quantify loadability
margin in terms of the control variables.
Certain assumptions are made as to the voltage at the generator nodes being constant
and the response of nodal currents to a current at a node under consideration. Based on this
indicator a statement with respect to the system state can be made saying that voltage
stability is guaranteed if
L<1
In the practical application small deviations from the limit value of 1.0 have to be expected
due to the fact that the assumptions mentioned do not hold in the strict sense. Hence the
indicator L can be used to assess the system state as well as to identify critical locations in

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the system. In the second part of the paper predictive methods for various contingencies in
the power system are presented. Thereby two basic categories of changes in the system have
to be distinguished, i.e., continuous changes, e.g., load changes, and discrete ones, like the
loss of generators or lines.

7 Conclusion

A trust region framework for coordinating reactive power output of variable wind
speed wind generator & other reactive power controllers gives proper result [Link] to
coordination significant improvement in voltage stability of simple 8 bus system takes
[Link] there is no need to operate the vaiable speed generator & reactive power
controllers at their maximum capability limits. Trust region framework ensure the
convergence criteria for optimisation framework.

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REFERENCES:

1. Coordination of Reactive Power in Grid-Connected Wind Farms for Voltage Stability

Enhancement by V. Seshadri Sravan Kumar, Kommi Krishna Reddy, and D. Thukaram,
Senior Member, IEEE
1. A. E. Feijoo and J. Cidras, “Modeling of wind farms in the load flow analysis,” IEEE
Trans. Power Syst., vol. 15, no. 1, pp. 110–115, Feb. 2000.
2. P. Kessel and H. Glavitsch, “Estimating the voltage stability of a power system,” IEEE
Trans. Power Del., vol. PWRD-1, no. 3, pp. 346–354, Jul. 1986.

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3. S. Pajic and K. A. Clements, “Power system state estimation via globally convergent
methods,” IEEE Trans. Power Syst., vol. 20, no. 4, pp.1683–1689, Nov. 2005.
[Link] power system’ by [Link],3rd edition.

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