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PAVEMENT MATERIALS AND CONSTRUCTION 18CV733

SYLLABUS
PAVEMENT MATERIALS AND CONSTRUCTION
Course Code 18CV733 CIE Marks 40
Teaching Hours/Week (3:0:0) SEE Marks 60
Credits 03 Exam Hours 03

Module-1
Pavement Materials
Aggregates- Origin, Classification, Requirements, properties and tests on Road aggregates, Concepts of size and
gradation- design gradation, maximum aggregate size, aggregate blending by different methods to meet
specification.
Bitumen and Tar- Origin, Preparation, Properties and Chemical Constitution of bituminous road binders,
Requirements.
Module-2
Bituminous emulsion and Cutbacks- Preparation, Characteristics, uses and test. Adhesion of bitumen binders
to road aggregates, Adhesion failure, Mechanism of stripping, tests and methods of improving adhesion.
Module-3
Bituminous mixes: Mechanical properties, dense and open textured mixes, flexibility and brittleness, (No
Hveemstabilo meter and Hubbar- field tests) bituminous mixes, Design methods using Rothfutch’s method only
and specification, Marshall mix design criteria, voids in mineral aggregates, voids in total mix, density, flow,
stability, percentage voids filled with bitumen. Problems on above.
Module-4
Equipments in highway construction: Various types of equipments for excavation, grading and compaction-
their working principles, advantages and limitations. Special equipment for bituminous and cement concrete
pavement and stabilized soil road construction.
Sub grade: Earthwork grading and Construction of embankments and cuts for roads, Preparation of subgrade,
quality control tests.
Module-5
Flexible Pavements: Specifications of materials, Construction method and field control checks for various types
of flexible pavement layers.
Cement Concrete Pavements: Specifications and method of cement concrete pavement construction (PQC,
importance of providing DLC as sub base and polythene thin layer between PQC and sub base). Quality control
tests, Construction of various types of joints.

LIST OF CONTENTS

MODULE TOPIC PAGE NO

AGGREGATES 4
1
BITUMEN AND TAR 14
2 BITUMINOUS EMULSIONS AND CUTBACKS 17
3 BITUMEN MIXES 23
EQUIPMENT IN HIGHWAY CONSTRUCTION 29
4
SUBGRADE 36
FLEXIBLE PAVEMENTS 40
5
CEMENT CONCRETE PAVEMENTS 60

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PAVEMENT MATERIALS AND CONSTRUCTION 18CV733

Module-2 : BITUMINOUS EMULSIONS AND CUTBACKS

3.1 Introduction

An emulsion is an intimate mixture of two or more substances which normally do not

mix together. Bitumen emulsion consists of a dispersion of tiny globules (4 to 10 microns
in diameter) or bitumen in water, stabilized by the addition of an emulsifying agent.

The nature and quantity of the emulsifying agent controls the type and stability of the emulsion.
Emulsions are manufactured by forcing the required proportion of bitumen, water and
emulsifying agent into an homogenized, Where by the bitumen is broken up into the globules,
dispersed and held in suspension by the emulsifying agent. The bitumen content of an emulsion
can vary from 30% to 70% (usually 55-70%) by volume depending on the grade of emulsion
required.

Emulsions are used primarily on maintenance work, surface enrichment, dust laying processes,
slurry sealing, and in projects where weather conditions may prevent the use of hot
bitumen or cutbacks.

“Breaking” of an emulsion is the term applied when the bitumen globule suspension breaks
down resulting in complete separation of the bitumen and water components. Breaking
normally occurs on the pavement surface after spraying whereby the water from the
emulsion drains off or evaporates leaving behind a bitumen residue.

The surfaces of the suspended bitumen globules develop an ionic (electrical) charge. The type
of charge depends on the emulsifying agent employed. The type of charge depends on the
emulsifying agent employed. The presence of this charge is used to advantage to secure greater
adhesion of the bitumen to the aggregate.

The basic types of bitumen emulsion are available:-

• Anionic emulsions
• Cationic emulsions.

The two types of bitumen emulsion are incompatible and should not be mixed under any
circumstances otherwise premature breaking will occur. Some aggregates, particularly acidic
types such as granite and quartzite, develop a negative ionic surface charge when wetted. If a
cationic emulsion is used with such aggregate, the bitumen globules, which have a positive ionic

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PAVEMENT MATERIALS AND CONSTRUCTION 18CV733

surface charge, will be attracted electrochemically to the aggregate and a better bond will be
established between the bitumen and the aggregate.

Similarly other aggregates, such as limestone, can develop positive surface charges and under
these conditions an anionic emulsion containing bitumen globules with a negative ionic
surface charge is best used

3.2 Procedure for Field Preparation of Cut Back Bitumen

Paving Bitumen 80/100 is heated at 100° to 110°in a bitumen boiler. The required quantity of
distillate of specified type is taken in an empty drum. Hot bitumen from the boiler is added to
the drum. After closing the lid of the drum containing distillate and hot bitumen, it is rolled on
the ground to and fro till a uniform blend is obtained. The blend so prepared is transferred to a
storage tank. Sufficient quantity of cut back bitumen has to be prepared before undertaking the
road construction work. It may be ensured that the drum containing distillate is kept at a safe
distance from bitumen boiler equipment

3.3 Tests for Cut-Back Bitumen:

1. VISCOSITY
This is a standard test as specified in IS:1206-1978 Part-I. For Cut back Bitumen, a
standard tar viscometer (STV) of 4 mm diameter orifice is used. The grade of Cut-back
bitumen is designated by its viscosity value.
2. FLASH POINT
This standard test is specified in IS : 1209-1978. For Cut back Bitumens, flash Point in °
C is determined by Pensky Martens closed cup apparatus. The value signifies the safe
temperature to which cut-back bitumen can be heated.
3. DISTILLATION
This is a standard test specified in IS:1213-1978. In this test volatile constituents Cut
back bitumen are separated between different specified temperature ranges, from which
the type of cut back bitumen can be identified. The type and quantity of distillate controls
the curing time of cut back bitumen. For example, cut back bitumen RC-3 obtained by
blending paving bitumen 80/100 with about 16 percent by weight of naphtha type

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distillate requires approximately 12 hours of curing time. A cut back bitumen is taken as
cured when the float value at 50° C is more than 120 seconds. The details of float test
are given in IS: 1210-1978. Residue obtained from the distillation test is tested for
penetration and ductility to determine the nature of base bitumen used in preparation of
cut-back bitumen

3.4 Adhesion of bituminous binders to road aggregates.

3.4.1 Introduction

One of the principal functions of a bituminous binder is as its name suggests acting as an
adhesive either between road stones or between road stone and the underlying road surface. .
Neither bitumen nor far can be regarded as an ideal adhesive but in general when proper
precautions are exercised, both are adequate, there are occasions , however when the adhesive
bond may fail and the durability of the bituminous material may be seriously affected. The
adhesive of bituminous binder to road stone presents few problems in the absence of water,
although excessive dust may create trouble. On the other hand because road stone are wetted
more easily by water than by the bituminous binder, the presence of water can be lead to
difficulties, either in the initial coating of damp or wet road stone or in maintaining an adequate
bond between the binder and the stone. Failure of a bond already formed is commonly referred
to as stripping which is brought about by the displacement of the bituminous binder from the
stone surface by water.

3.5 Mechanism of stripping

Fundamental properties of the binder / stone/ water system

The displacement of one liquid by another on a solid surface arises from the physic- chemical
forces acting in the system. Most sand stones have surfaces that are electrically changed for
example silica , a common constituent of igneous rocks, possess a weak negative surface change
resulting from the presence in the surface of oxygen atoms which are not fully saturated
eclectically. Generally the constituents bituminous binder have little polar activity being largely
composed of high molecular a weight hydrocarbons. The bond between bituminous binder and

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stone is therefore primarily due to relatively weak dispersion forces. The polar liquid water,
on the other hand is strongly attracted to the changed road stone surfaces by orientation forces.

A very rough indication of the difference in the strength of the bond is given by heats of wetting
of a silica surface by water and benzene, which are 600 and 150 ergs/ sq. cm respectively. The
aliphatic hydrocarbon will have even lower heats of watering on a silica surface than is found
with benzene. The heat of wetting is an expression of the tendency of a liquid to wet a solid
surface and the greater it is the greater is energy released during wetting and stronger is the
bond between the solid and the liquid although both water and the hydrocarbon such as bitumen
and tar will adhere to a stone surface, the forces of attraction are appreciably greater in the case
of water. The stone surface thus possesses so called Hydrophilic properties.

Conclusions follow from this act are

If a stone is already coated with water, it is impossible for a bituminous binder to displace
the water and adhere to the stone.

If a stone is already coated with a binder, it is possible for water to strip the binder from the
stone. The conditions existing when solid is already wetted by water and a bituminous binder
is brought into the system is shown in diagram below.

If the angle of contact between the three phases is and the energies of the solid/ binder, solid/
water and binder/water interfaces are respectively rsb, rsw and rbw . Then the work of
displacing water from unit area of stone is given by

W= rsb+ rbw - rsw

Wow for equilibrium to be reached young and dupre‟ s equation must be satisfied.

Thus the work required to displace water by binder is directly proportional to the interfacial
energy between binder and water and is slag related to the angle of contact.

This theoretical treatment is not rigorous because it has been simplified by the omission of one
form into e equation the surface pressure of the adsorbed layer of water. However it is adequate
to give an understanding of the problems involved. Displacement of the water by the binder will
be made easier if the interfacial energy (binder/water) is reduced and if θ is increased. In case of
a normal bituminous binder , θ is always less then 90 and so the factor ( 1+ cos θ) is always > 1 .

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i.e an appreciable amount of work is required to make the binder displace the water and as a
result the binder tends to collect in drops on the surface.

The values of rbw and θ vary with the type of binder. The variations of θ on a polished
glass surface given by three bituminous binders.

The variations in the case are ascribed to the differing quantities of polar bodies such as
phenols in the binders. The rbw and θ can both be altered by adding certain chemicals to the
system. A striking effect on the interface is obtained by adding a little calcium hydroxide to the
water the interfacial energy is reduced from 18.5 ergs/[Link] for a tar/ water interface to about 3
ergs/ [Link] when lime water is substituted for distilled water.

There is one danger implicit in the use of a chemical additive to reduce the energy of the water /
binder to form an emulsion in water is increased.

3.6 Adhesion tests

It is desirable that there should be a reliable method of determining in the laboratory whether
or not a bituminous binder will adhere will to an aggregate in the presence of water. Studies of
the physio chemical properties of the binder/ stone/ water system have so far not proved
sufficient conclusion to develop a rational approach of testing the materials.

This has led to develop arbitrary tests which may be used to examine the various combinations of
road stones and binder used in bituminous road construction. Such tests may also be used to
study the effect of an particular variable on the behavior of the binder/ stone/ water system.

Several tests have been described most of which fall into six basic types, they are.

Static immersion tests.

Dynamic immersion tests

Chemical immersion tests

Immersion mechanical tests

Immersion trafficking tests

Coating tests

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Static immersion tests

In this type of tests aggregate coated with binder is immersed in water and degree of stripping is
estimated. The method consists of single sized chipping which are coated with a constant
quantity of binder under carefully controlled conditions and the coated stone is then immersed in
distilled water and allowed to stand at a controlled temperature for up to 48 hours. The
percentage of stripped surface is estimated visually. The results obtained in this test are not
standardized and leads to poor reproducibility. In order to improve the test several agencies have
tried to adopt other methods of assessing the degree of stripping. One approach is to measure the
quantity of light reflected by the sample of coated aggregate before and after immersion in
water. Another is to coat the aggregate with a solution of a radio- active calcium salt before it is
coated with binder so that, when stripping occurs, the salt dissolves in water and the rise in radio
activity of the water may be followed.

This method is fundamentally -------- because the interface which is studied is no longer between
binder and stone but instead between binder and calcium salt. It is known that small amounts of
materials such as calcium salts may sometimes have a effect on stripping of binders from the
aggregate. When studied by a static immersion test. Though the test gives difficulties with
reproducibility the test frequency gives some idea of how a mixture of aggregate and binder may
behave on the road.

Dynamic immersion tests

This type of test is similar in general principle to the static immersion test., but the sample is
agitated mechanic ally by shaking or kneading. The method of assessing the degree of stripping
in such tests may involve visual estimation which again is usually not very satisfactory or
determination of the quantity of uncoated aggregate which separates from the original sample.

The Nicholson wash test is typical of several dynamic immersion tests. In this coated aggregate is
shaken in water for a known time and then the amount of stripping is estimated usually.

Chemical immersion tests

The Best known example of this type of test is that described by Riedel and Weber, but others
of similar type also exist. In the Riedel and Weber test sand coated with binder is boiled
successively in distilled water and if necessary, in solutions of gradually increasing

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concentrations of sodium carbonate. The strength of the solution of sodium carbonate in which
stripping in first observed is used as a measure of the adhesively. Attempts have been made to
improve this test, for example by reducing the temperature and using larger stone, or by
measuring the amount of uncoated aggregate which separates from the coated mass. The
artificial conditions of the test make it of doubtful value in reproducing road performance
although it has been widely used probably because it gives a numerical answer and is very easily
carried out.

Immersion mechanical tests

Immersion mechanical tests are in essence static immersion tests in which the degree of stripping
of the binder from the aggregate is observed indirectly by measuring the change in a specified
mechanical property of a sample of bituminous material after it has been immersed in water . In
order that a mechanical test can be used it is necessary to employ a graded aggregate rather than
single sized stone.

The mechanical properties which may be measured include shear strength, tensile strength,
flexural strength, compressive strength, resistance to penetration of a cone and resistance to
abrasion. In this test a number of identical cylindrical specimens of bituminous mixture to be
tested are prepared. After a few hours of curing some are used to determine the compressive
strength of the mixture under a constant rate of strain. The reminder are immersed in water for
some days and then tested similarly.

The reduction in strength gives an indication of the extent of any damage by water that has
occurred. One of the major criticisms which may be leveled at most of this immersion
mechanical test is that, although much work has been carried out in laboratory, little is known
about correlation between the test and the actually road performance of the mixtures which are
tested. With some of the materials which have been examined by means of these tests, it is
even doubtful whether an important practical problem really exists.

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