Police Administration and Related Laws

for Providing Public Safety

in 10 ASEAN Countries

2018
Police Administration and Related Laws for
Providing Public Safety in 10 ASEAN Countries
Supported by The Office of the Thailand Research Fund (TRF)
and the Royal Thai Police, 2018
Project Advisors : Mr. Nuttavudh Photisaro
: Asst. Prof. Police Lieutenant Colonel Kasemsarn Chotchakornpant, Ph. D.
: Police Lieutenant Colonel Phongthon Thanyasiri, Ph. D.
: Police Colonel Anucha Sutthayadilok
: Police Colonel Khemmarin Hassiri
Project Manager : Police Lieutenant General Piya Uthayo, Ph. D.
Researchers : Police Colonel Preeda Sataworn, Ph. D.
: Professor Police Major General Veerapol Gulabutr, Ph. D.
: Assoc. Prof. Police Lieutenant Colonel Krisanaphong Poothakool, Ph. D.
: Police Colonel Kissana Phathanacharoen, Ph. D.
Research Assistance : Asst. Prof. Police Lieutenant Colonel Seksan Khruakham, Ph. D.
: Asst. Prof. Police Lieutenant Colonel Siriporn Nuchsamnieng, Ph. D.
: Police Lieutenant Colonel Thanradee Donavanik
: Police Major Kittipan Tantangjareonchai
: Police Major Ratree Supapun
: Police Major Chorn Phonpragit
First Edition : September 2018 (400 Copies)
Published by : Royal Thai Police (Royal Police Cadet Academy)
90 Mu 7, Samphran Tambon Sam Phran, Amphoe Sam Phran,
Chang Wat Nakhon Pathom 73110
TEL : 0 3431 2020 Fax: 0 3431 1105
[Link]
Printed by : Chulalongkorn University Printing House, Bangkok, Thailand
TEL: 0-2218-3549-50, 0-2218-3563 Fax : 0-2218-3550, 0-2215-3612

“The views and opinions expressed in this book are those of the authors and
are not necessarily shared with the Thailand Research Fund”

National Library of Thailand Cataloging in Publication Data

Piya Uthayo and others.
Police Administration and Related Laws for Providing Public Safety in 10 ASEAN Countries--
Nakhon Pathom : Royal Thai Police, 2018.
500 pages.

1. Police Administration. 2. Police. I. Subject.

353.36
ISBN 978-616-8080-18-4
 Introduction

Public safety in Thailand, especially concerning crime, has

been more challenging while entering into the ASEAN Community
in 2015. This challenge has occurred with the factors of international
connectivity, including information connectivity relying on modern
information and communication technology, and transport connectivity.
Such complex connectivity provides more convenient and faster
travel. Thus, traditional security models may not be sufficient for the
current context of public safety services.
The Thailand Research Fund (TRF) has been aware of the
importance of knowledge and the development of public safety
maintenance in line with a changing context. This awareness is
consistent with TRF’s strategies to support research which produces
new knowledge and innovations. These new research products are to
keep pace with or surpass global changes. Therefore, the Thai people
can apply knowledge to create alternatives to country development.
The book “Police Administration and Related Laws for
Providing Public Safety in 10 ASEAN Countries” is a product of
the research project “A Comparative Study of Police Administration
and Related Laws for Providing Public Safety in the ASEAN
Countries” and the research project “Knowledge Management for
Police Administration and Laws in the ASEAN Countries for
Public Safety,” supported by the TRF. The objective is to enhance
Thailand’s public safety now and in the future. The roles and missions
of the Royal Thai Police as a national police agency in charge of
national security and law enforcement may change to face new
challenges. In this regard, the department would like to express its
gratitude to Police Lieutenant General Piya Uthayo, Ph.D. and the
research team from the Royal Thai Police Academy for their dedication.
They have collaborated and applied knowledge to compile this book.
The book is expected to disseminate great knowledge widely and
to shape an understanding about police administration or related
laws on public safety within ASEAN nations.
The TRF strongly hopes that the knowledge produced from
this research will benefit societies and the country as a whole. The
knowledge can be applied to create an understanding and preparedness
for changes in public safety services within the country in the future.
Furthermore, the knowledge will lead to measures and guidelines
which are required to upgrade public safety for all sectors.

Prof. Suthipun Jitpimolmard (MD)

Director, the Thailand Research Fund
 Introduction

The Public Wellbeing Division, under the Thailand Research

Fund (TRF), has missions to create knowledge and promote the
capacity building for researchers and researcher networks to ensure
their expertise in coping with new threats to the environment,
natural resources, and public safety. The goals are to produce knowledge
to support policy decision-making and to enhance the capacity of
society to address more complex issues. That would provide a proactive
defense for future risk management through close collaboration among
academia, policy makers, and other sectors of the country.
The Division has been aware of the rapid change in the
context of public safety service in different times. Especially, the
transition to the ASEAN Community is a driving force for a rapid
extension of the scope of socio-economic development. This development
has resulted in a more challenging environment of ‘public safety’ in
ASEAN nations for concerned parties. To create knowledge to foster
efficient management of this issue, the Division has provided fund
for the research project entitled “A Comparative Study of Police
Administration and Related Laws for Providing Public Safety in
the ASEAN Countries.” One objective of this research project was
to analyze police administration policies and approaches for Thailand
as part of the ASEAN Community. Another objective is to reveal the
strengths and weaknesses of police administration and related laws
of the 10 ASEAN member countries. Last but not least, the research
also demonstrates operational guidelines for Thai police officers to
efficiently enhance their public safety capacity in Thailand as part
of the ASEAN Community.
The research team has gathered insights into maintaining
public safety of ASEAN nations. The term conducted a detailed and
systematic analysis and communicate to the readers in an interesting
way. This book contains data which are valuable to be disseminated.
In this regard, the Division would like to express its gratitude to the
research team and all concerned parties for their contribution to the
completion of this research project and this book, which is entitled:
“Police Administration and Related Laws for Providing Public
Safety in 10 ASEAN Countries” The Division hopes that the knowledge
contained in this book will contribute to an understanding by the
general public, interested persons, and concerned agencies about
police administration and related laws in ASEAN nations.
I strongly hope that the knowledge from this research will
support concerned parties to work together to develop and advance
public safety development policies to lead changes characterized by
efficient and effective operations in the future.

Assoc. Prof. Chanathip Parino, Ph. D.

Director, the Public Wellbeing Division
 Introduction

Providing public safety from crime in these days is a task

that is more complicated than it was in the past. Such complication
is caused by the complexity of social conditions, economic growth,
technological advancement, rapid and convenient transportation, and
borderless communication. Unavoidably, such increasingly complex
crime has challenged the way police officers exercise their duties
on providing public safety in today’s world.
Thailand is a member of the Association of Southeast Asian
Nations (ASEAN), which is comprised of ten member countries. The
ten member countries share either similarity and difference in various
aspects, such as environment, society, economy and politics. The
difference thus brings about alternative crime conditions and police
administration. Furthermore, transnational threats to public safety are
a key reason why each country need to learn from one another about
the differences in circumstances, crime conditions, police administra-
tion and laws of their neighboring countries for providing public
safety from crime. The member countries can make use of the lessons
learned for their own adaptation, development and preparedness in
responding to crimes more effectively in the future.
 This research provides an insight into police administration
and relevant legal systems for providing public safety in the context
and circumstance of crime. The Office of the Office of the Thailand
Research Fund (TRF), the Royal Thai Police (RTP), and police
organizations from all ASEAN member countries have shared great
support and contributed to the achievement of this research. All the
participating police organizations allowed us to study their organizations,
collect field data, and provide data and information for this research.
In this occasion, the researcher team would like to extend our
gratitude to them and strongly hopes that the findings of this research
would benefit police organizations in Thailand and other ASEAN
member countries. Hopefully, the readers are able to use the research
for their organizational development and strengthening good police-
to-police cooperation in combating crime together for our safer
ASEAN community.

Police Lieutenant General Piya Uthayo, Ph. D.

Chief of the Research Project
 Table of Contents
Page
Chapter 1 Introduction 1
1.1 Background and Significance of the Study 1
1.2 Objectives 3
1.3 Scope of the Study 3
1.4 Research Framework 4
1.5 Methodology 4
1.6 Expected Benefits 5
Chapter 2 Police Administration and Related Laws 6
for Providing Public Safety in the ASEAN
Countries
2.1 Brunei Darussalam 6
2.2 Kingdom of Cambodia 13
2.3 Republic of Indonesia 22
2.4 Lao People’s Democratic Republic 35
2.5 Malaysia 46
2.6 Republic of the Union of Myanmar 61
2.7 Republic of the Philippines 76
2.8 Republic of Singapore 96
2.9 Kingdom of Thailand 110
2.10 Socialist Republic of Vietnam 130
 Page
Chapter 3 Comparisons of Police Administration and 144
Related Laws for Public Safety in the ASEAN
Countries
3.1 Basic Information: Socio-economic and 144
Crime Conditions
3.2 Political Structure 158
3.3 Police Structure and Administration 162
3.4 Laws Related to Police Law Enforcement 191
3.5 Building Public Safety Partnerships 194
3.6 International Policing 199
Chapter 4 Conclusions and Recommendations 209
4.1 Key Lessons from the Comparison of Police 209
Administration in the ASEAN Countries
4.2 Suggestions for Thai Police Administration 222
References 229
 List of Illustrations
Page
Figure 1 Locations of ASEAN Member Countries 146

List of Tables
Page

Table 1 Socio-economic Data of ASEAN Countries 149

Table 2 Safe Cities Index 2017 154
Table 3 Historical and Current Political Regimes of ASEAN 160
Countries
Table 4 Comparison of the Evolution of Police Organizations, 172
Police Structures, and Personnel Development in
ASEAN Countries
Table 5 Police Education and Training Institutions and 182
Training Systems
Table 6 The Global Competitiveness Index 2017-2018 221
Rankings for the Reliability of Police Services
 Chapter 1
Introduction

1.1 Background and Significance of the Study

In today’s world, using conventional methods are not enough
for any countries to safeguard the welfare and safety for life and
property of their citizens. Public safety is challenged by both internal
and external threats, and the scope of the threats is even more
expansive than a few decades before. Since the end of the Cold
War, globalization has caused rapid socio-economic and political
changes. State security has been challenged by multi-dimensional
problems, such as, transnational crimes, illegal immigration, cybercrimes,
narcotics, and natural disasters. Furthermore, state security has been
shifted to human security and public safety.
To safeguard public safety, it is important to take internal
and external factors into account when considering the international
context. In Southeast Asian region, Thailand is a member of the
Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN). ASEAN comprises

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Police Administration and Related Laws for Providing Public Safety
in 10 ASEAN Countries

of 10 members, namely Brunei, Cambodia, Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia,

Myanmar, the Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, and Vietnam. ASEAN
is an integration of different nations in responding to security issues
of the region during the Cold War, which aimed at strengthening
the member states and equipped them with the power of negotiation
with superpowers outside the region.1 Despite significant changes in
the circumstances with the region, the end of the Cold War, the
member countries are still required to cooperate in combating various
threats to national security and the safety of their citizens.
ASEAN countries have encountered different forms of
challenges. In the form of traditional security, security threats arise
from other states, which are the main actor in the international
system. Another form of national security threats, however, is posed
by non-state actors. These threats include terrorism and transnational
crime.2 Besides, economic connectivity among and beyond ASEAN
countries have been adopted to advance information and communication
technology. They aim at generating economic growth and efficiently
develop mechanisms for cooperation among police agencies in ASEAN
countries. That causes an enhancement in providing public safety
and preparing for new security threats, coordination among police
agencies in ASEAN countries for transnational crime and terrorism
prevention and suppression, and cooperation for law enforcement in
ASEAN countries. Nevertheless, such connectivity has somehow
caused some social problems, for example, crime, declining public
welfare and poor public safety. Therefore, it is very critical to
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 Police Administration and Related Laws for Providing Public Safety
in 10 ASEAN Countries

understand about the police working systems, police organization,

legal systems, law enforcement for providing public safety, and the
justice process of ASEAN member countries. In addition, learning
about police administration of neighbouring countries can facilitate the
development of Thai police organizations for providing more efficient
public safety for lives and property of citizens.

1.2 Objectives
1.2.1 To study police administration and related laws that
can be enforced in the criminal justice procedures for providing
public safety within the ASEAN member countries.
1.2.2 To compare police administration and related laws for
providing public safety between ASEAN member countries and to
compare the levels of preparedness for incident response between
ASEAN member countries when they all become the ASEAN
Community.

1.3 Scope of the Study

This research focuses on police administration in both
national and local levels of analysis. This research also includes legal
systems related to public safety of life and property of the ten
ASEAN member countries, which are Brunei, Cambodia, Indonesia,
Lao PDR, Malaysia, Myanmar, the Philippines, Singapore, Thailand,
and Vietnam. This research has the scope of its content as explained
in the research conceptual framework.
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Police Administration and Related Laws for Providing Public Safety
in 10 ASEAN Countries

1.4 Research Framework

According to its objective – to describe police administration
and legal systems related to police law enforcement officers—this
research explores related theories and concepts in the fields of pub-
lic safety, for example, criminological theories related to offences and
how to respond to crime, police administration and organization,
public participation, and community policing. In addition, the research
team studied various concepts related to legal systems and interna-
tional police cooperation. The studies are necessary for a comparative
research and for constructing the research framework, as illustrated
in the chart below:

1.5 Methodology
This comparative study research uses the qualitative
methodology. Data collection is organized by the means of document
research, in-depth interviews, fieldworks in all ASEAN member coun-
tries, focus groups, and brainstorming workshops.
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 Police Administration and Related Laws for Providing Public Safety
in 10 ASEAN Countries

1.6 Expected Benefits

1.6.1 Knowledge about the police administration and related
laws of ASEAN member countries for providing public safety of life
and property from crime. This knowledge will be beneficial to policy
making, administration, and development of cooperative mechanisms
for preventing and suppressing domestic crimes, crimes linked to
other ASEAN countries and beyond.
1.6.2 Learning experience in police administration, including
the strengths and weaknesses in each ASEAN country. That learning
experience will help improve and develop police works in public
safety and solve certain issues discussing in the police reform initiatives.
1.6.3 An opportunity for developing and promoting cooperation
between agencies and similar agencies in other countries which
are responsible for providing public safety of life and property from
domestic crime.
1.6.4 Knowledge about police administration of ASEAN member
countries, which will help prepare manuals for police officers, other
agencies in the criminal justice procedure, and the general public.
Further, the knowledge can be used in additional in-depth research
on individual topics.

5
 Chapter 2
Police Administration and Related
Laws for Providing Public Safety
in the ASEAN Countries

2.1 Brunei Darussalam

2.1.1 Socio-economic Conditions
Brunei or Brunei Darussalam is located on Borneo Island. Its
northern part is a coastline stretching to the South China Sea. Its
land area, covering 5,770 [Link], is surrounded by Malaysia’s Saravak.
It has a population of 423,2003, consisting of Malay (67 percent),
Chinese (15 percent), and others (18 percent). The religion of the
state is Islam, and most of its population is Muslim (Sunni Islam,
67 percent). Other religion includes Mahayana Buddhist (13 percent),
Christian (10 percent), and other (10 percent)4. The national language
is Bahasa Malaysia.
Brunei’s gross domestic product (GDP) is 11.4007 billion US
dollars and its GDP per capita is 26,938.5 US dollars. Its GDP growth
rate in 2016 was -2.5 percent. Its overall economy is contributed to
the products of petroleum and natural gas, generating 95 percent of
its total revenue, and they are a state-owned industry.
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 Police Administration and Related Laws for Providing Public Safety
in 10 ASEAN Countries

Brunei has a low crime rate, and there has been no report
on incidents of terrorism or unrest in Brunei. Most crimes in Brunei
are non-serious crimes, for example, property crimes, break-in,
physical assaults, and quarrels. An interesting crime is cross-border
crime, for example, stealing cars or motorcycles and sending them
across the border, illegal immigration, and smuggling. A key factor
that puts crime in Brunei at a low level is strict law enforcement.
Brunei has strong social measures as Bruneians are being religious.
Brunei has a small population which access to good welfare pro-
vided by the state. The population earns a large amount of money
from oil resources. Given the fact that the population has good living
conditions, the risk of crime reduces.
2.1.2 Political Structure
Brunei’s political regime is an absolute monarchy. The King
or Sultan of Brunei has the absolute power and serves as the head
of the state. The King’s assistant is called Grand Viziers who is
directly designated by the King. The prominent feature of the regime
is unity and fraternity of the citizens. People in Brunei respect the
Sultan who are trusted to holds justice in line with Islamic principles5
Brunei is a unitary state because of the centralization of
public administration, without decentralization to lower levels of
administrative units. The public administration gives commands
through the top-down hierarchy, from the King or Sultan to ministries
and departments, to Daerah (district), Mukims/wards (sub-district),
and then to Kampungs (village) which the lowest administrative unit.
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Police Administration and Related Laws for Providing Public Safety
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2.1.3 Police Organizational Structure and Police Adminis-

tration
The police force in Brunei was formed during Brunei became
a British protectorate. On 31 December 1905 and 5 January 1906,
Brunei signed a treaty called the 1905/06 Treaty with the UK. This
treaty changed Brunei public administration and police affairs. The
first group of police officers consisted of Pathan and Sikh. The Brunei
Police Force was established by G. McAfee who was designated as
the Brunei Police Chief in 1917.6 The Royal Brunei Police Force
(RPBF) was officially founded on 1 January 1921 after police law
came into effect in 1920.7
In the Royal Brunei Police Force, the Commissioner of Police
serves both the oversight and administrative functions. The Royal
Brunei Police Force directly answers to the Prime Minister’s Officer
(PMO) who is under the supervision of the Prime Minister. As the
King or Sultan acts as the Prime Minister, he holds the power to
oversee the Brunei Police Force. The King is also the Inspector
General of Police which is the supreme commander of the Brunei
Police Force (equivalent to the Commissioner of Police). However, in
practice, the Commander of Police supervises and gives commands
to daily operations and administration of police organizations.
The constituent bodies that provide public services under the
Royal Brunei Police Force are of Police Districts (four districts) and
police stations. The Royal Brunei Police Force has 4,400 officers, and

8
 Police Administration and Related Laws for Providing Public Safety
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the police-population ratio in Brunei is 1: 99. Gaining trust from the

general public, police career is a dream job for Brunei citizens. The
Training Centre in Gadong trains police officers and law enforcement
officers in Brunei. In addition, the Brunei government has provided
scholarships for international education in the countries like Singapore,
Malaysia, and the UK.8
Brunei has adopted the British police ranks which are divided
into three groups:
1) Lance Corporal, Corporal, Sergeant, Staff Sergeant,
and Sergeant Major.
2) Commissioned police, i.e. Cadet Inspectors, Probationary
Inspector, Inspector, Senior Inspector, and Chief Inspector/Assistant
Superintendent.
3) Senior executives, i.e. Assistant Superintendent,
Deputy Superintendent, Superintendent, Senior Superintendent, Assistant
Commissioner, Senior Assistant Commissioner, Deputy Commissioner,
Commissioner, Deputy Inspector General of Police, and Inspector
General of Police.
Brunei police retire at the age of 55 and no policy extends
the retirement age beyond that age. Retired police receive a monthly
pension amounting to two thirds of the last salary before retirement.
The monthly pension is given until the age of 70 and the pension
received then would be amounting to the last salary before retirement.

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Police Administration and Related Laws for Providing Public Safety
in 10 ASEAN Countries

In Brunei’s police administration, strategies are formulated

to achieve the vision of Towards Sustainable Peace and Security
Together (TSPST). These strategies are aimed at reducing Brunei’s
vulnerability to new security threats. As a small state, Brunei ensures
efficient administration and continue to upgrade the levels of security
and safety of its people and communities. That makes the Brunei
Police Force modern and able to collaborate with other organizations
to combat crimes and promote its national security.9
The young citizens constitute a high proportion of the overall
population in Brunei. Over half of its population is under 25 years
and those who are between 15-24 years account for the highest
proportion. Youth are considered to be a valuable resource. Brunei
has challenges from both inside and outside of the country. These
challenges include a higher unemployment rate and drugs. The Brunei
government has formulated the National Youth Policy to ensure that
its young citizens remain a valuable human resource to the country
and to encourage them to take part in social, economic and cultural
affairs of the country.
2.1.4 Laws Related to Police Law Enforcement
Brunei’s legal system is inherited from British Common Law
which the trials are based on judicial decisions in prior cases and the
judge decisions in future trials are bound to follow the precedential
decisions. There are both civil and criminal laws. A significant change
to criminal law in Brunei was in 2014 when Sultan Haji Hassanal

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 Police Administration and Related Laws for Providing Public Safety
in 10 ASEAN Countries

Bolkiah proclaimed that Shariah Law is the criminal law that governs
the country. Before that, Sharia Law was applied only to family and
heritage matters. Brunei was the first country in ASEAN to apply
Shariah as criminal law.10 The proclamation of the Sharia Law was
criticized by many human rights organizations and international
organizations as they believed that the law would result in human
rights violations. However, the Brunei government argued that the
belief in laws helps bring peace and order, reduces domestic crimes,
and reduces human rights violations. The Brunei government called
for international understanding of the decision they had made.
Criminal procedures in Brunei follow the criminal procedure
code, penal code, and the Evidence Act. Police officers have the
authority to arrest offenders and detain arrestees for 48 hours for
investigation. After that, they are required to charge and prosecute
or release them.11
2.1.5 Building Public Safety Partnerships
Building public safety partnerships in Brunei is influenced by
the community policing concept. This concept has been applied to
create cooperation and collaboration among police officers, community
leaders, and community members. This concept was part of the
2007-2016 Brunei Police Strategy which aimed to address priority in
different crime types and crime areas.
The community policing concept has been implemented in
Brunei through a cooperative mechanism called “Neighborhood Watch”
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Police Administration and Related Laws for Providing Public Safety
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(Pengawasan Kejiranan Kampong in Bahasa Malaysia). This mechanism

was officially launched in 1989 for instilling a sense of ownership
and responsibility into the citizens so that they would maintain peace
and order and safety in their localities. It was first implemented in
Kampong Madang, Berakas, in 198912. The Implementation of this
mechanism created coordination between the Public Relations Units
of the Royal Brunei Police Force and District Police, police stations
and local communities.
2.1.6 International Police Affairs
The Brunei National Police Force became a member of the
International Police Organization (INTERPOL) on 4 September 1984.
The Brunei National Central Bureau (NCB) serves as a coordinating
unit.
Brunei became the 6th ASEAN member on 7 January 1984
and joined ASEANAPOL in the same year.13
Brunei has a continuous long border of 481.3 km with
Malaysia on Borneo Island. This results in occurrence of cross-border
crimes, such as car theft across the border between Brunei and
Malaysia. Cooperation between these two countries exists in addressing
this issue. In addition, Brunei and Singapore, both being as a small
ASEAN country, have a good relationship. The Brunei Royal Police
Force regularly sends their police officers to take training courses
and degree programs at the Home Team Academy in Singapore.

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 Police Administration and Related Laws for Providing Public Safety
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2.2 Kingdom of Cambodia

2.2.1 Socio-economic Conditions
Situated on the Indochinese Peninsula, Cambodia or the
Kingdom of Cambodia neighbours Thailand to the west and north,
Laos to the north, and Vietnam and the Gulf of Thailand to the east.
The land covers an area of 181,040 [Link] and has a population of
15,762,370.14 Most Cambodians believe in Theravada Buddhism
(95 percent), which is divided into two sects – Dhammayuttika and
Mahayana (there are two Buddhist apostles in Cambodia). Other
religions include Islam (3 percent), Christianity (1.7 percent), and
Hinduism (0.3 percent). 15
Cambodia’s gross domestic product (GDP) is 20.01675 billion
US dollars, which is 1,269.9 US dollars per capita. Cambodia used
to have a low growth rate of GDP and GDP per capita compared
with other countries in ASEAN. But in 2016 Cambodia enjoyed a
GDP growth rate of 6.9 percent.16 That is the highest rate among
ASEAN countries in the year. Seventy percent of its population works
in the agricultural sector. Apart from that, The Cambodia population
has 17 percent working in the manufacturing sector, 8 percent in the
industrial sector, and 5 percent in the construction sector. Each year,
new casinos with a large amount of funds are injected into Cambodia.
This has resulted in Cambodia having the most casinos in the
Greater Mekong Sub-region and becoming the largest gambling hub
in Southeast Asia.

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Police Administration and Related Laws for Providing Public Safety
in 10 ASEAN Countries

Most crimes in Cambodia involve occasional property crimes

and break-in. Low rate of serious crimes is reported in Cambodia
and most of the offenders have the intention to get property without
harming victims. Criminals’ target areas are transportation hubs,
markets, fairs, riverside tourist attractions, and crowed buses. Potential
crimes include pickpocketing and purse snatching. In particular, the
bags of three-wheel rickshaw passengers are sometimes snatched.17
In addition, A high rate of motorcycle-theft cases is reported because
motorcycles are a popular transporting vehicle for locals. The cases
include motorcycle robbery, even occurring while drivers are driving.
The criminals push the drivers down on the road and then rob the
motorcycle away. Another type of frequent property crime is stealing
mobile phones. A lot of crime in Phnom Penh committed by young
offenders who often have violent quarrels and cause injuries and
even death.18
Concerning drug issues, Cambodia is a transit and import
country for drugs. Based on national crime statistics in 2015,
approximately 60 percent of the prisoners who was sentenced to
medium to high punishment were drug users. That demonstrates a
major cause of non-safety in Cambodia. Drug users are divided into
two groups. The first group includes those who have bad behavioral
history, such as youth who do not study at school, and jobless people.
The second group represents those who have already committed an
offence. The most common-found narcotics are methamphetamine
and heroin.
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 Police Administration and Related Laws for Providing Public Safety
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2.2.2 Political Structure

Being under a democratic regime with the King serving as
the head of the state, Cambodia is a single state with the sovereign
power divided into three branches: the legislative, the administrative,
and the judiciary branches.19
The administrative branch of Cambodia is divided into two
parts. In the first part, the central administration consists of 27 main
ministries and independent offices (equivalent to the bureau) and the
second part is a regional administration which is divided into into
provinces, districts, sub-districts, and villages.
2.2.3 Police Organizational Structure and Police Adminis-
tration
Cambodia was a French protectorate from 1863 to 1883. On
17 June 1884, Cambodia signed the Franco-Khmer Treaty, allowing
French domination over Cambodia. However, this treaty stated that
Cambodian civil servants have the authority to govern their territory
under the oversight of France. Thus, Cambodians put their own
efforts to create social safety and security and maintain social order
in collaboration with French police for 61 years (1884-1945), before
the National Police was founded on 16 May 194520. With such a
long time, keeping internal peace and order in Cambodia is influenced
by the French. Also, Cambodia’s police system has been influenced
significantly by the French system of policing.

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Police organizational structure and the law enforcement system

in Cambodia differ from other ASEAN member countries. The General
Department of Police is a department-level body under the Ministry
of the Interior. There are also other department-level police agencies
affiliated with the Ministry of the Interior, for example, the Police
Academy and the General Department of Immigration. Personnel
in these agencies are police officers with police titles and ranks.
Cambodia has the Royal Gendarmerie of Cambodia, a semi-military
force under the Ministry of Defense, which is under the direction
of the Supreme Commander. Influenced by the French, the Royal
Gendarmerie of Cambodia has the authority to investigate and arrest
offenders, regardless they are ordinary people or military officers who
commit criminal offences. Police officers working under the Ministry
of Interior have no authority to arrest or investigate offenders who
are military officers. Instead, they serve as a support unit for other
agencies in law enforcement.
Under the General Department of Police, regional police agencies
are dividied into three levels: 25 provincial/Phnom Pehn Police Force
(equivalent to provincial police stations in Thailand), 193 district
police stations (equivalent to police stations in Thailand), and 1,621
local police stations (equivalent to sub-police stations in Thailand).
The roles and responsibilities of Cambodian police are not limited to
crime prevention and suppression but also include controlling crimes
and maintaining peace and order. In doing so, they are responsible
for maintaining local demographic statistics; providing national ID card
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and house registration service; providing safety for local people;

controlling suspects and ex-convicts, people with criminal behaviors,
and immigrants; preparing local data; and controlling workers in local
manufacturing factories because most of them are migrant workers.
The General Department of Police has approximately 56,000
police officers. 5.68 percent of the police are female and most of
them are responsible for administrative jobs. The annual recruitment
of new police officers are based on the factors of budget allocated,
population, and the requirements from affiliated agencies. Cambodia’s
police ranks are similar to military ranks, ranging from Police General
to Police Sub-Lieutenant and from Police Sergeant to Police Lance
Corporal for non-commissioned police. The police officers with the
ranks of Police Colonel and above retire at the age of 60 while the
police officers with the ranks of Police Lieutenant Colonel and below
retire at the age of 55. The General Department of Police has no
non-rank police officers.
Cambodian police are recruited from the citizens who finish
Grade 12. The police positions in the General Department of Police
requires applicants who are ordinary people holding a bachelor’s
degree or above. After having passed the recruit exam, the applicants
need to attend 3-month training at the Police Academy and will be
assigned to a particular agency. After working for a certain period,
they will then be trained in the field as assigned. Being a department-
level agency under the Ministry of the Interior, the Police Academy

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provides short and long-course training for police officers who have
high school qualifications. It offers a four-year undergraduate program,
a master’s degree program, and a basic training program. There are
six police training centers under the Cambodian Police Academy
across Cambodia.
2.2.4 Laws Related to Police Law Enforcement
In the old days, Cambodia’s legal system was influenced by
Buddhist and Khmer traditional beliefs. When Cambodia was dominated
by France and signed a treaty to become a French protectorate state
in 1863, the Cambodian legal system was influenced by the French
legal system and was changed to a civil law system21 or code of laws
system. Civil law is the primary law for case trials and judgments.
The Cambodian justice system involves institutions such as
the Supreme Court, Appellate Court, Provincial/Municipal Courts,
Military Court, and Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia
(ECCC),” which were established for trials involving serious criminal
crimes that happened in wars under the Khmer Rouge Regime.22
In the Cambodian criminal procedure, prosecutors play a key
role in the investigative process of law enforcement agencies. The
Department of General Prosecution consists of three divisions23, which
are outlined below.
1) The Office of Investigation and Supervision of
Investigation is in charge of ensure legal compliance in investigation
and inspect investigation documents.
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2) The Criminal Office supports the Department of

General Prosecution in exercising the right to conduct a criminal
procedure, file charges, and prepare documents for filing criminal
cases.
3) The Civil Office supports the Department of General
Prosecution in the civil cases that affect state interest or civil cases
related to minors and persons with disabilities.
Prosecutors have the authority to determine the accusations,
issue arrest warrants, conduct searches and make arrests as police
officers, and file criminal cases. According to the Constitution of the
Kingdom of Cambodia, prosecutors shall have the right to file
criminal cases. The organizational structure of prosecutors is divided
into 1) prosecutors of the court of the first instance, 2) prosecutors
of the Office of the Appeal Court, and prosecutors of the Office of
the Supreme Court.24
Judicial Police or Gendarmerie has the authority to investigate
and arrest offenders with flagrant offences when an arrest warrant
is not required. In the case when an arrest warrant is required,
prosecutors have the authority to issue an arrest warrant. In important
cases, investigative judges issue an arrest warrant or order an arrest,
and the arresters must inform the arrestees of their rights under the
Constitution and the memo on arrest. After an arrest is made, the
arrestees must be taken to a police station and detained for 48 hours,
or 72 hours for major cases or special cases. In the case when

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offenders are arrested based on an arrest warrant from the court,

they shall be sent to prison, and then the arrest shall be reported
to the prosecutor within 48 hours.
In addition to general criminal law, the public assembly
control law regulates internal peace and order. The first public
assembly law was enacted in Cambodia in 1991 and its most recent
amendment was enacted in 2009. The law requires a written notice
concerning the assembly, prepared by the assembly leader, is submitted
to the local administration in advance. The written notice should
specify the purpose, venue and time of the assembly, and the number
of people or vehicles involved in the assembly.
2.2.5 Building Public Safety Partnerships
Local police agencies, such as the Cambodian Metropolitan
Police, have worked alongside with other agencies to prevent crime
and solve drug-problems. Cambodian Police cooperate with hospitals,
the general public, schools, universities, and judicial institutions.
Local police, the administration, and local authorities also cooperate
in maintaining safety. All of these agencies, including Gendarmerie,
are obligated to help to prevent and suppress narcotics and rehabilitate
drug addicts.25 In addition, police agencies and the administration
work together. In local areas, the Central Committee has the provincial
governor who acts as the chairman and committee members who
are representatives from gendarmeries, local police officers, and the
district office chief. A weekly meeting is set as a platform to consider

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matters concerning safety, security, public services, and cooperation

between police and local authorities with respect to crime prevention.
Encouraging partnerships with the private sector, Cambodia
has a policy towards the promotion of tourism, the major source of
revenue for the country. The government promotes tourist attractions
such as ancient ruins, museums, historical sites (popular among
tourists), and markets (popular among locals and tourists). The private
sector plays a key role in safeguarding safety, organizing areas,
providing security guards, and regulating tourist guides. The private
sector works with police officers who are tasks to provide security.
2.2.6 International Policing
The General Department of Police joined the international
police organization (INTERPOL) on 13 June 1956. Cambodian National
Central Bureau (NCB) was established to share data on crime and
offenders with INTERPOL member countries. The collaboration with
law enforcement agencies involved transnational crime prevention
and suppression, in pursuit of the fugitive offenders and wanted
criminals from Cambodia or other member countries. The agency
also includes investigation into fugitive offenders and criminals, and
actions to acquire related data.26
Cambodia has put efforts into strengthening its relationships
and cooperation with other ASEAN member states. That promotes
its image in the international arena and helps benefit the country.
Cambodia joined ASEAN in 199927 and joined ASEANAPOL in the
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following year, 2000.28 This participation created official cooperative

network with police organizations in ASEAN. This cooperation includes
the cooperation in the prevention and suppression of transnational
crime and trafficking in persons as well as organizational development.
As Cambodia shares a border with Thailand, Laos, and Vietnam,
Cambodia has tight bilateral relationship and strong cooperation in
crime prevention and suppression with its neighboring countries.
Cambodia and Thailand have cooperated in crime prevention and
suppression, in pursuit of offenders committing an offence in one
country and escaping to another country. They also cooperate on
the prevention and suppression of drug trafficking as well as the
prevention and suppression of the smuggling of antiques out of
Cambodia. In terms of personnel development, the General Department
of Police has sent Cambodian police officers to be trained overseas
with the People’s Police Academy in Vietnam and the Royal Police
Cadet Academy in Thailand, which they enjoy good relationship.

2.3 Republic of Indonesia

2.3.1 Socio-economic Conditions
Indonesia or the Republic of Indonesia is a Maritime Southeast
Asian country. As the world’s largest archipelagic country, Indonesia
consists of 17,508 islands and has a land area covering 1,811,570 [Link].
In 2016, it had a population of 261,115,46029. That was the fourth
largest population after China, India, and the United States of

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America.30 Indonesia has ethno-cultural diversity. Its national language

is Bahasa Indonesia. The majority of Indonesians is Muslim (87.2 percent).
Other religions include Protestant Christian (7 percent), Catholic
Christian (2.9 percent), Hindu (1.7 percent), and others (1.2 percent).
With that proportion, Indonesia has the highest Muslim population
in the world.31
Indonesia’s GDP is 932.25918 billion US dollars and GDP per
capita is 3,570.3 US dollars. In 2016, it enjoyed a GDP growth at 5%.32
Indonesia has the largest economy in Southeast Asia and has a high
economic growth rate. However, due to a huge population, the per
capita income of its population is not high. Its economic structure
is made of three key sectors, which are agriculture (fisheries and
forestry), industry and construction; and services. These three sectors
contribute to similar proportion.33
The crime rate in Indonesia has been higher at the same
pace with the expansion of urban communities. The factors that may
contribute to higher crime rate in each city in Indonesia are, for
example, a higher unemployment rate, inadequate job opportunity,
and deteriorating social orders. In 2014, a total of 325,317 criminal
cases were reported across the country, which represented the crime-
population ratio of 131: 100,00034. Crime is a major problem in
Jakarta, its capital city, and other major cities that are economic hubs,
for example, Surabaya. Common crime consists of non-serious crimes,
for example, stealing, robbery, purse snatching, and pickpocketing.

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Other social problems are related to drugs, economic crime, illegal

immigration, smuggling, tax evasion, and terrorism/domestic insurgency.35
Cybercrime has also increased rapidly in recent years.
With regards to drug problems, Indonesia is a major source
of marijuana production, which most consumers are locals. Other drug
problems in Indonesia relates to methamphetamine and Ecstasy36.
Despite capital punishment for major narcotic traffickers and wars
against narcotics, the problems are not in decline.
The issue of separatism exists in Aceh. That involves the
Free Aceh Movement (GAM) which launched in 1975.37 Aceh’s official
name is Prorinsi Daerah Istimewa Aceh where a certain degree of
autonomy is given. However, the population is not admired with that
level of autonomy and they believed that their land could have been
separated into a new country. That has led to a more tangible demand
for separation. Another insurgent group in Indonesia is Lashkar Jihad.38
As an anti-democracy Islamic militant group, it aimed to establish
Salafi Islam in Jakarta and performed operations in several areas, for
example, Ummun and Sultanate. Another insurgent group is Jemaah
Islamiyah (JI).39
Jakarta has a heavy traffic congestion problem because the
area for constructing new road surface in the city is limited and not
sufficient for cars. The problem is also worsened because of the
rapid increase in the number of vehicles and inadequate mass transit
system of the city. That makes the traffic in the city during its rush
hours and connecting hours are very congested.
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2.3.2 Political Structure

Indonesia is a unitary republic with the president acting as
the head of the state and the head of the administration, who comes
from direct election. The presidential office term shall not exceed
two consecutive terms (each term takes five years). The power is
divided into three branches: administrative, legislative, and judicial
power. Despite being a large archipelagic country with a big population,
Indonesia is a unitary republic, with public administration divided
into central administration and local administration.
The central administration consists of 34 ministries, departments
and divisions, within which various officials, including the Permanent
Secretary to the Ministry, the Director-General to the Department,
the Director to the Division, etc. are involved in public administration.
Indonesian local administration involves various levels, i.e.
regencies, cities, districts or Kecamatan, Kelurahan, and Desa, the
smallest administrative unit.
2.3.3 Police Organizational Structure and Police Adminis-
tration
The integration into the Unitary Republic of Indonesia in the
post-independence period and the formation of the Indonesia National
Police were two parallel processes. However, Indonesian history reveals
that the police played an important role before the formation of the
Republic of Indonesia, from the time when the area which is now

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modern Indonesia was under the rule of different kingdoms.40 The

government established the National Police Service on 1 July 1946,
which is recognized as Bhayangkara Day.
A major change to Indonesian police that occurred with the
entry into the reform period was the transition from the administration
of President Suharto to the administration of President BJ. Habibie
and Habibie and Abdurrahman Wahid from 1999-2004. As part of
the structural reform, the Indonesian National Police separated from
the Indonesian Army in 2000. The main reason for this was that the
integration of the Indonesian National Police into the Indonesian
Army resulted in vagueness of, and the overlap between, the roles
and responsibilities of the Indonesian Military as the national defense
body and those of the Indonesian National Police (INP) as a social
security and order maintaining body. This integration of these two
bodies obstructed the development democratic values in Indonesian
society; hence, their separation was required. Since the change,
police have played a more active role in Indonesian society, and
their goal is to be more oriented to people and to respond to their
needs.41
The administration of the Indonesian National Police (POLRI)
is characterized by centralization, which directly depends on the
president. Their areas of responsibility consist of Regional Police
(Kepolisian Daerah or Polda), City Police (Kepolisian Resort or Polres),
District Police (Kepolisian Sektor or Polsek), and Sub-district Police

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(Polsubsektor). In addition, there are specialized police agencies,

e.g. Brimob, a crowd control unit which is a mobile force involved
in security- and safety-related operations; Airborne Police (Polisi
Udara); Marine Police; Forensic Science Police; Anti-terrorism Unit
(Detachment 88); Traffic Police (Polisi Lalulintas), which is responsible
for roads and issuance of driving licenses and vehicle registration;
Coastal Police (Polisi Perairan); Sabhara, which is in charge of
community peace and order; Tourism Police (Polisi Turis); Railway
Police (Polisi Khusus Kereta Api-POLSUSKA); Investigative Police
(Badan Reserse Kriminal-Bareskrim); and Polisi Kedutaan, which provides
security for embassies in Indonesia.42
Local police agencies are divided into different levels, as
follows:
- Regional Police (Kepolisian Daerah or Polda)
- City Police (Kepolisian Resort or Polres)
- District Police (Kepolisian Sektor or Polsek)
- Sub-district Police (Polsubsektor)
In 2015, the Indonesian National Police force consisted of
407,222 officers and 14,252 of them were female, equivalent to
3.5 percent. The ratio of police to the population in 2015 is 1: 59,543.
The police rank system was used similar to the European police
rank, such as the ranks of Inspector and Commissioner General.
After the Indonesian National Police was shifted to be under the
Indonesian Army, the military-style rank system replaced the European

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police rank with the ranks such as Captain, Major and Colonel.
In 2000, when the Indonesian Police was separated from the Indonesian
Army, the British rank system, such as Inspector and Superintendent,
was replaced the military-style ranks. Currently, Indonesia’s police
rank system is similar to the Dutch police rank system which was
firstly used in the past.44
There are several types of police educational institutions in
Indonesia.45
1. The Indonesian National Police Academy (AKPOL),
which provides training for cadets who will become commissioned
police officers upon their program completion.
2. The Police Science College (PTIK), which trains police
officers across Indonesia through certificate programs and masters
and doctoral degree programs. The institution was established to
develop police education to be a science.46
3. The Police Command and Staff School (SESPIM), which
trains non-commissioned police officers who pass a qualification
exam to become commissioned police officers and graduates who
pass an exam to become commissioned police officers. In addition,
SESPIM provides training in administration for commissioned police
who will become the Unit Head in regional police agencies, including
provincial, district and sub-district police.
4. The Criminal Investigation Training Center (PUSDIK
RESKRIM), which provides specialized investigation training.
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Each region has a police training center called the Indonesian

Police School (SPN) (Sekolah Polisi Indonesia), which provides training
for constables or those who will hold a non-commissioned police rank
(it is located in 28 locations across Indonesia). Indonesia also has a
training center called the Woman Police Training Center (SEPOLWAN),
which provides 7-month training for female constables. Each year,
the center receives 600-700 female police officers.
Indonesian police officers normally retire at the age of 58.
The police officers who are considered as a talented and specialized
police officer retire at the age of 60.
2.3.4 Laws Related to Police Law Enforcement
The Indonesian legal system was influenced by the European
legal system and Dutch Colonial Law until the end of World War II.
After the declaration of independence of Indonesia, the Indonesian
national legal system was developed based on Roman-Dutch Law.
The substantive matters of the law were expanded based on Indonesian
viewpoints, and a new penal code was developed. 47
The Indonesian court system consists of the Constitutional
Court, the Supreme Court, and the courts under the jurisdiction of
the Supreme Court, namely the General Court, Military Court, Religious
Court, Administrative Court, as well as Specialized Court.
The criminal procedure in Indonesia48 is governed by Law No.8
of 1981 on Criminal Procedure. This new law demonstrates various

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changes, e.g. the shift from an inquisitorial system to an accusatorial

system, which does not allow the confession of the accused to serve
as evidence. With the intention to reduce torture of the accused in
order to obtain their confession, the improvement of this law reflects
human rights consideration.
The criminal justice process involves various steps, which
starts with police investigation. Police have the authority to receive
grievances or report of criminal cases, search for information and
evidence, and deter suspects or other actions as required by law.
The law does not specify legal assistance from lawyers to the accused;
thus, police can initiate investigations in three cases: 1) When they
are informed of an offense that has occurred or is occurring; 2) When
they receive grievances or reports from victims involving criminal
cases, and 3) When they witness a criminal offense in front of them.
The prosecution is the responsibility of the Office of the Attorney
General, which is directly under the president. Prosecutors are in
charge of considering whether or not to issue a prosecution order
against serious or petty criminal cases for which individuals sue to
the court. By law, prosecutors have no authority to investigate
criminal cases, but only special cases, e.g. theft of security data.
In general, an arrest warrant is required for police for making
an arrest of individuals suspected of committing an offence or planning
to commit an offense. An arrest made by police without an arrest
warrant is possible if the offence in conducted in front of them.

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Police are authorized to take arrestees into custody for 24 hours,

and in the case when no charge is filed, they will be released.
Control of public assembly or protests in Indonesia is governed
by Mass Organization Law, with most recent amendments being
made in July 2013.49 With the aim to empower local organizations
and counter the gathering of independent international organizations,
this law gives power to the state to control civilian groups and break
up public gatherings which pose a potential threat to the nation.
Under the law, all assemblies must take into account peace and order
of society and must be carried out based on the Pancasila ideology.
2.3.5 Building Public Safety Partnerships
After Indonesian police separated from the Indonesian army
in 1999, the Indonesian National Police created its own identity which
is more civilian-oriented and made the police organization to become
an organization of accountability. This was a key factor in the
transition to a democracy for Indonesia. However, given the military
legacy of the Indonesian police organization, it is a major challenge
to build trust from the general public.50 The Indonesian National Police
developed the principles of community policing (POLMAS) and has
applied this concept at a greater extent to their work. This aimed
to ensure professionalism and optimize crime problem-solving and
law enforcement in response to public needs. Indonesia’s community
policing is people-centered and focuses on respect for human rights,
community partnerships, and community involvement in solving social

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problems. The Community Policing Forum (CPFs) was established to

provide communities with more opportunities to participate in policing.51
Community police operational teams conduct meetings with
local stakeholders to identify social issues faced by communities
and to develop an action plan to address these identified issues.
Conducted at local halls, mosques, or other appropriate places,
these meetings provide for conversations and consultations between
community members and local police. There are a number of projects
that have been jointly implemented by different parties, e.g.
community radio stations and forums for communication between
community members, police officers and other authorities.52
The Indonesian National Police (INP) has a dedicated
community policing agency called “Community Policing Directorate”,
assigned to deal with community policing development and community
development. This agency involves central policy-level implementation.53
In addition, volunteers who are the general public are provided at
sub-police stations to be reported for offences and assist police
officers in their work. These volunteers can effectively assist police
in approaching local citizens because they are locals.
Indonesia’s strength in preventing crimes and violent incidents
in town areas is seeking cooperation from security guards. As police
control the quality of training for security guards, they can easily
approach and gain cooperation from them. Police attach great
importance to security guards serving hotels, shopping centers, parking

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lots, parks, and important places in major cities. Before starting their
security service, security guards have to be trained by police officers
in basic knowledge pertaining to security and incidence response in
different situations. Security guards play a crucial role in preventing
incidences in city areas which have rigorous security measures.
2.3.6 International Police
The Indonesian National Police joined INTERPOL on 13 June
1956.54 Indonesia is one of the ASEAN states that has played an
active role in the international police arena. The Indonesian National
Police have deployed police forces for joint operations with UN agencies
in many missions; for example,55 the Formed Police Unit in Sudan,
United Nations Missions in Sudan, African Union/United Nations
Hybrid Operation in Darfur, and United Nations Stabilization Mission
in Haiti.
The Indonesian National Police (INP) has sent their police
officers to join UN peacekeeping operations, both as individual police
officers and the Formed Police Unit (FPU). So far, the Indonesian
National Police has deployed a company of 140 police officers
for operations in Darfur. The Indonesian government has procured
equipment required for the operations, and the United Nations has
paid the Indonesian National Police for that procurement in the form
of hiring. This deployment has been for 9 year in operation.56
The problems of internal crime, unrest and terrorism in the
past have encouraged Indonesia’s cooperation with international
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organizations, especially INTERPOL and the Jakarta Center for Law

Enforcement Cooperation (JCLEC), which was established in 2004.
The Indonesian and Australian government joined hands to combat
transnational terrorism and crime by developing official cooperation
between the Indonesian National Police (INP) and the Australian
Federal Police (AFP). The objectives of this official cooperation
were to strengthen the capabilities of local and international law
enforcement agencies and encourage the general public, civil society,
and communities to help with reducing risks of transnational crimes
and terrorism. There are projects and activities aimed at upgrading
the capability of interrogation and investigation, criminal intelligence,
forensic science, community partnerships, community engagement,
as well as policy and legislative development.57
At the regional level, Indonesia has cooperated with Malaysia,
Singapore, Thailand and the Philippines in founding ASEANAPOL in
Manila, the Philippines, in 198158. As Indonesia is large in area,
population, and economy, its role in policing in this region has been
significant. Regional police work has been conducted through the
ASEANPOL or other forums. The cooperation-related topics are in
line with national interests, including illegal fisheries, terrorism, and
transnational crime. Transnational crime-related issues that the
Indonesian police have paid attention to are trafficking in persons,
piracy and terrorism.
At the bilateral level, due to the fact that it shares a border
with Malaysia, the Philippines and Brunei, it has a relationship with
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these countries to coordinate cooperation to address transnational

crimes, e.g. smuggling, illegal fisheries, and piracy. Indonesian police
also have positive cooperation with the Australian police, particularly
in the areas of terrorism, illegal immigration, techno-crime, drug
trafficking, child exploitation, and fraud.59
The relationship between the Indonesian police and their
Thai counterpart is positive in terms of general coordination and
cooperation in crime prevention and suppression. They have sent
police officers to share their experiences in different training programs
in each other’s country, and the management of police organizations
have visited each other’s country.

2.4 Lao People’s Democratic Republic

2.4.1 Socio-economic Conditions
Situated on the Indochina Peninsula, Lao People’s Democratic
Republic or Lao PDR is the only landlocked country in Southeast Asia,
covering an area of 236,800
​​ sq. km, about half the size of Thailand.
It has a population of 6,758,35060. Lao people still adhere to and
observe their inherited traditions. Traditional ways of life and belief
have strong influence on all groups of Lao people. The majority of
Lao population are Buddhist (75 percent), followed by animist (16-17
percent), Christian (1.5 percent), and Muslim (0.004 percent).61 Laotians
share similar cultures and traditions with Thais, especially Thais in
northeastern Thailand.

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Laos’ gross domestic product (GDP) is 15.805.71 billion US

dollars and GDP per capita is 2,338.7 US dollars. Its GDP growth
rate in 2016 was 7.0 percent.62 Despite its small economy and low
per capita income, Laos enjoys a high economic growth rate. Its
economic system experienced a dramatic change during its economic
reform under the policy “New Economics Mechanism” in 1986, when
the centrally-planned economy was shifted to a market economy with
decentralized decision-making and stimulation of the private sector
to play a more active role in the Lao economy. Most Lao people
work in the agricultural sector. However, the Lao government has
declared Laos as the ‘Battery of Asia’. It has provided an opportunity
for investment in dam construction to generate electricity to sell to
China, Thailand and Vietnam, which has generated huge revenue for
the country.63
The Lao government has not published official statistics on
criminal cases. However, facts disseminated via media indicate an
increase in crimes in Laos each year,64 especially in the 2010s, when
Laos enjoyed a high economic growth rate, which reached the top
in ASEAN. Economic pressures have resulted in an increased number
in crimes, especially in the capital city.65
Overall, Laos has a low crime rate and Lao people obey the
law compared with people in other countries. In its capital city,
Vientiane, although being a peaceful city, its economic growth results
in increased materialism. Some groups of people benefit from this

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growth, which allows them to earn more money, but others do not
benefit from it. The resulting problems include unemployment and
social gaps, which lead to social problems and crimes.66 The most
common cases involve property crimes, i.e. break-in, car or motorcycle
theft, and robbery for money or other property, such as motorcycles.
The criminal cases are prevalent during festivities, when people are
off their work and celebrate, e.g. Lao New Year’s Day or other
important national festivals.
Drug problems in Laos are tending to be more serious, both
in urban and rural areas. The most prevalent drugs are amphetamines
and Ice. People who commit property crimes are sometimes associated
with drugs and have repeated offenses. In addition to domestic drug
issues, Laos has been reported to be a major transit country for drugs
because it is located in the middle of connectivity routes with new
roads and bridges connected to China, Vietnam and Thailand, thus
resulting in Laos becoming an important route of drug trafficking.67
One critical transnational crime for Laos is trafficking in
persons. Previously, each year there were 44,000 Laos illegally migrating
to Thailand, on average.68 The ease of border-crossing of Lao people
to other countries and poverty are some factors in trafficking in
persons, especially the trafficking of children and women to work in
restaurants, bars and the prostitution business and to become illegal
labor in Thailand. In addition, child exploitation is conducted through
a child trafficking network in Laos. Lao girls and adult women are

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trafficked to marry Chinese, which is common in the northern part

of Laos.69
2.4.2 Political Structure
Lao People’s Democratic Republic is a single socialist state
led by the Laos People Revolutionary Party (LPRD), which has the
highest power characterized by democratic centralism. Its political
regime was influenced by the structure of the Soviet Communist
Party, which has absolute power and monopoly. The center of the
party is in charge of formulating policies and giving orders to all
social classes of people.70 While being “democratic” allows party
members to express their opinions at party meetings and discuss
issues extensively, party members with minority votes have to abide
by the resolution from party members with minority votes.71 The
administrative power is divided into three branches, as follows:
1) Executive power – The most important position is
the President of the Republic, who is given a 5-year term in office.
The Prime Minister as the head of government is appointed by the
president, who is provided with a 5-year term in office as well.
Ministers are in charge of ministries in the cabinet.
2) Legislative power – As the people’s representative,
the National Assembly has the authority to consider decisions or
issues that are critical for the country and to monitor the cabinet,
People’s Courts, and People’s Prosecutor Organization.
3) Judicial power – The judicial structure is composed
of two organizations. The first consists of five people’s courts: the
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People’s Supreme Court (comparable to the Supreme Court of Thailand),

People’s Provincial Court, City Wall or Vientiane Court, City People’s
Court (the Court of the First Instance), and Military Court. The second
organization is the People’s Prosecutor Organization, the structure of
which is parallel to that of People’s Courts. It consists of The Supreme
People’s Prosecutor (equivalent to the Attorney General of Thailand),
People’s Provincial Prosecutor Organization, People’s Metropolitan
Prosecutor Organization, City People’s Prosecutor Organization, and
Military Prosecutor Organization.72
Laos consists of 17 provinces and 1 special administrative area.
2.4.3 Police Organizational Structure and Police Adminis-
tration
When the French came to rule Laos, it established a modern
police organization to maintain peace and order and security of this
colony. In 1899, the central administration specified 15 positions next
to the regent, one of which is the Commission General. Local
administration was divided amongst 10 provinces, each of which
being ruled by the Provincial Governor, who was French. Each province
was divided into nine departments and government offices. One of
the nine departments was the Provincial Police Department. During
the French domination, the most important tool that they used to
maintain its power was military and police forces.73
Modern policing is led by the Ministy of Public Security,
which has developed strategies for overseeing police affairs, e.g.
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Local Police, Traffic Police, Immigration Police, Security Police, Fire

Police, the Department of Public Relations, the Department of Logistics,
the Special Operations Unit, and the Mobile Defense Unit.
The regional police organization is divided into different
levels according to administrative areas, i.e. province (17 provinces),
the special administrative area, and district. The smallest police
agency is District Police (equivalent to police stations), which has
approximately 100 police officers. The chiefs of the agency hold the
Police Colonel rank. Two to three police officers are designated to
be responsible for a village group. The police, military and teachers
are respected and prestigious occupations for Lao people despite
having a low salary.
The Lao police ranks mirror the Lao military ranks, which
comprise General, Colonels, Junior Officer, and Non-commissioned
Police Officer. However, the police have police rank marks and their
rank system is separated from the military rank system. However,
since 2015, the highest police rank has been Major General.74
Applicants to police service (male and female) must be at
least 18 years old and hold a senior high school certificate. They
start at a non-commissioned rank, and after that, they study in an
undergraduate program. After obtaining a bachelors’ degree, they take
a qualification exam to become commissioned officers. Children of
police officers will undergo a recruitment process which is separate
from the recruitment process for the general public.

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As the only educational institution for police in Lao PDR,

the People’s Police Academy was founded on 4 October 2011.
Consisting of six offices and 14 faculties, it offers five training
programs, namely the 2-year Master Degree Program, 4-year Bachelor
Degree Program, 4-year English Bachelor Program, 3-year Chinese
High Diploma Program, and 2-year Upgrading Program. The People’s
Police Academy has attached great importance to education and
training in new police sciences, e.g. cybercrime. Despite its low
prevalence and low severity in Laos, cybercrime is tending to increase,
and police work lacks experts and sophisticated technology in the
field.
In Lao police operations, there is scarcity of tools, materials
and equipment, and training. Their operation is not responsive if
there is no official assignment from superiors. To ensure peace and
order and security, checkpoints are located at strategic points and
curfews are sometimes imposed.75
2.4.4 Laws Related to Police Law Enforcement
In the past, the Lao legal system was influenced by the
French legal system, including the criminal justice system, e.g. police,
prosecutors, courts, and correction. After the Lao political regime
shifted to Communism, it’s Constitution and laws that did not suit
the new political regime were all abolished. The new legal system
was influenced by that of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republic and
other socialist countries, which uses the criminal procedure principle,

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whereby the state has a duty to keep social peace and order; therefore,
the state is responsible for conducting legal proceedings against
criminal offenders.
Its criminal process uses a mixed system, which is similar
to the French system, whereby the prosecutor acts as the plaintiff
who files a case, but the court holds an inquiry. This system combines
good points of the inquisitorial system and the accusatorial system,
but is inclined to lean towards the accusatorial system, and gives
more power to prosecutors. That is, apart from being the plaintiff in
criminal cases, the prosecutor monitors legal compliance of organizations
in society.76
In addition to criminal offenses, Lao criminal offences accept
traditions, culture, and social order as a source of law. For example,
a couple-like relationship between unmarried couples is considered
a legal offense. Group tours in Lao need registration and certificate
by the tourism authority. Distributing leaflet without permission is
prohibited. A public gathering for a particular activity is prohibited
as that may disturb peace. Photographing government offices related
to security is prohibited. Transgendered people are also prohibited.
Criminal procedure in the process of arresting offenders in
Laos involves prosecutors or courts in inspection. The prosecutor or
the court issues an arrest warrant, as the case may be. The arrest
of the accused falls into two cases: with an arrest warrant and
without an arrest warrant (committing an offence in front of police

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officers and urgent cases). Once an arrest is made, the prosecutor

will examine the reason for the arrest within 24 hours. In any case,
the police officer must report to the prosecutor within 24 hours and
must investigate the testimony of the arrestee within 48 hours. The
police officer must decide whether to release or imprison the arrestee
and then proposes a release or detention warrant from the prosecutor.77
In the Lao criminal procedure, interrogation and legal
proceedings are not independent from each other. When a criminal
offense occurs, the first body to initiate an interrogation is the police.
The prosecutor has the authority to issue an arrest warrant and gives
guidance on the interrogation because the prosecutor makes a decision
on the case. In cases deemed necessary or appropriate, the prosecutor
can initiate an interrogation.
2.4.5 Building Public Safety Partnerships
The Lao political regime is Communist Socialism; therefore,
its concept of building partnerships between police and other sectors
is different from that of its neighboring countries that are democratic
countries. This includes differences in political ideologies and legal
traditions.
In Socialist Law, there are two types of justice: law enforcement
in general cases and law enforcement in cases where the state
interests must come first and replace traditional justice.78 Thus,
actions taken by police officers as peacekeeping forces are oriented
toward national interests, especially security. Building a public
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safety partnership in Laos involves building partnerships between

police, local administrative units, and the generable public in order
to maintain peace and order in localities and to prevent threats to
national security. There are a lot of remote rural areas, and Lao
people are still poor and uneducated. Thus, the mission of the Lao
peacekeeping force needs to involve creating an understanding with
local people, mobilizing the mass of people, and encouraging the
general public to play an active role in maintaining national peace,
by means of field visits to ensure close relationships with the locals.
Police play a role in creating an understanding among the general
public and encouraging them to develop their localities in collaboration
with local authorities to create new life and warm life.79 Laotians
in different areas will keep an eye on things for authorities. When
non-local people enter their areas, locals will know and inform this
to authorities quickly.
The general public and community leaders participate and
play a key role in settling disputes in communities. For District Police,
2-3 police officers are allocated to be responsible for a village group
or sub-district. Home police, who are village volunteers, will assist
police officers. Home police are allowed to carry official firearms
during patrol for incidence prevention but must return them when
they complete their tasks. In addition, a patrol will be conducted in
a group.80 If there are any cases or disputes, people will inform the
village headman or home police for mediation. If parties involved in
the case agree, the case will be settled. If they don’t agree or in
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serious cases, the village headman or home police will inform the
district police. If the district police fail to settle the case, they may
need to inform the provincial police.
2.4.6 International Relations and INTERPOL
The Lao police force joined the International INTERPOL on
17 June 1957. The unit that coordinates with the INTERPOL in Laos
is INTERPOL National Central Bureau (NCB) or INTERPOL Vientiane.
The NCB is in charge of coordinating work concerning transnational
crime, coordinating international cooperation, data exchange and
information technology, collaboration with INTERPOL member countries
in prevention and investigation of transnational crimes, and support
of interrogation of local cases that must be carried out outside of
the country.81
Lao PDR joined ASEAN at the same time with Myanmar in
1997, and Laos first attended the ASEANAPOL conference in 1998,
which was held at Brunei.82 Laos has cooperated with ASEAN member
countries through ASEAN forums, e.g. the ASEAN Ministerial Meeting
on Transnational Crimes (AMMTC) and ASEANAPOL, which cover
implementation for cooperation in transnational crime suppression.
In addition, countries bordering Laos, i.e. Cambodia, Vietnam, Myanmar
and Thailand, have a direct relationship for preventing and suppressing
transnational crime, trafficking in persons and drugs; taking care of
citizens who migrate to work and live in each country; controlling
exports and imports within border areas; and exchanging data.

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At the bilateral level, Laos’ Ministry of Public Security has

a tight relationship with Vietnam’s Ministry of Security. Their relationship
has a long history since the era of President Ho Chi Minh and
President Kaysone Phomvihane. Their long and healthy relationship
has resulted in their good cooperation in providing assistance in
security and peace of police affairs. Many Lao police officers have
been trained at Vietnam People’s Police Academy in undergraduate
programs and other training courses each year.
As for the relationship between Laos and Thailand, both
countries share a border, which is crossed by large number of Thais
and Laotians. Thus, the countries have a relationship both at the
organizational level and at the levels of local agencies, which have
direct contact in order to consult with each other about the guidelines
for prevention and suppression of transnational crime involving both
countries.

2.5 Malaysia
2.5.1 Socio-economic Conditions
Malaysia is divided into two parts. Its first part is situated
on the Malay Peninsula, where it shares a border with Thailand in
the north and with Singapore in the south. Its second part is located
in the north of Borneo Island, where it borders with Indonesia and
surrounds Brunei. Malaysia covers an area of ​​328,550 sq. km and
has a population of 31,187,260.83 Its official language is Bahasa
Malaysia, and English is widely used in Malaysia.
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The Malaysian population is characterized by ethnic and

religious diversity, which equips it with multiculturalism. Most
Malaysians are Islamic, representing 60 percent, followed by Taoist
(Chinese Malaysians) and Mahayana Buddhist, 32 percent, and
Hindu (Indian Malaysians), 8 percent84. There are also indigenous
tribes in Malaysia.
Malaysia’s GDP is 296.535.93 billion US dollars, with a GDP
per capita of 9,508.2 US dollars. In 2016, it had a GDP growth rate of
4.2 percent.85 It is a middle-income country with continual economic
growth. It is a new industrialized country, which shifted from the
dependence on mining and agricultural product exports, e.g. rubber,
palm oil and tin to the dependence on manufacturing and services.86
In 1991, the Malaysian government, led by Dr. Mahathir
Muhammad, initiated a national development policy with the 2020
Vision: To become a developed country. One of its goals was a gross
national income (GNI) per capita of 15,000 US dollars per year.
In 2009, Prime Minister Rasak announced the “1 Malaysia” Policy
which aimed to push Malaysia to achieve its 2020 Vision, and part
of this policy includes crime reduction.
Crimes are prevalent in populated urban areas, most of which
consist of petty crimes. The most common crime is property crime.
Serious crimes constitute a small proportion of the overall crime
rate.87 However, they create great fear in the general public. In 2015,
the most prevalent serious cases consisted of gang robbery without

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firearms (10,718 cases), followed by assault (5,516 cases), robbery

without firearms (2,954 cases), and rape (2,047 cases). Property crimes
that made up the highest proportion consisted of motorcycle theft
(38,565 cases), followed by break-in (19,286 cases), theft (18,078 cases),
and car theft (12,049 cases).88 Its high economic growth, advancements
in information technology, as well as a high rate of access to
technology by its population has resulted in a higher rate of cybercrime.
There has been a dramatic increase in cybercrime cases within a
short time. Cybercrime cases identified include love scams, credit card
fraud, e-Banking fraud, and parcel scam.89
The drug problem in Malaysia has a rising trend despite
capital punishment. The most prevalent drugs in Malaysia include
heroin, methamphetamine, ATS (amphetamine type stimulants), kratom,
cannabis, ketamine, and ecstasy (MDMA).90 Malaysia is a consumer
country, a source of spreading of drugs, and a drug transit country.
There are several risk factors with respect to terrorism in
Malaysia, i.e. ethnic diversity and multiple exit and entry points.
In 2010, transnational terrorism started in Malaysia. There have been
multiple arrests of people suspected of being involved in terrorist
groups, and several explosion incidents have occurred. Malaysia was
first attacked by a terrorist group connected to ISIS in June 2016.
2.5.2 Political Structure
In Malaysia, the King (“Yand di-Pertuan Agong” in the Malay
language) serves as the head of the state under the Constitution,
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with a 5-year term. The position is rotated among sultans or rulers

of nine states on the Malay Peninsula.91 Its political regime is
parliamentary democracy with a federal political structure, as follows:
1) Legislative power, which is comprised of two parts
– the Senate (Dewan Negara) and the House of Representatives
(Dewan Rakyat).
2) Executive power, which is comprised of the cabinet,
with the Prime Minister serving as the head of the executive power,
governing 24 ministries.
3) Judicial power, an independent body which is not
governed by the legislative or executive power.
Malaysia is comprised of 13 states and three federal territories,
which are ruled by the central or federal government.92 The federal
territories consist of Kuala Lumpur, Putrajaya, and Labuan. States in
western Malaysia (Malay Peninsula) are comprised of Kelantan, Keda,
Terengganu, Ngrisembilan, Pahang, Perlis, Penang, Perak, Malacca, Johor,
and Selangor. Eastern Malaysia (northern Borneo) consists of Sabah
and Sarawak. Malaysian local administration differs from Thai local
administration because Malaysia has no provinces. The administrative
units below those of states are districts, sub-districts (Mukim), and
village (Kampongs).
2.5.3 Police Organizational Structure and Police Adminis-
tration
The first Malaysian territory ruled by Britain was situated on
the Malay Peninsula on Penang Island in 1786. Then, this territory
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adopted the British legal system and justice process, and on 25

March 1807, it adopted the Charter of Justice in Penang. This marked
a major change in the Malaysian legal system and the starting point
of modern Malaysian police organization. When Britain expanded its
power into different areas, Malaysian police authorities were developed
in respective areas.93 At that time, their authority was limited to
their own state. After World War II, Malaysian police authorities were
unified. After the Malaysian Independence Declaration on 24 July
1958, Almarhum Tuanku Abdul Rahman Ibni Almarhum Tuanku
Muhamad, teh late Malaysian King, granted the prefix ‘Royal’ to the
Malaysian police organization, so its name became “Royal Malayan
Federations Police Forces.” In 1963, the Royal Federation of Malayan
Police (RFMP) integrated the Sarawak Constabulary into the North
Borneo Police to form the Royal Malaysia Police.
The Malaysian police organization is characterized by a
centralized structure. The Royal Malaysia Police (Polis Diraja Malaysia)
is under the Ministry of Home Affairs, and the top position of the
Royal Malaysia Police is the Inspector-General of Police (IGP). The
Deputy Inspector-General of Police assists him in overseeing police
administration. Its internal agencies consist of the Inspector-General
of Police Secretariat; the Management Department, which administers
and oversees Contingent HQ, Police District, and police stations; the
Internal Security and Public Order (ISPO), which has police forces
available for supporting big operations, divided into the force, battalion,
and company level; the Strategic Resource and Technology Department
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(StaRT), which is responsible for logistics, transport, information and

communication technology, finance, materials and equipment; the
Crime Investigation Department (CID); the Narcotics Department; the
Special Branch Department; the Commercial Department; the Crime
Prevention and Community Safety Department; and the Integrity and
Standard Compliance Department.
Local police agencies under the Malaysian National Police
are divided into four levels:
1) Contingent HQ (14 regions)
2) Police District (115 police districts)
3) Police Station (788 stations)
4) Police Post (569 police posts)
The Malaysian National Police has 137,227 officers. The
Malaysian police-population ratio is 1: 227. There are 109,019 junior
officers (79 percent), 13,479 senior police officers (10 percent), and
14,729 civil servants (11 percent).94
There are three ways to become a police officer. To become
a constable, individuals have to receive 6-month training. To qualify
for a cadet sergeant, individuals must hold a diploma degree and
receive 9-month training. To become a cadet inspector, individuals
must receive 9-month training.
Malaysian police training in involves two types:
1) Basic training – There are eight police training centers
in charge of providing basic training for newly recruited police across
Malaysia.
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2) In-service training – There are various in-service

training centers that train police officers on duty according to their
ranks and expertise. They consist of the Royal Malaysia Police College
Kuala Lumpur, which trains senior police officers or management-level
police officers; the Royal Malaysia Police College Kuala Kubu Bharu,
which trains junior officers; the Royal Malaysia Police Technical College
Bakri Muar; the Air Unit Training Centre; the Marine Police Training
Centre; the Federal Reserve Unit Training Centre; and the General
Operation Force Training Centre.
The personnel administration of the Malaysian National Police
uses the competency concept. The RMP Competency Model has
been developed to serve as the personnel administration framework,
which involves the following four competencies:
1) Core competency, e.g. organizational awareness.
2) General competency, e.g. strategic management and
change management.
3) Policing competency, e.g. criminology and crime
prevention.
4) Functional competency, e.g. investigations, interroga-
tion, and intelligence gathering.
The Malaysian National Police formulated strategies to
accommodate its 2020 Vision (Wawasan 2020) and the “1 Malaysia”
Policy (Satu Malaysia) in order to accelerate the achievement of
the 2020 Vision. One program under the policy is the Government

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Transformation Program, which aims to optimize public administration

and public service. The Malaysian National Police defined six national
key results areas, as follows:
1) Reducing crime
2) Fighting corruption
3) Improving student outcomes
4) Raising living standards of low income households
5) Improving rural infrastructure
6) Improving urban public transport
7) Cost of living
The Malaysian National Police developed a five-year strategic
plan (2015-2020) to support the policy and contribute to the achievement
of the 2020 Vision of Malaysia. Its organizational vision is “The
Leading Agency in Making the Nation Safe, Peaceful, and Prosperous.”
Its mission is “To Provide Professional and Quality Services in
Protecting the Country and Ensuring Safe Surroundings for People.”
Six strategic issues included in the strategic plan consist of law
enforcement, public safety and security, crime prevention, investigation
and prosecution, security intelligence, and strengthening the organization.
For crime reduction, the Malaysian National Police set goals
for three phases. The first phase (2010-2012), which involved the
“community policing” concept, had the goals to prevent crime,
organize the “Safe City Program,” and to have an omnipresence of
police forces in different areas. The second phase (2013-2015) had

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the goals to build the capacity of the Malaysian National Police,

provide more efficient police force omnipresence, prevent crime in
hot spots, and collaborate with other sectors as a single unit to
combat crime. The third phase (2016-2020) has the goal to become
a world class police force.
The Malaysian National Police wishes to achieve modern
policing to optimize public services by means of different technologies.
This involves four approaches, as follows:
1) Using current technology to respond to the current
environment, e.g. using information technology to analyze and forecast
crime trends.
2) Using technology to empower local operational police
officers and using back office technology, e.g. mobile devices,
communication radios which can locate positions, and video recorders.
3) Using technology to ensure best methods for working,
e.g. reporting online databases linking all law enforcement agencies.
4) Using technology to create public engagement, e.g.
community policing and local police administration.
2.5.4 Laws Related to Police Law Enforcement
The Malaysian legal system was historically influenced by
the British legal system, which is derived from common law. The
Islam Law in Malaysia applies to the state of individuals, family and
inheritance. Cases related to the state of individuals, family and
inheritance have to be filed with the Syariah Court. The Malaysian

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court system is a unified court. That is, the court’s authority is

related to trials and judgments for all types of cases, including
civil cases, criminal cases, and administrative cases. There are two
levels of courts: the Superior Court (consisting of the Supreme Court
or the Federal Court) and the High Court. They have the authority
to conduct trials for civil and criminal cases and oversee the justice
process of the Subordinate Court. They are authorized to consider
appeals from the Magistrate’s Court and the Sessions Court. The
Subordinate Court includes the Sessions Court and the Magistrate’s
Court.
There are other special courts in Malaysia; for example, the
Penghula’s Court, Native Court, Juvenile Court, Special Court, and
Syariah Court95. Under Federal administration, each state has its own
dispute resolution law. However, the process and structure of different
states are the same under the oversight of the Federal Government.
In pursuance of the Criminal Procedure Code (Act 593),
Malaysian police officers are authorized to make an arrest with warrant.
The provision in Article 23 authorizes police officers and sub-district
headmen (Penghulu) to make an arrest without an order from the
Magistrate’s Court or to make an arrest without warrant in different
cases. For example, they are authorized to arrest:96
- Persons involved in an offense, anywhere in Malaysia,
which is subjected to an arrest under law enforced in particular parts
of Malaysia and is committed upon another person, who complains

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in a reasonable way or has reliable information. An offense that is

subjected to arrest without warrant is the unlawful membership of
a group for a riot.
- Persons who possess an article suspected of being
stolen and unlawfully acquired and are suspected, with reasonable
grounds, of being offenders.
- Persons that impede police officers while they are
on duty or persons who escape or try to escape from legal control.
- Persons suspected, with reasonable grounds, of deserting
the Malaysian Army.
Police officers are authorized to detain arrestees for no more
than 24 hours. Furthermore, the law allows the general public to
arrest individuals as required by law. Once they arrest someone, they
must take them to the police station. Police officers will reconsider
if the arrestees should be formally arrested. If they consider that
such arrest is reasonable, they will make an arrest again.
As for enforcement of public assembly law, freedom of
assembly is a fundamental right which is protected under the
Malaysian Constitution. However, Malaysia has a governing public
law enacted in 2012, which allows people to gather without firearms.
The Malaysian criminal law will penalize people who initiate unrest
in Malaysia. Under the law, people who will join a gathering must
inform local police officers of the venue for their gathering ten days
before the gathering takes place. In addition, demonstration on the
public streets is illegal.97
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2.5.5 Building Public Safety Partnerships

The participation of the general public and all sectors of
society in solving crime issues was emphasized and became clearer
after the launch of Malaysia’s 2020 Vision in 1991 and the “1 Malaysia”
Policy in 2010. This was because one outcome of this policy was
the reduction of crimes, which is a key mission of the Malaysian
National Police. To respond to this policy, crime prevention was defied
as an important policy of the Malaysian National Police.
As efficient crime prevention is not able to be ensured by
the police alone, the Malaysian National Police set up the Crime
Prevention and Community Safety Department to take care of holistic
crime prevention missions to create community safety.98
The holistic crime prevention has been implemented by
building partnerships with various sectors for crime prevention, which
involves four approaches – omnipresence of police forces for crime
prevention; community engagement, to raise public consciousness
of crime prevention; partnership with the private sector in crime
prevention, and collaboration with other government agencies.
Concerning the partnership between police and the general
public, the Community Policing Malaysia (CPM), a non-profit organization,
was established. Aiming to work together to keep communities safe
through tight cooperation and understanding about the police, CPM
members consist of retired police officers and citizens who care
about social safety. The CPM has sought to establish partnerships
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with police officers to identify and prioritize issues concerning crimes

and social disorderliness. They have shared responsibility for developing
strategies for resolving given issues and implementing them to bring
about practical results.99 The roles of CPM members vary from one area
to another area. Measures to prevent crimes have been implemented
in tourist areas and residential areas, which consist of people from
various nationalities.
An important involvement of private organizations in crime
prevention is ‘auxiliary police.’ Auxiliary police are comparable to
police officers or security guards, but they hold authority within a
particular agency area, building, or organization. Any organization
can hire auxiliary police at their own expenses; however, they must
send them out to be trained by police authorities. They wear police
uniforms; the only thing that differentiates them from police
authorities is the badges on their arms, which indicate they are
auxiliary police and indicate the organization that they are affiliated
with. Currently, there are 153 government agencies, legal entities
and private companies that are allowed by law to provide their own
police unit, which include 40,610 auxiliary police officers.100
In Malaysia, there are also police volunteers – police volunteer
reserves (PVR)–who support police officers of the Malaysian National
Police. Ordinary citizens can become police volunteers to assist in
maintaining peace and order and safety in communities or public
areas. Apart from experiencing the life of police officers, police volunteers

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help to establish a good relationship between the police and society.

When on duty, police volunteers are subjected to the same rules
of police officers.101 Police volunteers serve as a tool in general
public-police partnerships for resolving crime issues and serve as a
mechanism for responding to the government policy towards crime
reduction.
2.5.6 International Policing
The Malaysian National Police joined INTERPOL on 4 September
1961102. The Malaysian agency that coordinates with INRERPOL is
the INTERPOL National Central Bureau (NCB) or the INTERPOL
Kuala Lumpur. This agency is supervised by the Inspector-General
of Police (IGP). INTERPOL National Central Bureau is part of the CID.
Malaysia has the Mutual Assistance in Criminal Matters Act
2002, which outlines principles on international cooperation, cooperation
between police officers, details about the extradition process, and
evidence gathering through cooperation from all sectors.103 Malaysia
is an ASEAN member country situated on the Malay Peninsula and
Borneo Island. It is a transportation hub and shares borders or
maritime boundary lines with other ASEAN member countries, i.e.
Thailand, Singapore, Indonesia, Brunei and the Philippines. This has
contributed to transnational crimes and poses risks of terrorism. Thus,
cooperation in fighting against crime and terrorism is important.
Another role of Malaysia in establishing cooperation between
international police organizations is providing training programs, a tool
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for building international relationships. The Royal Malaysia Police

College Kuala Lumpur arranges a 4-week International Senior Police
Officers’ Command Course on a yearly basis. The target participants
of the course are police officers and law enforcement officers across
the world. As of 2017, there were 43 batches of participants who were
trained in the course. This course has established a good relationship
between police officers from different countries and cooperation between
international police organizations in the future.
Malaysia played an active role in the 25th ASEANAPOL
Conference, in 2005 in Indonesia. Realizing the need for setting up
a permanent secretariat office, participants at the meeting jointly
declared setting up a working group to consider the possibility of
establishing the ASEANAPOL Secretariat Office. At the 2008 ASEANAPOL
Conference, which was held in Brunei, there was a unanimous
resolution to set up the ASEANAPOL Secretariat Office in Kuala
Lumpur, Malaysia. Since 1 January 2010, the ASEANAPOL Secretariat
Office has been in operation.
On a bilateral basis, as Malaysia borders with Thailand,
Singapore, Indonesia, the Philippines, and Brunei, it has established
bilateral relations with these countries to cooperate in addressing
cross-border crimes between Malaysia and these countries. Malaysia
and Thailand police have a long and positive relationship, which is
witnessed through a good relationship between leaders of police
organizations of both countries and between the Malaysian National

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Police and the Royal Thai Police. Every year, a rugby match between
Thai police and Malaysian police for the Jurirawong Trophy is
organized. In addition, this is witnessed through close coordination
of transnational crime cases and tangible results of their coordinated
operations, especially with respect to security intelligence and the
suppression of transnational car theft.

2.6 Republic of the Union of Myanmar

2.6.1 Socio-economic Conditions
Situated on the Indochina Peninsula and covering 653,080
​​ [Link],
Myanmar is the second largest country in Southeast Asia. It shares
borders with India, Bangladesh and China to the north and with
Laos and Thailand to the east. In the south and west, it abuts the
Andaman Sea. It has a population of 52,885,220104. Naypyidaw, which
translates to ‘the country’s new capital city’, has been the capital
of Myanmar since 2006. The official language in Myanmar is Burmese.
Major ethic groups in Myanmar consist of Myanmar (68 percent),
Shan (9 percent), Karen (7 percent), Rakhine (4 percent), Chinese
(3 percent), Indian (2 percent), Mon (2 percent), and others (5 percent).
Most Myanmar people are Buddhists (89 percent), while the remaining
population includes Christians (4 percent), Muslims (4 percent), animists
(1 percent), and others (2 percent). Myanmar Buddhists are very
religious. As they have a strong faith in merit making, they spend
a lot of money on it.105 In 2016, Myanmar’s gross domestic product

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(GDP) was 63.22510 billion US dollars, with a GDP per capita of

1.1955 billion US dollars and GDP growth of 5.9 percent.106 Despite
a low per capita income, Myanmar has enjoyed a high economic
growth rate. In 2007, the Myanmar government started to implement
a free-trade policy to involve the private sector in production, and
it opened the country to attract more trade and investment. The
policy has resulted in a high economic growth rate.
No crime statistics in Myanmar have been officially published
by relevant Myanmar authorities. Domestic poverty, rapid increase in
the cost of living, no increase in incomes, an increased number of
foreigners, and rapid expansion in the tourism sector are probably
factors contributing to a higher crime rate.107 The most common
crimes in large cities include robberies at night, petty crimes on
public roads, break-ins, and murders. Petty crimes reported to police
are basic petty crimes, e.g. bag snatching and stealing. A lot of
crimes have not been officially recorded or gathered. The Myanmar
government does not allow the general public to possess firearms.
The most common weapons that offenders possess and use for
committing crime are knives. Because the crime-related data collection
system is incomplete, it may not reflect the actual number of crime
cases.
Concerning drugs, Myanmar is the world’s second largest
opium producer after Afghanistan. Most opium in Myanmar is used
for heroin production. Methamphetamine is another drug whose

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production bases are located in Myanmar,108 especially in the Golden

Triangle and the northeastern part of the Shan State in border areas
with Thailand, Laos and China. Minority and rebel groups rely on
drug-derived income to fight against the Myanmar government. Drugs
produced in Myanmar are smuggled into other Asian countries and
other areas. Most drug production occurs in remote areas along
border lines under the control of ethnic armed forces or their alliances
that are on the opposite side to the Myanmar Army.
Ethnic diversity in Myanmar has been a major challenge for
the Myanmar government in maintaining domestic peace and order.
Some areas still experience conflicts between the Myanmar government
and influential minority armed forces. The conflicts pertain to ethnic,
religious, economic and political issues. Since 2011, the Myanmar
government has sought to negotiate a ceasefire agreement with
ethnic armed groups, but unrest still occurs in some areas.
Myanmar is one of Southeast Asian countries encountering
the problem of trafficking in persons. The problem is associated with
the issue of Rohingya minorities. Pressures on Rohingya people have
pushed them to migrate or escape from Myanmar to other areas.
Some human traffickers have taken advantage of this situation to
exploit this group of people. Another form of trafficking in persons
relates to woman or child prostitution. Prostitution in Myanmar is
illegal. Some women have been lured into prostitution outside of the
country, and some women have been forced to marry Chinese men.

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2.6.2 Political Structure

Myanmar is a republic country characterized by the parlia-
mentary system, with the president serving as the head of the state
and executive power. The Myanmar Constitution divides administrative
powers into three branches.109
1) Legislative power – The legislature acts as the
legislative body, which consists of two parliaments:
a. The House of Representatives (Pyithu Hluttaw) –
The House of Representatives consists of no more than 440 members
– 330 are directly elected and 110 are appointed by the Army Supreme
Commander (1 in 4 of members of the House of Representatives).
They have a five-year term in office.
b. The Senate (Amyotha Hlittaw) or the National
Assembly – It consists of a maximum of 224 members. They are
elected directly from each division or state, each with 12 members.
Currently, Myanmar is composed of seven divisions and seven states.
Thus, there are 168 members from an election and 56 members
designated by the Army Supreme Commander (1/4 of the Senate
members).
2) Executive power – The president holds the highest
power to govern the country. He has the power to designate or remove
any ministers. The Myanmar Cabinet consists of 68 members – 29
ministers and 39 deputy ministers.
3) Judiciary power – This consists of the Supreme Court,
Court Martial, and Constitutional Tribunal of the Union. Although the
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Supreme Court is the highest court, its trials do not affect the power
of the Court Martial or the Constitutional Tribunal of the Union.
As stated, Myanmar is divided into seven divisions and states,
as follows:110
1) States – The states where most of the population
is ethnic minorities consist of Chin, Kachin, Kayin, Kayah, Mon,
Rakhine, and Shan.
2) Divisions – Myanmar’s divisions with most of the
population being Burmese consist of Ayeyarwady, Bago, Magway,
Mandalay, Sagaing, Tanintharyi, and Yangon.
The local government structure among the 14 states/divisions
is the same. The structure is characterized by three levels, consisting
of district (kayai or mayonae), village (yawa or jeyawa), and urban
community with a municipality or sanitary area (yakaewa, which
means an area or a zone). Currently, there are 2,470 yakaewa.111
2.6.3 Police Organizational Structure and Police Adminis-
tration
During the time when Myanmar was known as Burma and
ruled by a king, the Burmese police was supervised by town governors
and village headmen. Police officers at that time were characterized
as village police looking after villages and serving as a military reserve
force. When Burma became a British colony, it adopted the British
police system. Burma’s first police station was established in Arakan
in 1825, which was called thana or thannah. Its responsibilities
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included preventing and suppressing non-serious crimes, assisting

military forces with patrols, and assisting village headmen with
maintaining peace and order.112
After World War II, a newly-established Burmese police
organization and new form of armed police played a leading role in
revitalizing laws and regulations and were involved in maintaining
internal security, which was threatened by dacoit gangs, communist
insurgents, and armed ethnic groups. After Burma gained independence
from Britain in 1948, the Burmese Army, which was weak, gained
its strength very quickly with its better organization and its greater
influence on the management of its internal affairs. The coup d’état
by General Ne Win in 1962 diminished Burmese police’s roles, and
the Union Military Police became part of the Burmese Army. In 1964,
the Burmese Police was reformed to be the People’s Police Force.
Later, the responsibility for ensuring the respect for law and social
order was transferred to the Burmese Army (Tatmadaw).113 After
political situations in Burma changed, efforts were made to reform
the police organization to better serve the need of the general public
and communities.
In 1989, the government changed the country’s name from
Burma to Myanmar. At the present time, the Myanmar Police Force
is part of the Ministry of Home Affairs.114 The Myanmar Police Force
Headquarters is located in Naypyidaw. Myanmar’s seven states and
seven divisions have their own police units; however, these units are

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affiliated with the central police authority.115 The Myanmar Police Force’s
authority includes crime prevention, investigation and prosecution of
criminal cases, maintenance of public peace and order and public
security, as well as narcotics law enforcement.
The chief executive of the Myanmar Police Force is the
“Director General of Myanmar Police Force.” Holding the Police Major
General rank, the Director General of Myanmar Police Force is in charge
of controlling and commanding the entire Myanmar Police Force.
Below is the administrative structure of the Myanmar Police Force,
which includes different agencies, as follows:
1) Headquarters
2) State and Division Police Forces
3) Special Departments
4) Training Centers
5) Reserve Units
6) Combat Police Battalions
Myanmar has 14 state/division police forces, each consisting
of four major compositions, as presented below:
1) The Commander’s Office of the State and Divisional
Police Force (in seven states and divisions).
2) The Commander’s Office of the District Police Force
(in 73 districts).
3) The Commander’s Office of the Township Police Force
(in 33 townships).
4) 1,256 police stations.
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The Myanmar Police Force’s manpower has approximately

93,000 officers,116 who are classified into three rank groups: senior
commissioned police officers, commissioned police officers, and
non-commissioned police officers.
Police personnel development is the duty of the Training
Centers. In Myanmar, there is one Central Training Institute of
Myanmar Police Force (CTIMPF) and two Police Training Centers.
In the past, the Myanmar Police was hardly mentioned. The
roles in ensuring national security and affairs mostly belonged to the
military institute. However, after the change in political situations –
after the end of the administration of General Ne Win, efforts were made
to reform the police organization to ensure its improved efficiency,
to professionalize police operations, and to focus on community-based
policing, by attaching great importance to coordination with the
general public and use of online media, e.g. Facebook and websites.117
Myanmar’s inadequate budget monies, materials, equipment,
and vehicles for executing duties among police officers have affected
the efficiency and knowledge of their duty execution The Myanmar
Police Force has received assistance from different international
organizations to address this issue and build its capacity in terms of
law enforcement and efficient solving of internal problems. An example
is the assistance from the European Commission to Myanmar under
the MYPOL Program.118 Beginning in 2017, this five-year project has
the objectives to provide assistance for the Myanmar Police Force

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to ensure that it is a modern organization in accordance with

international standards, respects human rights, has an open relationship
with communities, and creates public confidence in the police. The
assistance is offered for training in different topics, e.g. community
policing, crowd management, criminal investigation, and human
resources management.119
Drug prevention and suppression is a major policy of the
Myanmar government, which involves different agencies including
the Myanmar Police Force. All of the agencies work under the control
of the Central Committee for Drug Abuse Control. Under a drug
problem-solving plan, the Myanmar Police has established the Drug
Suppression Force with the goal to solve the drug problem within
15 years.
In terms of transnational crime suppression, Myanmar is a
member of the United Nations. In 2004, it became a member state
of the United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized
Crime (UNTOC). Later, an anti-transnational crime agency was
established in Myanmar to deal with transnational crime. The Myanmar
Police Force pays greater attention to transnational crime in the
rapidly changing world. The transnational crimes focused on by
Myanmar include terrorism, drugs, arms trade, piracy, cybercrime,
money laundering, trafficking in persons, and economic crime.

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2.6.4 Laws Related to Police Law Enforcement

Myanmar has a long history and has been influenced by
Buddhism. Similarly, its legal system has evolved from a tradition
called “Dammathat,” whereby judges judge legal cases in writing
based on long-standing customs. The customs include civil and
commercial laws, as well as family and legacy laws. In addition,
Myanmar law has evolved from “Phyahton”– the judicial decisions
passed by Courts, Benches and the King’s Hluttaw120. After Myanmar
became a British colony, it was influenced by the British legal system.
The Myanmar legal system is unique due to the combination
of customs, as in the family law, British common law, and modern
Myanmar law. The British common law that appears in Myanmar
law include prescription law, arbitration law, corporation law, juristic
act and contract law, witness law, promissory note law, trade law,
property law, trust law, and civil procedure law.121
Criminal law in Myanmar came into existence in 1861. The
provisions in the Criminal Code include the introduction; general
definitions; penalties; general legal exceptions; instigation; support for
crime; offences against the state; offences against the constitution;
libel against foreign powers; offences against the army, the navy and
air force; offences against peace and order; offences against civil
servants; offences against elections; contempt of civil servants; evidence
forgery and offences against justice work; offences against coins and
stamps; offences against scales and meters; offences against health

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and safety; offences against religions; offences against physique;

offences against body; and offences against documents and trademarks.
Laws that include criminal penalties in relation to public
safety include drug laws. Drug laws enforced for controlling and
solving the drug problem consist of the Burma Excise Act 1917,
Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances Law, 1993; and the
Rules relating to Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances Law,
1995.122
Concerning public assembly, Myanmar had a law which
prohibited gatherings of more than five people in public areas, which
was in force beginning from 1988 during the junta administration.
That law conflicted with the country’s new constitution, which
guarantees the freedom of expression. As a result, in 2011, the
government of General Teng Seng, which tended to provide freedom
to its citizens and wished to reform Myanmar in various aspects,
abrogated the junta’s law.123 His government legislated to allow the
general public to organize peaceful protests. This law stipulates that
those who wish to organize an assembly shall inform authorities
five days in advance of this and shall specify the time, venue, reasons,
content, and route for the march. However, this law prohibits protestors
from blocking traffic lanes or causing unrest during a march. Individuals
who organize a protest without permission are subject to one-year
imprisonment, and those who disturb a peaceful assembly are subject
to a two-year imprisonment.124

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The Myanmar court system is subject to the Union Judiciary

Law, 2010, which supports the court system under the Constitution of
the Union of Myanmar, 2008, the structure of which is as follows:125
1) The Supreme Court of the Union – The Supreme Court,
which is of the highest importance, and its power is above the High
Court in divisions or states, which consists of the Supreme Court of
the Union of Myanmar, the High Court of the Region or the State,
the Court of Self-Administrated Division, Court of Self-Administrated
Zone, the District Court, the Township Court, and other courts
established by law, e.g. the Juvenile Court, Court to Try Municipal
Offences, and the Courts to Try Traffic Offences.
2) The Court Martial – The Court Martial was established
under the Constitution to try cases related to the army. Other courts
have no jurisdiction over the Court Martial.
3) The Constitutional Tribunal of the Union.
Concerning law enforcement, police officers are allowed to
arrest the accused with an arrest warrant issued by the court. Making
an arrest without an arrest warrant is allowed in some cases, e.g.
persons suspected of committing a cognizable offense, persons
reported of committing a cognizable offense, persons about whom
police receive credible information indicating that they have commit-
ted a cognizable offense, persons possessing equipment used for
breaking into houses without legal grounds, persons suspected of
possessing stolen property or committing an offense to obtain such
property, persons who obstruct the execution of police duties, persons
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who try to flee from legal detention, persons who have deserted
their service from the army, navy or air force, etc. In addition, search
is allowed with a search warrant issued by the court.
2.6.5 Building Public Safety Partnerships
One of the efforts by the Myanmar Police Force to reform
the Myanmar police is the establishment of a police-people partnership
to tackle crimes in the form of community policing. The Myanmar
government has attached great importance to the establishment of
the police-people partnership and restoration of police image and
confidence from the general public. However, there are many limitations
in achieving that goal, whether in terms of resources, knowledge,
personnel in charge, and creating confidence in police. Thus, many
international organizations have provided Myanmar with assistance
and support to achieve development of the work.
Myanmar and the European Union (EU) have bilateral cooperation
in human rights, community policing, and police reform to allow
Myanmar police work to achieve international standards. One cooperative
effort between them is that the EU has assisted the Myanmar Police
Force with promoting the relationship between the police force and
the general public under a community policing project, funded by
the EU. The project has provided local communities with the
opportunity to interact with local police and meet community police
officers in urban areas. The EU has also provided Myanmar police
officers with training (training to trainers). The EU has funded

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Myanmar’s police reform projects, which include community policing,

crowd management, improvement of police accountability, and
upgrading of the roles of the civil society and media sectors.126
Assistance with building a police-community partnership is part of
the MyPol project.
The Community Policing Project, worth 13.6 million USD, was
first implemented in Mingalar Taung Nyunt Township in Yangon in
January 2014. In March 2014, it was implemented in other areas,
e.g. Sanchaung Township. The primary objectives of the project were
to improve human rights-related practices and initiate the development
of community-based policing.
The private business sector plays a key role in the public
service as a public safety partnership. Businesses provide security
personnel at their establishments and formulate different security
measures, which will help to prevent crimes in the local areas and
reduce the use of force by the police. Urban areas which are
the locations of crowded private business establishments, tourist
attractions, and markets are provided with security personnel plus
security equipment and materials needed for patrolling for incident
prevention. However, security personnel are not allowed to possess
or carry firearms.
2.6.6 International Policing
The Myanmar Police Force has been a member of the
International Police Organization (INTERPOL) since 13 June 1956.127
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The Interpol National Central Bureau (NCB) for Myanmar is situated

at the Myanmar Police Force Headquarters in Nepidaw. Its operation
is focused on combating drug trafficking, trafficking in persons,
money laundering, and terrorism.
Myanmar joined the Association of Southeast Asian Nations
(ASEAN) in 1997 amidst criticism and objection from Western nations,
which commented that ASEAN should wait until the political situations
and human rights violation situations in Myanmar improved. However,
ASEAN accepted Myanmar as its member that year to ensure the
unity of ASEAN and benefit Myanmar. Being an ASEAN member
has been an opportunity for Myanmar to adapt to the international
community.
As for regional relationships, Myanmar has joined hands with
ASEAN member countries through international conferences, e.g. the
ASEAN Senior Officials Meeting on Transnational Crime (SOMTC) to
combat narcotics and transnational crimes, ASEAN Ministerial Meeting
on Transnational Crime (AMMTC), and ASEANAPOL.
Its geography and the socio-political problem characterized by
ethnic minority armed groups’ fights against the Myanmar government
are major factors contributing to unrest and drug problems in some
areas. Myanmar has to rely on international cooperation to tackle
the problems with drugs, unrest, and domestic and transnational
crimes. The types of crimes which are the focus of Myanmar police
consist of drug trafficking, money laundering, trafficking in persons,

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and terrorism. Accordingly, the Myanmar Police Force has relationships

with police organizations in different countries for collaborative
anti-crime efforts, e.g. the Australian Federal Police (AFP). Myanmar
has cooperated with Thailand, Laos and Vietnam in the prevention
and suppression of drugs and trafficking in persons.

2.7 Republic of the Philippines

2.7.1 Socio-economic Conditions
The Philippines is an archipelagic country situated on islands
which hold the same name – the Philippine Islands. Sharing no
terrestrial boundaries with any countries, the Philippine Islands
cover ​​300,000 [Link]. This country connects to the South China Sea
to the north and west and to the Pacific Ocean to the south and
east. It consists of 7,107 islands. Approximately 40 percent of the
islands (approximately 2,800 islands) are assigned official names. Its
largest islands are divided into three groups: the Luzon Island group,
in the north; the Visayas Island Group, in the middle; and southern
island groups, with Mindanao being the main island, plus the Sulu
Archipelago.128
The Philippines has a population of 103,320,220 million129.
Its official language and spoken language is Filipino. The Philippine
population is composed of various indigenous tribes and ethnicities,
as well as newcomers. The newcomers comprise Christian westerners
and Chinese who came to the Philippines for trading during the
period when the country was dominated by Spain. Each of the groups
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has its own culture, and this provides the country with linguistic
and cultural diversity. Due to social development under Spanish and
American rule, Philippine families have a close relationship like Spanish
families, but the Philippine society is modern like American society,
especially in urban areas.130
In 2016, the Philippines’ GDP was 304.90541 billion US dollars,
with GDP per capita of 4.096 billion US dollars and a GDP growth
of 6.9 percent.131
Its economic growth in the 2010s has been at a good level,
which results from a number of factors, i.e. the expansion of the
export sector, increase in domestic consumption, and the growth of
the service sector. The Philippines has an advantage over other
ASEAN countries because of the widespread use of English, which
makes it an outstanding country in terms of services. Approximately
10 million Filipinos work overseas, which represents 25 percent of
the total Philippine workforce, and these people remit a lot of
money back to the Philippines. The most popular jobs for Filipinos
overseas include nurses, English teachers, housewives, babysitters,
singers, and musicians.
Urbanization in the Philippines has occurred rapidly.
Industrialization and migration to large cities are major factors
contributing in a higher crime rate in large cities in the country.
People migrate from rural areas to flee from hardship and natural
disasters, which has led to the abrupt expansion of large cities, e.g.

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Manila. A lack of planning to support such expansion has resulted

in resources and infrastructure of the cities failing to accommodate
a large number of people, thus causing social inequality and then
crimes.132
According to the Philippines National Police (PNP), the number
of criminal cases in the Philippines in 2017 decreased from 2016.
In 2017, there were 100,668 index crime cases, which decreased by
21.8 percent from 2016, when 128,730 index crime cases occurred.
For the Philippines National Police, index crime cases consist of
assault against persons and property, and statistics of these crimes
are used for assessing public safety situations.
Crime is concentrated is Manila, the capital city and most
populated city, with 16,930 reported cases last year. The area with
the least crime rate was the Autonomous Region in the Muslim
Mindanao (ARMM), with only 1,141 reported criminal cases last year.
In 2017, this country enjoyed a significant decrease in crime incidents,
as a result of the government policy towards crime reduction. The
government developed different measures and campaigns for public
participation in crime reduction.133
A special type of crime in the Philippines is kidnapping for
ransom. It is one of the countries with highest kidnapping rates,
which creates fear among foreign investors and tourists. Offenders
usually keep an eye on victims to observe their behavior, activities,
and routes for some time before they act. Many kidnapping cases

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have been conducted by criminal organizations, some of which are

associated with terrorists or insurgent movements.134 Philippine law
allows its citizens to apply for firearm possession and to establish
firearm factories. Apart from licensed firearm possession, non-licensed
firearm possession is prevalent in the Philippines. Firearms with an
expiring permit are also found across the country, with some being
smuggled from other countries and some being locally produced,
which contribute to serious crimes.
The most problematic drug in the Philippines is white-crystal
methamphetamine, which is called shabu in Filipino (it is called “ice”
in Thai), followed by marijuana, cocaine and ecstasy (methylenedioxy-
methamphetamine (MDMA), ecstasy). Transnational crime groups
establish drug factories and import drugs for sale in the country.
Philippine authorities have cracked down and arrested groups of
people operating various factories which produce drugs containing
these synthetic substances countrywide, including in the center of
Manila. 135 Meanwhile, the Philippines is a transit country for drug
smuggling to other countries.
The Philippines is still facing the issues of unrest and
kidnapping from the Abu Sayyaf Group (ASG), a terrorist group
founded in the Philippines in 1991. This terrorist group split from
the Moro National Liberation Front (MNLF). Without having fixed
operational bases, this group has operated in the southern Philippines.
In 2000, it started its movement and operations which were outside

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of its normal area by kidnapping 21 tourists on the Sopadan Islands.

Mostly, its movement involves kidnapping, armed attacks, and placement
of bombs in various areas.136
In 2017, terrorist organizations which were expanding in the
Philippines, including the Abu Sayyaf Group (ASG), Dawlah Islamiyah
Lanao or the Maute Group, and other small extremist militant groups
declared their advocacy for the ISIS Group and seized Maravi in
Mindanao. Thus, President Rodrigo Duterte declared martial law in
areas over the Mindanao region, which represented one-third of the
entire country area. The national security force cracked down on
them and eliminated hundreds of the group leaders.137
2.7.2 Political Structure
The Philippines is a republic democratic country, with the
president serving as the head of the state and the leader of the
executive power. The Philippine political structure is composed of
three administrative powers, as follows:
1) Executive power – The Philippines president comes
from a direct election from the general public. Serving a single, fixed,
six-year term in office, the president is the head of the government.
The public administration is run by secretaries.
2) Legislative power – The Senate consists of 24
members, who are elected. They serve a six-year term and are allowed
to serve two consecutive terms in office. The House of Representatives
consists of 250 members, 200 from a direct election and the rest

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are members from the party-list proportional representation of different

interest groups, with a three-year term and members can serve up
to three consecutive terms.
3) Judiciary Power – The judiciary is responsible for
law enforcement through the courts. Courts in the Philippines are
divided into four levels – Local Court, Regional Court, National Court,
and Supreme Court (also known as the “High Court”).
The Philippines has 17 administrative regions, 80 provinces,
and 120 cities. Elections exist for all levels of leaders, ranging from
the president to the local leader at the Barangay level, the smallest
administrative division in the Philippines. The local government in
each province has its autonomy and it is directed by the Ministry
of Interior and Local Government. 138 The 17 regions include the
National Capital Region. As for the remaining 16 administrative regions,
eight are on the Luzon Islands, three in the Visayas Islands, and six
on the Mindanao Islands.
2.7.3 Police Organizational Structure and Police Adminis-
tration
The Philippines National Police and policing in the Philippines
were founded on 23 June 1898, when the Department of Police
and Internal Order was established by the Constitution of the coup
d’état government under the leadership of General Emilio Aguinaldo.
Subsequently, Philippine policing was organized as an insular
constabulary, which was founded on 8 August 1901. Captain Henry

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T. Allen served as the first police chief. The insular constabulary

was considered to be a force which pioneered national policing in
the Philippines, which adopted based upon the American police
system.139
In 1902, the “Department of Police and Internal Order” was
renamed to “The Philippines National Police.” Since then, its name
has changed several times in response to changes by the time and
needs of the country. In 1986, the new Constitution was promulgated,
providing for the establishment of a police force which is national
in scope and civilian in character. On 13 December 1990, the
Republic Act no. 6975 entitled “The Act Establishing the Philippines
National Police under a Reorganized Department of the Interior and
Local Government (DILG)” was promulgated, and it came into effect
on 1 January 1991.
To strengthen and optimize the Philippines National Police
(PNP), make it community service-oriented, and allow it to better
implement government policies, the PNP Reform and the Reorganiza-
tion Act of 1998 was enacted on 17 February 1998. The PNP was
restructured to achieve more efficient operations. This police reform
featured a significant structural change – it shifted the Philippines
National Police to be under the control of the National Police
Commission (NAPOLCOM) in terms of administration and oversight.140
The Philippines National Police is under the Department
of Interior and Local Government. The National Police Commission,

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in which the Minister of Interior and Local Government serves

as the chairman, who is in charge of administration, control, and
supervision of the Philippines National Police.
The National Police Commission is also responsible for
administering the police entrance examination, investigating unqualified
police cases, and organizing the PNP Promotional Examinations.
It also plays a role in promoting partnerships between the police
organization, local governments, and communities.141
Below is the structure of the Philippines National Police:
1) The PNP Command Group – It is led by the Chief
of the PNP, who has the authority to command and supervise the
Philippines National Police. The PNP Command Group consists of
senior executive officers under the PNP Chief, which include one
Deputy PNP Chief (Operation), Deputy PNP Chief (Operation), and
Chief of the Directorial Staff. These chiefs act as chief operating
officers of the Philippines National Police, who take charge of the
coordination, inspection, and supervision of officers serving as the
chiefs of administration units and the chiefs of offices affiliated with
the Philippines National Police.
2) Agencies directly under the Philippines National
Police – The agencies consist of the Internal Affairs Service (IAS),
the Center for Police Strategy Management (CPSM), the Human Rights
Office Rights Affairs Office (HRAO), the Peace Process and Development
Office, and the Counter Intelligence Task Force.

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3) The Directorial Staff – This comprises 16 units,

including Human Resources, Logistics, Information Technology and
Communication, and Research and Development.
4) Support Unit – There are 24 units that support the
Philippines National Police. Eleven of them are administrative support
units and fourteen are operational support units, which support
important operations. The units include Logistics, Financial Services,
Investigation, Anti-cybercrime, Highway Police, Narcotics Law
Enforcement, and Anti-abduction.
5) Local Operation Unit – This includes the National
Capital Regional Police (NCR), which is responsible for Manila. Its
affiliated agencies consist of the Regional Mobile Force Battalion and
District Offices. The District Offices consist of the Northern Police
District, Eastern Police District, Manila Police District, Southern Police
District, and Quezon City Police District.
Being directly under each of the five District Offices, the NCR
District Mobile Force Battalion is responsible for maintaining peace
and order and its operation is supported by its affiliated police stations.
Police stations provide services to the general public and
prevent and suppress crimes in the local areas and municipality.
Police Regional Offices – They are responsible for areas
outside of Manila. There are 16 Police Regional Offices, namely,
Regional Police Office 1-3 and 5-13, Autonomous Region in Muslim
Mindanao (ARMM), the Cordillera Administrative Region (CAR),

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CALABARZON or Southern Tagalog Mainland (it originally was the

4-A area), and MIMAROPA or Southwestern Takalok (it originally was
the 4-B area). Each of 16 Police Regional Offices has an affiliated
agency, which is the Regional Mobile Force Battalion.
The Police Provincial Office exists in 80 provinces. Directly
under the Police Provincial Office in 80 provinces, the Provincial
Mobile Force Company is responsible for maintaining peace and
order in its areas of responsibility and supporting operations of its
affiliated police stations, which consist of the Municipal/Component
City Police Station. Each police station has its own precincts.
The City Police Officer (CPOs) is located in 20 independent
and advanced cities. The status of CPOs is equivalent to the
Provincial Police Office and the City Mobile Force Company. The
CPO is responsible for maintaining peace and order in its areas of
responsibility and supporting operations of its affiliated police stations.
The number of personnel of the City Mobile Force Company varies
as it depends on the situations related to peace or order in each
province. Police stations affiliated with the CPO Police Station serve
as local service units.
The responsibilities of the Philippines National Police include
enforcing laws, maintaining peace and order, preventing and
investigating crimes, bringing offenders into the justice process,
exercising power in compliance with the Philippine constitutional laws
and relevant laws, complying with laws and regulations pertaining

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to firearm and explosives control, as well as supervising and controlling

the training and performance of private security operators.
The Philippines National Police has approximately 162,000
uniformed personnel and 9,000 non-uniformed personnel, with the
police-general population ratio of 1:700. Female police officers represent
15 percent of all police officers, which is in accordance with law
pertaining to the equality of women’s rights.
The rank of Philippine police officers is divided into two
groups: commissioned and non-commissioned. Its police rank system
is similar to the British police rank system.
In January 2018, the Philippine government approved a salary
increase for all ranks of police officers, which took effect after
President Duarte signed Joint Resolution No. 1 on increasing the
salary for uniformed personnel affiliated with the Ministry of Interior
and Local Government. For the Police Officer 1 (PO1), the lowest
police officer rank, the former salary rate of 14,834 pesos (about
9,274 baht) was increased by 100 percent to 29,668 pesos
(approximately 18,548 baht). Higher ranks were subject to a lower
salary increase rate because the government prioritized the salary
raise for the lowest level police officers due to budget constraints.
The average rate of the salary increase across all ranks was 58.7
percent.142
Concerning police personnel recruitment and selection, female
police recruits must represent ten percent of all recruits each time.
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Examination administration and selection are conducted by the

National Police Commission. Normally, the application is open once
a year, and it must be done online. The starting position for newly
recruited police officers is PO1. Successful candidates must complete
a one-year training program which is dedicated to six-month
academic training and six-month field training. Before they start
working, they must complete the Special Counter Insurgency Operation
Unit Training (SCOUT) to enhance their understanding about military
missions and strategies for future operations.
The applicants for the Philippines National Police Academy are
senior high school graduates who meet required qualification criteria.
Successful candidates will have to attend a four-year undergraduate
program at the Philippines National Police Academy.
Philippine police education and training are the responsibility
of the Philippine Public Safety College (PPSC), which is directly under
the Ministry of Interior and Local Government. The Philippine Public
Safety College provides education and training for government officers
from three agencies – the Philippines National Police, the Bureau of
Fire Protection, and the Bureau of Jail Management & Penology (BJMP).
The Philippine Public Safety College has six affiliated edu-
cational and training institutions, as follows:
1) The National Police Training Institute (NPTI), which
has 18 affiliated Regional Training Centers (RTCs), provides training
for police officers from the Philippines National Police.

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2) The Philippines National Police Academy (PNPA),

which provides a four-year undergraduate degree (Bachelor of Science
in Public Safety (BSPS)). It produces personnel for three agencies, i.e.
the Philippines National Police, the Bureau of Fire Protection, and
the Bureau of Jail Management & Penology (BJMP).
3) The National Police College (NPC), which provides
advanced education or training courses for executives from three
agencies, i.e. the Philippines National Police, the Bureau of Fire
Protection, and the Bureau of Jail Management & Penology. The NPC
Director is a police officer.
4) The National Jail Management and Penology Training
Institute (NJMPTI) – The NJMPTI Director is an officer of the Bureau
of Jail Management & Penology (BJMP). The NJMPTI provides training
for officers affiliated with the Bureau of Jail Management & Penology.
5) The National Fire Training Institute (NFTI), which
trains officers affiliated with the Bureau of Fire Protection.
6) The National Forensic Science Training Institute
(NFSTI), which trains officers affiliated with three agencies, i.e. the
Philippines National Police, the Bureau of Fire Protection, and the
Bureau of Jail Management & Penology.
The Philippines National Police developed the PNP Patrol Plan
2030 to serve as the operational strategy for all relevant agencies.
The main objectives of the plan are to enhance143 the focus of, and
collaboration in, police operations through domestic security policies
and strategies; restructure the police system to reduce mistakes;
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adjust institutional mechanisms to ensure unity in command and

internal management of the National Police; enhance its capacity by
improving operational and administrative relationships; and strengthen
police stations.
2.7.4 Laws Related to Police Law Enforcement
The Philippine legal system is a combination of customs,
Roman (civil law), Anglo-American (customary law) systems, as well
as Islamic law. Its legal system results from the immigration of
Muslim Malay during the 14th century, which continued until the
Spanish and American colonization periods. The civil law applies to
family relations, property, succession, contracts, and criminal law,
while the principles of common appear in constitutional law, the
Code of Criminal Procedure, as well as the law on corporation, tax,
insurance, labor relation, banking, and finance.144
Criminal law in the Philippines has been evolving. During
the Spanish colonization, the Spanish Codigo Penal was applied in
the Philippines. It became a law in the Philippines through a Royal
Decree in 1870. Later, a Penal Code was written by the Spanish
colonizer, which became effective on 14 July 1876. This law was
applied until the U.S.A. colonized the Philippines. The American
colonizers revised the Penal Code, and the Revised Penal Code has
been used until now.
Violations of the Revised Penal Code are felonies, while
violations of Special Penal Laws are offences. Those who commit a
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criminal offense may be subject to criminal, civil or administrative

liability.
In addition to the Revised Penal Code, there are laws that
prescribe criminal offences, e.g. laws on unlawful possession and
sales of narcotics, money laundering, and unlawful possession of
firearms. These laws are called “Special Penal Laws” and they form
part of Philippine Criminal Laws. There are some differences between
crimes punished under the Revised Penal Code and Special Penal
Laws. Violations of the crimes listed in the Revised Penal Code are
referred to as ‘mala in se,’ which means that the act is bad or
wrongful in itself. On the other hand, violations of Special Penal Laws
are referred to as ‘malum prohibitum,’ which is an act that is wrong
because it is prohibited by the state.
The 1987 Constitution of the Republic of the Philippines
prescribes civil rights. Arrests and detentions shall be conducted on
the basis of human rights and equality (1987 Philippine Constitution,
Article 2, Section 4-5). In addition, citizens are allowed to have a
public assembly in compliance with public assembly law. To conduct
a public assembly, one must file a written request with the municipal
office in the area where the assembly will be organized. Public
assemblies in freedom parks, private places, public universities under
the university rules and regulations, political meetings, and assemblies
during election campaigns do not require permission. This is more
about the request for using a venue than conducting a public

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assembly. In a case when authorities reject such a request or set

conditions of the approval, the applicants are entitled to file a lawsuit
in the local area within 48 hours and the court shall hear the case
within 24 hours.
The Philippine court system was influenced by both the
Spanish and American court systems. The Philippine courts are
divided into four levels, as follows:
1) Local courts – These courts consist of the Municipal
Courts, courts in major cities, and the Municipal Circuit Trial Court,
which will rotate to different areas to try non-serious cases.
2) Regional courts – They try cases which are more
serious than cases heard by local courts and appeal cases. There
are 13 regional courts, located in each of the 13 regions.
3) National courts – They are the Appeal Court and
Islamic Court, which mostly try tax appeal cases, civil servant cases,
corruption cases, and cases that are subject to Islamic law.
4) The Supreme Court, or the “High Court” – It consist
of 14 chairpersons and 15 juries. They try political cases, appeal
cases, petition cases, and nationally-important cases, e.g. discharging
the president or suspending the promulgation of martial law. All
judges on the Supreme Court are nominated and selected by the
president through voting of the parliament. 145

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2.7.5 Building Public Safety Partnerships

Building public safety partnerships in the Philippines has
evolved since the establishment of the police and local administration
systems, which were influenced by the American colonizers in the
past, when Philippine police were very close to, and collaborated with,
local governments and local governments played a very significant
role in police administration. In modern times, the Philippines National
Police, which has a centralized structure and administration and is
supervised by the Ministry of Interior and Local Government, attaches
great importance to building public safety partnerships in the form
of community policing or problem-oriented policing. The concepts of
community policing and problem-oriented policing have replaced the
traditional policing concept, focused on reported criminal incidents
and on providing prompt responses. However, modern police have
to engage with communities in joint crime prevention and reduction
programs.
In 1990, the Philippine government developed policies on
promoting peace and order in society and public safety, as well as
strengthening local governments for the efficient provision of basic
public services. To achieve this, the government had to set up an
integrated system for collaboration and coordination between the
general public, local administrators, law enforcement agencies, and
public safety agencies.146 From the policy, the community-oriented
policing system (COPS) was introduced to the Philippines National

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Police, and the Strategic Action Plan for the Philippines National
Police was developed.
In 1998, the law on police reform and restructuring of the
Philippines National Police entitled “An Act Establishing the Philippine
National Police under a Reorganized Department of the Interior and
Local Government, and for Other Purposes” came into being. In this
reform, the National Police Commission (NAPOLCOM) was established
under the Ministry of Interior and Local Government to oversee
police administration. The National Police Commission improved the
community-based police system (COPS) to become the community
and service-oriented police system (CSOP). This aimed to empower
the Philippines National Police to achieve police reform to enable the
police organization being community and service-oriented and to ensure
partnerships between the police, communities, and local governments.
The National Police Commission has played a significant role
in the administration of the Philippines National Police in terms of
policy formulation, general administration, personnel administration,
and issuance of regulations governing the performance of police du-
ties. Local administrators, i.e. the Governor and Mayor, represent the
NAPOLCOM in their areas of responsibility. They play an important
role in defining efficient mechanisms for collaboration, coordination,
provision of consultation on local administration for law enforcement
agencies for driving CSOP, as well as preparation and implementation
of the three-year plan for maintaining peace and order and public

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safety. The three-year plan is integrated into comprehensive development

plans of local governments.147 The Governor plays a role in appointing
different levels of police chiefs, e.g. the Police Provincial Director,
by selecting from a list of three nominees proposed by the Police
Regional and the Chief of the City Police Station. The City/Municipal
Mayor is authorized to appoint different levels of police chiefs, by
selecting them from a list of five nominated police officers from
his/her province proposed by the Police Provincial Director
In addition, local governments provide support for the
performance of duties by police officers at police stations in terms
of vehicles, materials and equipment, which include patrol cars,
motorcycles, communication radios, shields, body armor, pistols, rifles,
equipment used for examination at crime scenes, crowd control
equipment, and other equipment.
Private security personnel are one partner with police officers
to provide public safety. The Philippines National Police is in charge
of directing and controlling training and operations of private security
operators. The Civil Security Group (CGS) is responsible for controlling
business operations and activities of security personnel and organiza-
tions/companies which provide security personnel.
The Philippines National Police has also established a
partnership with the Armed Forces of the Philippines. Some areas
of the Philippines still experience problems of unrest, with armed
forces fighting with the state. Thus, the Philippines National Police

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has a relationship with the Armed Forces of the Philippines with

regard to operations to maintain national peace and order and security.
They share anti-insurgency responsibilities for the suppression of
insurgency and other serious threats to national security. In addition,
they jointly perform operations during emergency situations in the
country.
2.7.6 International Policing
The Philippines National Police joined the International Police
Organization (INTERPOL) on 13 June 1956. Unlike other ASEAN
countries, the National Central Bureau (NCB) for the Philippines is
not under the Philippines National Police, but under the Office of
the President. The NCB coordinates with all law enforcement agencies
in the Philippines. Such organizational structure provides the NCB
with access to all law enforcement agencies in the country.
The Philippines is among the first five countries (others are
Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore, and Thailand) which found ASEAN.
In 1981, the first “Chiefs of ASEAN Police” Conference was convened
in Manila, the Philippines. This meeting was attended by representatives
from these five countries.148 The Philippines National Police has
played an important role in ASEAN cooperation on a continual basis.
The Philippines National Police has bilateral relations with
police organizations in different countries for the prevention and
suppression of transnational crime and development of police
organizations in different areas. The cooperative issues vary from one
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country to another country, depending on national interests and

reciprocal benefits. For example, bilateral cooperation between the
Philippines National Police and police organizations from the U.S.A.
has a long history. The Philippines has received a lot of support
from the U.S.A., Australia, Sweden, South Korea, Taiwan, Indonesia,
Malaysia, Cambodia, and Thailand.

2.8 Republic of Singapore

2.8.1 Socio-economic Conditions
The island of ​​709 [Link], the Republic of Singapore is Southeast
Asia’s smallest country and located at the end of the Malay Peninsula.
It is situated to the south of Malaysia, and both countries are bisected
by the Straits of Johor. Located to the south is the Singapore Strait.
It has a population of 5,607,280.149 English, Mandarin, Malay and
Tamil are official and spoken languages in Singapore. The Singaporean
population is comprised of diverse ethnicities, i.e. Chinese (76 percent),
Malay (13.7 percent), Indian (8.4 percent), and others (1.9 percent).
No state religion is defined in this country. The Singapore government
gives its citizens the freedom of religion. Most Singaporeans are
Buddhists (42.5 percent), while the rest of the population is Islamic
(14.9 percent), Christian (14.6 percent), Taoist (8.5 percent), Hindu
(4 percent), others (0.7 percent), and the irreligious (14.5 percent).
The ethnic diversity contributes to a diversity of cultures in the
country, in terms of food, dress, traditions, and beliefs.150

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In 2016, Singapore’s gross domestic product (GDP) was

296.975.68 billion US dollars and GDP per capita was 52.9625 billion
US dollars, with a GDP growth rate of two percent.151 In ASEAN,
Singapore’s per capita income is the highest, with the major source
of revenue being derived from the service sector, representing over
65 percent of its entire revenue. Its major industries are industries
which rely on scientific and technological knowledge, e.g. electronics,
chemical and engineering industries.152
The main reason why this small country has become one of
the world’s most competitive countries is its focus on scientific and
technological development. The Singapore government believes that
research and development are the key to the country’s economic
development towards the goal of becoming an innovation-driven
economy.
There is a low crime rate in Singapore. In 2017, the Economist
Intelligent Unit ranked 60 cities across the globe in terms of security,
and Singapore ranked no. 1 for personal security and no. 2 for cyber
security.153 Most crimes in this country are non-serious crimes and do
not involve victim confrontation, i.e. breaks-in and opportunistic assault
against persons and property, e.g. purse snatching, pickpocketing,
and stealing. The most common areas for the crimes include crowded
areas, buses, mass transit systems, roads, markets and nightlife
establishments. Serious crime cases are less frequent. If any weapons
are involved in committing crimes, they are usually non-serious

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weapons, e.g. knives or cutters. The country controls firearms strictly

and firearms abuses are subject to severe penalties.155
However, the economic prosperity, as well as information and
communication technology advancement, provides Singaporean citizens
with Internet access, which allows them to have convenient and fast
channels for communication and financial transaction channels. These
factors contribute to assault to property which involves modern
communication. In Singapore, there are a large number of phone and
Internet scams, which occur in various forms.
Concerning drug problems, despite serious penalties on drug
offenders, including capital punishment or life imprisonment, drugs
are widespread in Singapore. A large number of drug users are new
drug users, and many arrestees in drug cases are below 30 years
in age. In addition, challenging a situation for solving drug problems
are the vast number of high-interest transnational drug production
and trade organizations.156 The most prevalent drugs in Singapore
are methamphetamine (crystal methamphetamine or Ice in Thai),
heroin, and marijuana, respectively.
Terrorism threats in Singapore are at a low level. While
Singapore may not be a target area for terrorist attacks, it may be
used by terrorists as secret hiding place for preparing for an attack
elsewhere. However, the Singapore government has attached great
importance to the terrorism issue. Government agencies have monitored
both local extremists and foreigners, including people from neighboring
countries, who arrive in, and depart from, Singapore.
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2.8.2 Political Structure

Singapore is a republic democratic country, with the president
serving as the head of the state and the prime minister serving as
the leader of the executive power. The president serves a six-year
term in office, and the cabinet serves a five-year term. The Singapore
political structure is composed of three administrative powers, as
follows:156
1) Executive power – comprises of the president and
cabinet which administer the country through ministries, departments
and government agencies. Government agencies implement government
policies within the scope of their authority for the utmost benefits
to the country.
2) Legislative power – in Singapore is executed by
unicameral parliament, which is influenced by the British Westminster
system. Serving a five-year term, members of parliament in Singapore
are classified into three groups: 1) Member of parliament from an
election (MPs), 2) Nominated members of parliament (NMP), and
3) Non-constituency members of parliament (NCMP).
3) Judiciary power – is an independent power, which
is very difficult to interfere with. The judiciary is divided into two
levels: the Court of First Instance and the High Court.
Singapore is composed of five regions: the Central Region,
the West Region, the North Region, the East Region, the North-East
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2.8.3 Police Organizational Structure and Police Adminis-

tration
The evolution of the Singaporean police began when Western
colonies came to rule this region like other countries. The Singapore
Police Force (SPF), one of the oldest government organizations in
Singapore, was founded in 1820. At that time, Francis James Bernard
served as a police assistant supervising Singapore’s first small police
unit, which was comprised of a sergeant, a writer, a jailer, and eight
constables.158 This small force did not require much budget and
focused on enabling police officers to perform a variety of duties and
work with community leaders to maintain peace and order in different
areas in accordance with local norms and traditions. Cooperation in
communities was in line with the Sir Stamford Raffles’ policy to
allow British colonies to flourish under the leadership of local people.
This small police force was strengthened in 1826, when
Singapore police, in conjunction with Malaccan and Penang police,
were part of the Straits Settlements Police under the oversight of
the British colonizers.158
The Singapore Police Force had a major change in the 1900s,
when forensic science work was developed to help combat crime
(e.g. keeping criminal records, application of the fingerprint system,
and the establishment of the Police Bureau on South Bridge Road).
Later, the number of police personnel increased to approximately
2,000. The marine police unit, traffic police, police force training unit,

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and communications stations were established. This change contributed

to an increase in peace and safety in Singapore when compared to
the situation in the late 1800s160. The Singapore Police Force enjoyed
development after being separate from Malaysia in 1965. Hardships
that Singapore encountered after its separation from Malaysia pressured
Singapore to maintain harmony and unity in the county and avoid
conflict which could pose a risk to national security. Political policies
resulted in the Singapore police reform. Singapore politicians set
police development goals and provided full funding support.
The Singapore Police Force is affiliated with the Ministry of
Home Affairs, with the Commissioner of Police serving as the top
executive, assisted by three Deputies of Police. Its scope of work
includes policies, operations, as well as investigation and intelligence.
Its affiliated departments are divided into three groups.
1) Staff Departments are responsible in management and
finance, community partnerships, manpower, planning and organization,
logistics, and international cooperation.
2) Specialist Staff Departments include the Economic
Crime Department, the Criminal Investigation Department, the Police
Intelligence Department, and the Next Generation System Directorate.
3) Specialist and Line Units serve as major units which
are in charge of crime prevention and suppression, as well as local
police. They include the Airport Police Division, the Home Team School
of Criminal Investigation, the Public Transport Security Command,
the Special Operations Command, the Training Command, the Police
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Coast Guard, the Security Command, the Presidential Security Unit,

Traffic Police, the Protective Security Command, and Area Police
Divisions in six areas.
There are approximately 16,500 personnel affiliated with the
Singapore National Police. The personnel include approximately 7,600
police officers (46 percent), 2,100 senior police officers (13 percent),
1,600 civil officers (10 percent), and 5,200 national service officers
(30 percent). Singapore National Police also has approximately 1,000
volunteer polices and 27,000 reserve police force.
The Singapore police rank system is similar to the British
police rank system. However, it has a single rank structure, which
includes, from the highest to the lowest level, 1) Commander,
2) Deputy Commissioner, 3) Senior Assistant Commissioner, 4) Assistant
Commissioner, 5) Deputy Assistant Commissioner, 6) Superintendent,
7) Deputy Superintendent, 8) Assistant Superintendent, 9) Inspector,
10) Station Inspector, 11) Senior Staff Sergeant, and 12) Sergeant.
To become personnel of the Singapore Police Force, one can
apply for one of three positions: sergeant, inspector, and civilian
officer. The main police training institution is the Home Team
Academy, which is in charge of training all law enforcement officers,
e.g. police officers, correctional officers, and immigration officers.
Training in the institute is designed to provide for efficient learning.
Modern equipment, training venues and technology, practical training,
and physical performance enhancement are available to ensure efficient
performance of trainees after they complete their training.
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2.8.4 Laws Related to Police Law Enforcement

Singapore has adopted the British legal system, which is
common law, and involves the single court system. In this type of
system, adhering to the natural justice concept, lawyers regard that
that all individuals are equal by law, so they shall be subject to the
same law and the same court. Under the common law system, there
is no differentiation between the private party and the government
officer/agency party – both parties are subject to the same legal
rules.161
The Statutes of the Republic of Singapore Penal Code
(Chapter 224) prescribe general legal provisions, e.g. penalties, exceptions
to liability, and conspiracy. They also include provisions pertaining
to different types of offences, e.g. offences against the state; piracy
offences; genocide offences; offences against the army; offences
relating to unlawful gatherings; offences committed by or related to
civil servants; offences relating to evidence and the justice system;
offences relating to coin and government stamps; offences relating
to weights and measures; offences affecting the public health,
safety, convenience, decency and morals; offences relating to religions
or races; offences against the body; offences against property;
offences relating to documents or electronic records, currency and
banknotes; offences relating to marriage; offences relating to defamation,
intimidation, affront, and annoyance; and attempts at committing
crimes.162

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Placing a great importance on maintaining order and safety

in its different cities, Singapore has stringent laws on public conduct
providing for severe penalties. For example, to cross the road, people
shall use a pedestrian crossing, pedestrian bridge, underpass, or
designated way. Singapore prohibits littering, urinating and spitting
in public places. In addition, it prohibits people from importing, selling,
and chewing gum. There is law pertaining to peace and order, entitled
“The Public Order Act.” This law was enacted in 2009 and was
subsequently amended in 2012. This law provides rules concerning
assemblies and demonstrations in public spaces and provides competent
officers with the necessary authority to maintain public order and
safety.163
The Singapore courts are divided into two classes.164
1) Subordinate Courts – Singapore’s Subordinate Courts
are classified into five categories: District Courts, Magistrate’s Courts,
Coroner’s Courts, Juvenile Courts, and the Committee Hearing
Cases with Small Compensation.
Singapore also has Specialized Courts, which are at the
same level of Subordinate Courts, but they hear cases with specific
offences. They include Criminal Mention Courts, Traffic Courts, Family
Courts, and Sentencing Courts.
2) High Courts – They consist of Supreme Courts and
Permanent Courts of Appeal. Singapore’s Supreme Court, which is
similar to Thailand’s Court of First Instance and Court of Appeals,
hears cases appealed from lower courts. Singapore’s Permanent Court
of Appeal is similar to Thailand’s Supreme Court in nature.
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2.8.5 Building Public Safety Partnerships

Singapore’s building of a public safety partnership for crime
prevention involves the community policing concept. Singapore has
studied and applied practices pertaining to community-police
collaboration used by the Japanese police. Below presents the evolution
of community policing-based public partnership building, which began
in Singapore in the 1980s, through different phases, as follows:
Phase 1 – In the early 1980s, the Neighborhood Police Post
(NPP) was established to allow police officers to stay in close contact
with the general public in different communities. Police officers were
assigned to conduct community visits, and foot patrol officers and
bicycle patrol officers were provided. The Community Police Coordination
Committee was set up to serve as a communication channel between
police officers and communities.
Phase 2 – A challenge during the 1990s was the complexity
of social disorderliness, increased expectations of the general public,
and changing expectations of recruitment of new recruits. In 1996,
the NPP was revamped to become the “One Stop Policing Center”
in the form of the “Neighbourhood Police Center” (NPC). More
resources were allocated to the NPC. The Community Safety and
Security Program (CSSP) was established. Community leaders,
community residents, and concerned citizens from different sectors
worked with police officers to identify both problems and solutions
to crimes and safety issues in their communities.

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Phase 3 – In 2012, Singapore’s community policing was

optimized. The NPC was upgraded to be the Community Policing
System (COPS). Two additional agencies were set up, which were
the Crime Strike Force (CSF) and Community Policing Unit (CPU), in
each NPC to tackle crimes and work with communities on the issue
with crime prevention. This upgraded the combat against crimes and
promoted police-community collaboration. Technology was utilized
for crime prevention, deterrence, and investigation. The “Community
Policing Officers” were established as part of the COPS to enhance
positive relationships between police and communities, with police
officers wearing a uniform that looks friendly and accessible for the
general public.
Community policing also needed the cooperation from the
private sector and business owners to work with police officers to
ensure security. The Safety and Security Watch Group (SSWG) was
set up as a platform for business owners, security units, and police
officers to collaborate, learn about best practices, and share resources
to prevent crimes and terrorism in areas where ​​commercial buildings
were located.
To raise the awareness of the general public of, and educate
them about, crime prevention, in 1981, the National Crime Prevention
Council was established to support operations of the Singapore
Police Force. The National Crime Prevention Council is a non-profit
organization, and all of the funding to this organization has been

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derived from donations. The aims of the establishment of the

organization were to change the public mindset and encourage the
private sector and the general public to take responsibility for crime
prevention through collaboration with police officers, business
organizations, and the industrial sector. This aimed to educate the
general public about crime prevention, enhance their self-defence
skills, serve as a bridge between police, the private sector and the
general public, as well as reveal the private sector’ s feedback
provided to police organizations.
2.8.6 International Policing
The Singapore Police Force joined the International Police
Organization (INTERPOL) on 1 October 1968. The International
Cooperation Department (ICD), which is under the Singapore Police
Force, has a mission to build cooperation between police and
strategic partners worldwide using different methods. These methods
include sending out police attachés, preparation of memorandums of
understanding (MOU), and participation in regional and international
law enforcement activities. Housing the INTERPOL National Central
Bureau (NCB) for Singapore, the ICD serves as the coordinator for
cooperative efforts among police in different countries in terms of
investigation and operations. This is Singapore’s law enforcement
channel for exchanging information/data, which builds cooperation
among police across borders and builds relations with local agencies.165

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The Singapore Police Force demonstrated its willingness to

assist international policing by deploying officers to join the United
Nations Peacekeeping Force in Namibia in 1989. Joining this mission
reflected the start of the Singapore Police Force playing a role in
international policing. The Singapore Police Force was involved
in other missions in subsequent times, including in South Africa,
Cambodia and East Timor.166
Singapore is home to the INTERPOL Global Complex for
Innovation (IGCI), which is part of INTERPOL. It was established to
facilitate modern research and development for the study of the
nature of crimes and offenders, new training styles, and support and
partnership in operations. The center is part of the General Secretariat
of INTERPOL in Lyon, France. It was also established to expand the
INTERPOL network in Asia. The center is composed of three parts,
as follows:167
1) Digital security – The scope of responsibilities of this
part includes cyber security and cybercrime prevention and suppression;
forensic laboratories to support cybercrime investigation; research to
test methodologies, tools, and administration and to analyze the trends
of cyber-attacks; development of solutions through collaboration with
police, laboratory research, educational institutions, as well as the
public and private sectors; and cyber-security management.
2) Capacity building and training – This deals with
research on training and research methodologies; translation of these
research findings into activities of local police officers; as well as
practical and online training in classrooms.
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3) Operational and investigative support – This part

concerns identifying offences and harms of existing crimes, e.g.
ASEAN organized crimes, identification of disaster victims, and support
in confronting large-scale crises.
Singapore is one of five countries (the other four consist of
Indonesia, the Philippines, Malaysia, and Thailand) which founded
the ASEAN community. In 1981, the first “Chiefs of ASEAN Police”
meeting was officially convened in Manila, the Philippines. This
meeting was attended by representatives from these five countries.168
Singapore is an island country, and its closest neighboring
country is Malaysia. The Singapore Police Force has a close relationship
with Malaysia as a result of ethnic, cultural, and linguistic similarities.
Malay people in Singapore can use their language to communicate
with Malaysians, and citizens from Singapore and Malaysia use
English well, which, unfortunately, has resulted in phone scams as
transnational crimes, whereby offenders commit crime in one country
and their offence affects victims in another country. The Commercial
Affair Department (CAD), which is in charge of online scams or
phone scams, has collaborated with foreign police organizations, e.g.
the Commercial Investigation Department of the Royal Malaysia Police
to supress offenders.
In terms of personnel development, Singapore and Brunei
have had a close, continuous relationship in policing efforts. Brunei
has sent senior police officers (or commissioned police officers) to

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attend a nine-month training course, as well as other courses, at

Singapore’s Home Team Academy on a regular basis. The Thai police
organizations and the Singapore Police Force have had a positive
relationship, as witnessed through cooperation in transnational crime
prevention and suppression and organizational development through
support for training and educational trips.

2.9 Kingdom of Thailand

2.9.1 Socio-economic Conditions
Situated on the Indochina Peninsula, the Kingdom of Thailand
borders with Myanmar to the north, with Laos to the northeast, with
Cambodia to the east, with Malaysia and the Gulf of Thailand to
the south, and with the Andaman Sea and Myanmar to the west.
It spans 510,890 sq. km and has a population of 68,863,510.169 Thais
are comprised of diverse ethnicities, including Lao Thai, Mon Thai,
Khmer Thai, Chinese Thai, Malay Thai, Javanese Thai, Cham,
Vietnamese, Burmese, as well as various hilltribe ethnicities, e.g.
Karen, Lisu, Hmong, and Suai.170 There are also a large number of
migrant workers in the private sector in Thailand, whose nationalities
include Burmese, Cambodian, Laotian, Vietnamese, and Filipino.
Approximately 95 percent of the Thai population practices
Theravada Buddhism, which is the state religion. Four percent of the
Thai population, mostly in the lower southern Thai border provinces,
practices Islam, and one percent practices Christianity and other
religions.
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In 2016, Thailand’s gross domestic product (GDP) was

407.02613 billion US dollars, with GDP per capita of 5.9106 billion
US dollars and a GDP growth rate of 3.2 percent.171 Having a big
economy scale when compared to other ASEAN member countries,
Thailand is a high-middle income country. According to the World
Bank, in 2017, Thailand enjoyed a GDP growth rate of 3.9 percent,
which was a low growth rate when compared to other ASEAN
countries.
Concerning issues pertaining to crime and public peace and
order in Thailand, in the fiscal year 2017, there were 494,827 criminal
cases reported to police, and suspects in 459,425 cases were arrested
(92.85 percent). The majority of the cases involved offences against
the state and social security, which consisted of 396,454 cases
(80 percent). There were 36,032 cases which were offences against
property (12 percent), 14,832 cases which were offences relating to
life, body and sexuality (4 percent), and 12,107 cases which are
special offences (four percent).
The most prevalent offences against the state involved drug
cases. In the fiscal year 2017, 270,065 drug cases were reported (68
percent of all cases of offences against the state). There were 45,639
gambling cases (12 percent) and 26,057 firearm cases (seven percent).
Crimes which occur in public, especially in Bangkok, its
capital city, and other major cities, are offenses which perpetrators
commit without confrontation with victims and are opportunistic

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offences. For example, perpetrators drive a motorcycle to snatch

purses or gold chains of victims. Some other offences include
pickpocketing, bag slitting, pilfering, stealing at gold or jewelry shops
using tricks, as well as tourist scams. 172
Transnational crime organizations found in Thailand include
money laundering gangs, call center gangs, drug gangs, car theft gangs,
theft gangs for other property, scam gangs, fake document and
banknote gangs, wildlife smuggling gangs, arm gangs, and trafficking
in persons gangs.173 There is a greater degree of seriousness and
complicatedness pertaining to transnational crime organizations in
Thailand. In particular, in tourist cities and big cities, there are both
international and transnational organized crime gangs, whose offences
are related to drug trafficking, trafficking in persons, prostitution, and
document forgery.174
Thailand has certain areas that criminals smuggle and transit
drugs to other countries. The most smuggled drugs in the country
are methamphetamine, kratom, ice, marijuana, heroin, ecstasy and
ketamine, which are continually smuggled to Thailand across its
northern and northeastern borders. These drugs are stored in Bangkok
and peripheral provinces before being distributed, exported to a third
country, or sold in different areas in the country. Methamphetamine
is a major drug problem for Thailand. There is an increasing trend
of ice, ketamine, and heroin. Most people involved in these drugs
have a regular day job. Channels for selling the drugs have shifted

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to online media and parcel delivery services.175 Forty percent of the

alleged offenders and rehabilitated drug users are 24 years old and
younger. The 20-24 year-old-population is the age group involved in
the drugs the most. This demonstrates that drug problems affect
youth in Thai society.
Since 2004, unrest situations in Thailand have occurred in
three southern border provinces, consisting of Yala, Pattani, and
Narathiwat, as well as in three districts in Songkhla (Chana,
Thepharak, and Saba Yoi districts). These areas have continually
experienced violent incidents, and conflicts in these areas pertain to
ethnicity and religion. These areas are dominated by Malay Muslims
who speak Yawi. These are chronic conflicts in Thailand.176 Apart
from placement of bombs in public places, offences identified in
public areas include arson at schools and government office buildings;
assassinations of police officers and other government officials, as
well as civilians suspected of cooperating with government offices;
and the stealing of weapons and explosives.177
The Islamic State of Iraq and al-Sham (ISIS) or “The Islamic
State” (IS), the name ISIS calls itself, started to be powerful in its
terrorist operations in different areas and has been associated with
terrorist movements in Southeast Asian countries, i.e. Indonesia,
Malaysia and the Philippines. Hence, there has been concern over
the influence of IS in the three southern Thai border provinces.
However, intelligence from Thai security agencies, academics, experts,

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and international organizations similarly indicates no linkage between

IS and insurgent movements in the three Thai southern border
provinces and three districts of Songkhla.178 However, close monitoring
is required, and there is always a concern about lone wolves who
may commit crimes without anyone’s prediction, which makes crime
prevention difficult.
2.9.2 Political Structure
The Constitution of the Kingdom of Thailand, B.E. 2560 (2017),
Section 2, stipulates that Thailand is a democratic country with the
king serving as the head of the state. The administrative structure
is as follows:
1) Executive power – This power consists of the Prime
Minister and 35 ministers or less, who form a cabinet, whose
responsibility is public administration.
2) Legislature power – Parliament consists of the House
of Representatives and the Senate. The House of Representatives
consists of 500 members, 350 of which are from a constituency
election and 150 from a party list. The Senate consists of 200 members
installed from a selection by and among persons possessing knowledge,
expertise, experience, an occupation, characteristics or common
interests or working or having worked in varied areas of the society.
The division of groups shall be made in a way which enables
every person having the right to apply for selection to belong to any
one group.

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3) Judiciary power – This consists of the Court of

Justice, Administrative Court, the Military Court, and Constitutional
Court. All the courts are independent in the hearing process.
This also includes independent organizations, i.e. the Election
Commission of Thailand, the Office of the Ombudsman Thailand, the
National Anti-Corruption Commission, the State Audit Commission
(SAC), the National Human Rights Commission, and the State Attorney
Organ.
The Public Administration Act, B.E. 2534 (1991), Section 4,
stipulates that public administration consists of three parts:
1) Central public administration – This consists of the
Office of the Prime Minister, ministries, departments, and other
government agencies which are called under other names, have a
departmental status, and are affiliated/are not affiliated with the
Office of the Prime Minister or a ministry.
2) Provincial administration – Currently, Thailand is
divided into 76 provinces, each consisting of districts, and each
district is divided into sub-districts and villages.
3) Local administration – This includes provincial
administrative organizations, municipalities, sanitation areas, and other
local governments as required by law. This also includes Bangkok
and Pattaya, which are two special administrative areas.

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2.9.3 Police Organizational Structure and Police Adminis-

tration
In ancient Thai society, to maintain peace and order, kings
took charge of alleviating difficulties and promoting the well-being
of his subjects. For example, during the Sukhothai era, King
Ramkhamhaeng provided justice for his subjects by allowing his
subjects to ring a bell hung at the palace gate when they had
problems. Then, the king conducted an interrogation and heard the
cases. During that era, criminal suppression and tracking were a
shared responsibility of social members. When an illegal act occurred
in a community, community members had to help to track and arrest
offenders immediately.
Thailand’s modern westernized police organization began
during the reign of King Rama IV, when the Westernization movement
came to Thailand and there were foreigners travelling to Thailand
for trade and settlement. Economic expansion resulted in disorderliness
and a higher prevalence of criminals. These two phenomena, in
conjunction with the need to improve law enforcement, led to the
establishment of a police force to be dedicated to patrol, crime
prevention, and law enforcement.
In 1860, King Rama IV commissioned Captain Samual Joseph
Bird Aim to set up a project involving the establishment of the
Police Constable, the first European-styled police force for maintaining
peace and order in the metropolitan area. Later, King Rama V revamped

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policing efforts, both in the metropolitan area and all regions across
the country.
Currently, the Royal Thai Police (RTP) is a government agency
affiliated to the Prime Minister, and its organizational structure is
composed of four sections, as follows:
1) Command – Under the Royal Thai Police Office’s
Commissioner General, there are eight offices, the status of which
is equivalent to a bureau (the chiefs of these offices hold the Police
Lieutenant General rank). These offices consist of the Office of
Logistics, Office of Police Strategy, Office of Budget and Finance,
Office of Human Resources, Office of Legal Affairs and Litigation,
Office of the Inspector General, Office of Internal Audit, and Office
of Police Commission. In addition, there are seven agencies with the
status being equivalent to a division (the chiefs of these agencies
hold the rank of Police Major General). They consist of the Office
of Police Secretary, Office of National Police Policy Board, Disciplinary
Division, Public Affairs Division, Police Aviation Division, Foreign
Affairs Division, and International Law Enforcement Academy (ILEA).
2) Crime prevention and suppression – There are ten
government agencies which are in charge of crime prevention and
suppression, namely the Metropolitan Police Bureau and the Provincial
Police Regions 1-9 (the chiefs of these agencies hold the rank of
Police Lieutenant General).
3) Special crime prevention and suppression – Eight
agencies are dedicated to special crime prevention and suppression,
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i.e. the Central Investigation Bureau, Narcotics Suppression Bureau,

Immigration Bureau, Special Branch Bureau, Office of Forensic Science,
Border Patrol Police Bureau, Office of Information and Communication
Technology, and Tourist Police Bureau (the chiefs of these agencies
are Police Lieutenant Generals).
4) Education – Two agencies are in charge of education,
namely the Royal Police Cadet Academy and the Police Education
Bureau (their chiefs hold the rank of Police Lieutenant General).
5) Service – This section deals with the Police General
Hospital (its chief holds the rank of Police Lieutenant General).
There are also two committees which work at the policy
level, as follows:
1) The Office of National Police Policy – It has the
authority to formulate police administration policies and oversee the
Royal Thai Police to ensure its compliance with policies, regulations,
practices, cabinet resolutions, and laws.179
2) The Police Commission – It has the authority to
formulate policies and standards for police personnel administration and
issue rules, regulations, requirements, announcements, and resolutions
pertaining to personnel administration, e.g. tenure, designation,
promotion, disciplinary procedure, and resignation from government
service.
The authority of the Royal Thai Police is defined in Section 6
of the National Police Act, 2547 (2004), as follows:

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1) Providing security for the King, Queen, Crown Heir,

Regent, Royalty, Royal representative, and royal guests.
2) Controlling and overseeing the performance of police
officers in compliance with the Criminal Procedure Code.
3) Preventing and suppressing criminal offences.
4) Maintaining peace and order, public safety, and
security of the Kingdom.
5) Performing other operations which law prescribes as
the authority of police officers or the Royal Thai Police.
6) Assisting with country development, as assigned by
the Prime Minister.
7) Performing any other operations to promote and
support compliance with the authority provided in Sections 1), 2),
3), 4) or 5) in an efficient fashion.
The Royal Thai Police has 214,459 personnel180, with 52,254
commissioned police officers (24 percent) and 162,205 non-commissioned
police officers (76 percent), of which 198,670 are male (93 percent)
and 15,789 are female (7 percent).
The Thai police rank is similar to military rank, which
comprises commissioned and non-commissioned ranks.
The procedures for personnel recruitment and the selection
for tenure and designation as commissioned and non-commissioned
police officer are described below.

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1) The three groups of individuals who are eligible for

recruitment and selection to be commissioned police officers are as
follows:
(1) Male individuals with a Matthayom 4 (Grade 10)
certificate are eligible to take an entrance examination for a two-year
program at the Armed Forces Academies Preparatory School. In addition,
female individuals holding a Matthayom 6 (Grade 12) certificate or
non-commissioned police officers are eligible to take an entrance
examination for a four-year program at the Royal Police Cadet Academy.
Successful applicants will have to complete the program before they
are tenured as commissioned police officers and hold the Police
Sub-Lieutenant rank in the position ‘Deputy Inspector.’
(2) Individuals who hold a bachelor’s degree from
any program are eligible to take an entrance exam or enter other
selection processes to be tenured as commissioned police officers.
Successful applicants have to attend the Basic Training Course for
Commissioned Police Officers provided by the Royal Thai Police,
which takes approximately 4-7 months.
(3) Non-commissioned police officers with or without
a bachelor’s degree are eligible to take an entrance examination and
to attend the Basic Training Course for Commissioned Police Officers
provided by the Royal Thai Police, which takes 4-7 months. After
they complete the course, they will be promoted to be commissioned
police officers.

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2) The two groups of individuals who are eligible for

recruitment and selection to be non-commissioned police officers are
as follows:
(1) Individuals with a senior high school certificate or
a vocational certificate are qualified to be selected as non-commissioned
officer students. Successful candidates will have to complete an
18-month Police Non-commissioned Officer Course. After they complete
the course, they will be tenured to be non-commissioned police officers
with the Police Lance Corporal rank in the position ‘Squad Leader’
in the crime prevention and suppression section.
(2) Individuals with a senior high school certificate
or a vocational certificate are qualified to take an entrance exam or
enter other selection processes to be non-commissioned officers.
Successful applicants will have to complete the training courses for
police officers and individuals who will be tenured or transferred to
be non-commissioned police officers. This group of police officers
will be appointed to work in the general staff, support and technical
section.
The Royal Thai Police follows the Royal Thai Police Strategy,
B.E. 2555-2564 (2012-2021). They have the vision “Being professional
police for public well-being.” Being professional police means police
who possess profound, well-rounded, and insightful knowledge and
abilities in the tasks they perform; are good, moral, loyal, honest,
patient, self-sacrificing, and diligent; conduct self-development on a
continual basis; and are always aware that the goal of policing is
public well-being.
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To achieve this, the following strategies have been formulated:

Strategy 1: Upgrading of the capacity for implementing key
missions to respond to government policies.
Strategy 2: Development of policing to ensure transparency
and meet standards.
Strategy 3: Participation of the general public and police
networks.
Strategy 4: Strengthening of the police administration.
Agencies responsible for crime prevention and suppression at
the area level include 1,482 police stations. Each police station consists
of five functions: general staff, crime prevention and suppression,
investigation, interrogation, and traffic.
2.9.4 Laws Related to Police Law Enforcement
The Thai legal system underwent a major reform and
Westernization during the reigns of King Rama IV and King Rama V,
when the country was modernized. During the reign of King Rama V,
the Thai public administration system was reformed, and the Ministry
of Justice and a law school were set up. Thai codes of laws were
drafted in accordance with European civil law, e.g. civil and commercial
laws and criminal codes. Thailand also adopted common law.181
The Penal Code law came into being in Thailand in 1908.
Subsequently, the Criminal Code was developed, which was
promulgated pursuant to the Act Promulgating the Criminal Code,
B.E. 2499 (1956), which became effective on 1 January 1957. There
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were other criminal laws which specified different types of offences

in conflict with public safety and state security, with the new
provisions being in line with changing situations within the country.
The Thai court structure is outlined below.
1) Courts of Justice – According to the Judicial System
and Statute of Courts of Justice, B.E. 2543 (2000), the Court of Justice
in Thailand is classified into three levels – the Court of First Instance,
the Court of Appeals, and the Supreme Court.
2) Administrative Court – It has the authority to hear
administrative cases as a result of exercising its administrative
power by law or conducting administrative activities.
3) Martial Court – It has the authority to hear criminal
cases committed by individuals under its jurisdiction and other cases
as prescribed by law.
4) Constitutional Court – It has the authority to judge
the constitutional legitimacy of laws or drafted laws and judge issues
with respect to the authority of the House of Representatives,
Senate, Parliament, Cabinet, or independent organizations. It has
other authority as provided in the Constitution.
2.9.5 Building Public Safety Partnerships
With regard to police involvement with the general public and
communities, building a positive relationship with the general public
became tangible when the mass relations concept was introduced into
policing during the fight against communism. The Border Patrol Police

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acted as a liaison for the government to help to persuade the masses

to support operations of the government from 1977-1980. In 1987,
the Police Department integrated the police-community relations
concept into mass public relations work. In Thailand, police-community
relations policies have been formulated as national policies. They were
included in the 6th National Economic and Social Development Plan,
B.E. 2530-2534 (1987-1991) and the Plan for Social Peace Enhancement.
The policies focused on crime prevention over crime suppression,
public participation, crime prevention supported by suppression measures,
strengthening of police-general public relations, and stimulation of
cooperation in solving criminal problems. The Fourth Ministry of
Interior Master Plan, B.E. 2530-2534 (1987-1991) encouraged participation
and the role of the general public in enhancing safety of their lives
and property. The plan also applied the police-community relations
principle to optimize crime prevention and suppression.182
The Police Department formulated the 1st Police Department’s
Master Plan, B.E. 2530-2534 (1987-1991), which included five sectoral
plans. One of the plans was dedicated to community and mass
relations, which aimed to build a positive understanding, attitude,
faith, and confidence of the general public, as well as a positive
relationship between police and the general public and government
agencies in order to ensure public support or participation in police
operations with regard to crime prevention and suppression, as well
as national security.183

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The community policing concept first gained attention after

it was introduced into Thailand by some law enforcement academics
who graduated overseas. In 1995, the Royal Police Cadet Academy
sent some faculty to take an educational trip on community policing
at Michigan State University in the U.S.A. However, such knowledge
and practices were not widely disseminated; they were limited to
the law enforcement academics.184 The concept of community policing
encourages partnerships between the police and the community. The
partnership helps them work together to solve crimes in communities.
The concept began its execution under the Constitution of the Kingdom
of Thailand, B.E. 2540 (1997), Section 76, which requires that the
state promote and support public participation in policy formulation;
political decision-making; formulation of economic, social and political
development plans; and the monitoring of the exercising of state
powers at all levels.
Promotion of public participation in police affairs was a key
reason for the request to change the structure of the Thai police
organization by transferring the Police Department from the Ministry
of Interior to the Prime Minister under the new name “The Royal
Thai Police,” which is still a departmental organization. The police
administration under this new structure aimed to promote police-
general public collaborative partnerships. After that, the Office of the
Prime Minister’s Regulations on the Auditing and Monitoring of
Police Administration, B.E. 2542 (1999) were issued. Subsequently,
the National Police Administration Audit and Monitoring Committee,
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the Bangkok Police Administration Audit and Monitoring Committee,

and Provincial Police Administration Audit and Monitoring Committee
were set up.
These committees consist of police officers, the general
public, and other government agencies in the local areas. They provide
the general public and different sectors outside the police organization
with opportunities to take part in police administration, provide
information, present their requirements, and support police operations.
Defining the compositions and roles of the Police Administration
Audit and Monitoring Committees was intended to make the police
organization an organization whereby the general public is allowed
to participate in auditing, monitoring and evaluating the performance
of local police officers. This was also intended to involve community
participation, create social balance, and serve as a platform whereby
all sectors in society have the opportunity to discuss issues and
solutions to community and local problems.
The Royal Thai Police defined two types of police volunteers
derived from the general public:185
1) Home police volunteers – They refer to a popular
front involved in police affairs in terms of operations to maintain
peace and order. Establishing home police volunteers aimed to seek
the general public’s cooperation in police operations pertaining to
prevention and suppression of crimes, drugs and accidents, as well
as police patrols.

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2) Traffic volunteers – This refers to a popular front

taking part in police affairs in terms of operations to support traffic
management. The traffic volunteers include youths, the general public,
community representatives, and private organizations. They must be
trained in traffic regulations and laws, as well as car and road use
skills, to assist police officers with solving traffic problems.
2.9.6 International Policing
The Royal Thai Police joined the International Police
Organization (INTERPOL) on 13 June 1956.186 The Thai agency which
coordinates with INTERPOL is the INTERPOL National Central Bureau
(NCB) for Thailand, while the Foreign Affairs Division under the
Royal Thai Police serves as INTERPOL Thailand.
Thailand INTERPOL’s mission is to work with the General
Secretariat of INTERPOL, INTERPOL member countries, embassies in
Thailand, local government agencies, and foreign government agencies
with regard to crimes. The scope of its work includes supporting crime
suppression agencies; extradition; coordinating the Department of
Corrections in relation to the delivery of prisoners; assisting foreigners
by coordinating with law enforcement agencies; assisting INTERPOL
member countries in law enforcement activities; and conducting joint
operations with INTERPOL for different types of crimes, i.e. trafficking
in persons, child exploitation, drug trafficking, cybercrime, economic
crime, terrorism, arms trade, and intellectual property related offenses.187

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The Royal Thai Police has played a role in supporting the

United Nations’ missions to support the setting up of systems and
development of policing in different countries. The Royal Thai Police
has deployed a police force to join UN peacekeeping operations
under the UN Security Council (UNSC). It was involved in policy
formulation and approved the deployment of forces to different countries
in the form of peacekeeping operations. From 1997-2014, the Royal
Thai Police deployed 285 Thai officers to join operations in Bosnia
and Herzegovina, Timor-Leste, Haiti, Liberia, and South Sudan
(221 male and 64 female officers). 188
Thailand is one of the five co-founding countries of the
Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN). On 8 August 1967,
the ASEAN founding countries, namely Indonesia, the Philippines,
Malaysia, Singapore, and Thailand, signed the Bangkok Declaration.
In 1981, these countries hosted the first official meeting of the Chiefs
of ASEAN Police (ASEANAPOL) in Manila, the Philippines, which
was attended by the five ASEAN member states.189 The Royal Thai
Police has a continuous relationship with police organizations from
other ASEAN member countries, which is characterized by cooperation
in regularly held meetings and actions in accordance with the agreement
in ASEANAPOL Conference.
As Thailand shares borders with Myanmar, Laos, Cambodia,
and Malaysia, its bilateral relations with these countries have come
into being to collaboratively cope with cross-border crimes. Topics

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of their bilateral cooperation include issues encountered by each

country or those which are of reciprocal benefit to each country. For
example, Thai police have had a relationship with Myanmar, Lao,
and Cambodian police with regard to drugs and trafficking in persons
problems. The relationships between Thai police and their Malaysian,
Myanmar and Cambodian counterparts are for addressing the issue
of transnational car theft.
The Royal Thai Police has made agreements with police
organizations from various countries for cooperation on diverse issues,190
e.g. Australia, the U.S.A., the Republic of Korea, Canada, and Austria.
Thai police have a cooperative relationship with many countries in
terms of training and organizational development. In particular, the
Thai government, through the Royal Thai Police, made an agreement
with the U.S.A. on establishing the International Law Enforcement
Academy in Bangkok (ILEA Bangkok) to provide training for police
officers in Southeast Asia and nearby regions with funding support
from the U.S.A, which started in 1996.
Thailand’s educational institution dedicated to commissioned
officers is the Royal Police Cadet Academy, which is located in
Sam Phran District, Nakhon Pathom Province. It has enjoyed inter-
national cooperation in terms of academics, training and internships.
Each year, the Royal Police Cadet Academy admits four foreign
police cadets from neighboring countries – Myanmar, Vietnam and
Cambodia – to study in their programs. So far, one batch of foreign

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cadet students, consisting of four Vietnamese and Myanmar cadets,

has graduated.
In the academic year 2018, four police cadets from each of
the countries – Cambodia, Vietnam and Myanmar – are studying in
the Bachelor of Public Administration Program in Police Science at
the Royal Police Cadet Academy.

2.10 Socialist Republic of Vietnam

2.10.1 Socio-economic Conditions
The Socialist Republic of Vietnam, or Vietnam in short, is
located on the easternmost side of the Indochina Peninsula. With an
elongated ‘S’ shape, Vietnam spans 330,967
​​ [Link].191 It connects to
China to the north, both by land and sea. It shares northern and
western land borders with Lao PDR and shares southwestern land
and sea borders with Cambodia. Its topography is characterized by
high mountains between long fertile flood plains.
Vietnam has a population of 95.540800 million.192 In Vietnam,
Vietnamese is the official language, and English has become a more
commonly used foreign language. Other languages used in Vietnam
include French, Chinese and languages of different ethnic groups.
Vietnam comprises 54 ethnic groups, with Kinh or Viet being the
major ethnic groups, which represent 86 percent of the total population.
Other groups, which represent less than 2 percent, include Tay, Thai,
Muong, Khmer, Nung, Hmong, and Hoa.193
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In 2017, Vietnam’s gross domestic product (GDP) was

223.86399635 billion US dollars, with GDP per capita of 2,3431 US dollars
and a GDP growth rate of 6.8 percent.194 Vietnam is a relatively
low-income country; however, it has enjoyed a high economic growth
rate.
The implementation of the economic reform policy called
‘Doi Moi’ of the Vietnamese government to reduce the monopoly
and centralization by the central government, in conjunction with
continuous economic reforms within the country, have resulted in
Vietnam enjoying apparent economic prosperity. Vietnam is one of
countries which are attractive for foreign investors due to its abundant
natural resources and low labor costs. Accordingly, the value of its
trade with foreign countries has been increasing. Its major exports
include chemicals, electric circuit panels, electrical machinery and
its components, computers and their equipment and components,
industrial machinery, metal products, electrical appliances, plastic
products, paper, cardboard, and crude oil. Its major products include
agricultural and food products, petroleum products, electrical appliances
and their components, automobile equipment and components, and
steel.195
Concerning the issues of crime and peace and order, Vietnam
has a low crime rate when compared with other Southeast Asian
countries. In general, Vietnamese citizens respect the law; therefore,
the majority of crimes in this country are minor crimes, with a low

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rate of serious crimes. Particularly, the most prevalent crimes in large

cities consist of assaults against property, drug cases, and prostitution.196
The most common assault cases in Hanoi include pilfering,
purse snatching, and pickpocketing, which mostly occur in crowded
public areas. In most purse snatching cases, two criminals are involved,
who drive a motorcycle to snatch the purse of a person walking or
a passenger sitting behind a motorcycle driver. In some cases,
criminals use a knife or a sharp object to cut bag straps or pierce
bags to steal articles in the bag. In 2017, there were many reported
break-in cases, especially in residential areas. Criminals stole electrical
appliances and money in houses. The incident rate is lower in high-rise
residential buildings equipped with a security system.197 Serious crimes,
e.g. murder, armed robbery, and abduction for ransoms were very rare.
Vietnam has an elongated coastline on the South China Sea
and is exposed to a high risk of pirates. There were many cases of
large cargo vessels and fishing boats which were seized and ransomed
by pirates. Armed pirates’ attacks to fishing boats are common in
the sea to the southwest of Vietnam, next to the Cambodian border.
In most of these cases, a group of approximately ten pirates rode a
motorboat to approach a vessel running in the sea and then threatened
people on the vessel and forced the helmsman to head to a nearby
island before demanding a ransom. If they failed to receive the ransom,
they stole and then sold equipment on the vessel or fuel. In some
cases, criminals with violent behavior hurt or kill their victims.

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The most prevalent drugs in Vietnam are methamphetamine

and injectable drugs. Drug problems in Vietnam have aggravated,
and this has significantly resulted in crimes. Vietnam is a major area
for distributing illicit drugs to other countries; however, illicit drugs
are also widespread and available for sale in many areas in the
country. Crime organizations in Vietnam commit crimes in association
with other crime organizations, including smuggling drugs into the
country or delivering drugs to different local areas. Serious crimes
associated with drug trafficking may be committed by rival drug
trade gangs.198
Cybercrime has become a more serious problem in Vietnam,
and there is greater complexity of cybercrime offenses. Vietnam ranks
no. 1 in the world in terms of personal computers suffering from a
virus infection, with widespread use of unlicensed or expiring software.
Vietnam ranks no. 7 in the world for being attacked by a Trojan
virus. Cyber criminals do not target only individuals for personal data
but also the business sector and international government agencies
in Vietnam to penetrate into their economic and political data. Bank
systems have been attacked to steal money in bank accounts. 199
2.10.2 Political Structure
Governed by a socialist regime, Vietnam currently uses its
1992 Constitution, which prescribes that the Communist Party of
Vietnam shall serve as the political institute with the highest power,
leading all classes of citizens and setting the basic framework for

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three powers of the country – the Executive Power, Legislative

Power and Judiciary Power, These three powers are not separated
or independent from each other, as in a democratic regime. In practice,
the Communist Party of Vietnam has influence over administrative
controls. The party takes actions through the Central Committee,
which comprises 150 members. This Central Committee selects
15 members of the Police Bureau at the Party’s National General
Assembly Meeting, which is held every five years. All party members
hold senior positions in the Vietnamese government.200
The Vietnamese government has administrative decentralization.
Each province in Vietnam has the Provincial People’s Committee,
which is responsible for local administration in compliance with the
constitutional laws, policies and regulations prescribed by higher levels
of government agencies. Vietnam’s local administrative system is
divided into eight regions, consisting of 59 provinces (Tinh), 5 cities
(Thu Do), 600 districts/municipalities, and 10,000 sub-districts/villages.
2.10.3 Police Organizational Structure and Police Adminis-
tration
The evolution of the Vietnamese police organization has been
at the same pace with the history of political changes in the country.
In 1884, Vietnam became a French colony, which provided Vietnam
with colonial-style bureaucratic systems, including policing.
The establishment of the Communist Party of Vietnam in
1930 was a major turning point in the history of the Vietnamese
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revolution. The Communist Party of Vietnam played a key role in

French colonial resistance. On 19 August 1945, the Vietnam People’s
Police Force (PPF) was formed after the victory of the revolution.
Other important organizations were set up, including the Secret
Service, the Police Service in the North, the Surveillance Service in
the Center, the National Safeguard Unit in the South, and the Intelligence
Services.
In 1953, the Sub-Ministry of Public Security was set up and
led by the Deputy Minister. To respond to the needs to safeguard
national security, maintain peace and order, and ensure public
safety, the organizational structure of the Sub-Ministry of Public
Security incorporated seven agencies, one of which was the Department
of Security and Public Order Administration, which later became the
Vietnam People’s Police Force (PPF). In August 1953, the Sub-Ministry
of Public Security was elevated to be the Ministry of Public Security.
After World War II, when Vietnam was divided into North
Vietnam and South Vietnam, policing in South Vietnam was endorsed
by Western nations, with development of police organizations and
support for armaments. When North Vietnam gained victory and both
parts of Vietnam were merged, their police affairs were united.
Internal security, including policing, is under the responsibility
of the Ministry of Public Security of Vietnam (MPS). Departmental
agencies affiliated with the Ministry of Public Security of Vietnam
consist of the General Department of Security, the General Department

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of Police, the General Department of Politics, the General Department

of Education and Training, the General Department of Logistics
and Technology, the General Department of Prisoner Education and
Rehabilitation, and the General Department of Combat and Task Force.
There are 63 Public Security Departments spread throughout
the various provinces/cities in Vietnam.
The organizational structure of the Vietnamese police force
is divided into four levels, as follows:
1) General Department of Vietnam Police.
2) Provincial Police.
3) District/Regional Police, which have case interrogation
and prosecution authority.
4) Sub-district Police – Without investigation authority,
they are responsible for preventing criminal incidents and make a
report. After getting reported, they report the incident to District/
Regional Police for further investigation.
The Vietnam police force has approximately 280,000 personnel.201
Its police rank system is similar to its military rank system. Vietnam’s
main educational and training institution for police is the People’s
Police Academy (PPA), which provides higher education on the topics
of protection of political security and social order and safety. It offers
bachelor’s degree programs in law, social sciences, and military science.
It also provides training courses in professional criminal investigation.202
The retirement age of Vietnamese police officers varies
according to the different groups of police officers, as follows:203
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1) Operational police (equivalent to non-commissioned

police in Thailand) – The retirement age defined for male police
officers and female police officers in this group is 55 and 50 years,
respectively.
2) Middle executive (equivalent to the Deputy Inspector
to the Deputy Commander in Thailand) – The retirement age defined
for male police officers and female police officers in this group is
58 and 53 years, respectively.
3) Top executive (equivalent to the Deputy Commander
to General in Thailand) – The retirement age defined for male police
officers and female police officers in this group is 60 and 55 years,
respectively.
In the Ministry of Public Security of Vietnam’s policy towards
the management of crime prevention and suppression, strategies were
developed and put into practice among different levels of agencies.
Key issues in the strategies are as follows:204
1) Crime prevention and suppression – Crime prevention
and suppression can be efficient and effective when all sectors of
society and political organizations collaborate under the management
of governments at all levels with a focus on addressing the causes
of crimes.
2) Amendment of crime prevention and suppression
laws – The Vietnam National Assembly and the Vietnamese government
attach great importance to legislation, particularly the amendment of
laws pertaining to crime prevention and judicial reforms.
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3) International cooperation – In particular, combating

transnational crimes needs to be developed and improved.
4) Building and strengthening of the capacity of the
police organization to provide efficient services to the general public.
5) Resources – Adequate resources shall be sufficiently
allocated to ensure equipment, tools and technology for addressing
crimes and drugs and motivate police officers.
Apart from crime prevention and suppression, investigation,
and interrogation, the roles and duties of Vietnamese police include
civil registration and car and motorcycle registration.
2.10.4 Laws Related to Police Law Enforcement
Vietnam was under Chinese rule for over 1,000 years, so its
common law was influenced by Confucianism. Even when it was
independent from China, the law was enforced continuously for some
time. During the time when it was ruled by China, Vietnamese
emperors attached great importance to moral principles by using law
to promote good social conduct. Both moral and legal principles
played a role in promoting the state’s power. The objective of the
legal system at that time was to manage the relationships between
the state and individuals, but did not manage the relationship among
the individuals.205 Once Vietnam became a French colony, from 1858
to 1945, it had two parallel legal systems – one used in North Vietnam
and Central Vietnam and the other in South Vietnam. In protectorates
in North Vietnam and Central Vietnam, Vietnamese law under the

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Nguyen Dynasty (1802-1945) was enforced on Vietnamese and Chinese

citizens, but not on the French, who were governed by French law.
In South Vietnam, Vietnamese people were entitled to choose to be
or not to be under French law.
Apart from laws pertaining to general criminal offences which
aim to prevent and suppress crimes, there are laws for specific
crimes, e.g. the drug prevention and suppression law, laws relating
to the offence of trafficking in persons, tobacco control law, online
media law, prostitution law, and firearm law.
The arrests are classified into three types of cases. The first
is the arrest of the accused or defendants for temporary detention;
the second is the arrest of offenders in urgent cases; and the third
is the arrest of offenders red-handed or the arrest of wanted persons.
The persons with the authority to issue arrest warrants are judges
and prosecutors, including the Chief and Deputy Chief of the People’s
Prosecutor’s Office and the Military Prosecutor Office; the President
and Vice President of the People’s Courts and Military Courts; the
Judges of the Courts of Appeal; and the Chiefs and Deputy Chiefs
of the Investigation and Interrogation Departments. In this case, the
approval must be obtained from the Prosecutor’s Office.
2.10.5 Building Public Safety Partnerships
Vietnam is a communist, socialist country. Creating a public
safety partnership does not conform to the community policing concept
as in Western democratic countries. To gain an understanding about
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building safety partnerships between the police and the general

public, differences in socio-economic contexts and political systems
need to be considered.
Community policing in communist socialist countries is part
of the mass/social control system. Community policing is the medium
between local agencies and informal organizations. Different groups,
including local committees, families, and volunteers can become
safety partners in communities. Public participation demonstrates
duties, responsibilities, and rights. In this way, community policing
is aimed at using a minimum number of police officers per population
while still ensuring the utmost efficiency in crime control. Another
aspect of community policing in the socialist context is that
community policing strategies are not only a means of social control
by disciplining and educating the general public, but also an efficient
monitoring mechanism.206 The fundamental unit of community policing
and social control is households, not citizens as individuals. Thus,
in communist societies like Vietnam, one of the social control tools
is the household registration system, which entails gathering basic
data for the state to take control, formulate plans, and conduct
monitoring to ensure peace and order in communities.
Vietnam is one of the five communist countries in the world.
It has a large state security network. It is estimated that Vietnamese
security agencies include at least 6.7 million personnel. Tools for
maintaining the state security under the control of the Communist

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Party are not only police and military forces but also semi-military
forces, forces in rural areas, and local volunteers. These different
security forces are under the control of the Ministry of Defense and
the Ministry of Public Security.207
Vietnam has enjoyed a low crime rate as a result of social
control and strict checking by the state. Political opponents to the
government are forbidden, and justice administration can be arbitrary
or radical. The state holds the idea that the revolution must be
protected and making an arrest of individuals who say something
showing resistance to the government or state beliefs and practices
is legitimate. The state leverages various means to monitor the
behavior of citizens who disobey the state and enforces the law on
them immediately. On one side, this is an effective social control
system, but on the other side, its long-term sustainability is in
question.208
Principles of work of Vietnamese police are reflected through
the names assigned to Vietnamese police organizations, e.g. People’s
Police and People’s Police Academy. Thus, the cooperation of the
general public in maintaining community security is also a key
principle of Vietnamese policing, which differs from that in democratic
countries.
2.10.6 International Policing
Vietnamese police, under the Ministry of Public Security,
joined the International Police Organization (INTERPOL) on 4 November
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1991.209 The Vietnamese agency which coordinates with INTERPOL

is the Interpol National Central Bureau (NCB) Vietnam or INTERPOL
Hanoi. It is responsible for foreign relations on behalf of Vietnam’s
Ministry of Public Security. INTERPOL Vietnam provides coordination
for investigation and interrogation for the Vietnamese police which
require international cooperation.
Vietnam underwent an economic reform called “Doi Moi” in
1986 by changing its marketing mechanism-based economic policy,
providing for the freedom of trade and investment, and opening the
country to have more contact with foreign countries. Economic
liberalization and international contacts have resulted in it enjoying
fast economic growth and a greater value of trade, investment, and
tourism. Such changes are both opportunities and challenges for
Vietnam to cope with the consequences of economic growth and
connections with foreign counties.210 After the economic reforms,
Vietnam has had more connection with international communities
and there has been an increasing trend of transnational crimes. Aware
of impacts of opening itself to the global arena and the need to
cooperate with international police organizations to cope with crime
problems, Vietnam joined INTERPOL in 1991 and joined the ASEANAPOL
Conference in 1996. Since then, it has been continually open for
cooperation with international police organizations.
Attaching great importance to relationships with international
police institutions, Vietnam has participated in international police

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activities on a regular basis. As for bilateral relations, Vietnam’s

Ministry of Public Security has had a relationship with foreign police
institutions within and outside of the ASEAN region. The topics of
their cooperation include prevention and suppression of transnational
crimes, narcotics, trafficking in persons, and organizational development.
It operates as both a taker and a giver of assistance. The details of
cooperation vary according to the status of each country in the
relationship. Vietnam is one of the countries which seeks different
opportunities and attaches great importance to international policing
to develop its own law enforcement capacity.

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 Chapter 3
Comparisons of Police Administration
and Related Laws for Public Safety
in the ASEAN Countries

The comparative study of the police administration and laws

for public safety of the ASEAN member countries was conducted by
comparing socio-economic data and basic data on their political
structure, the structure of the police organizations and administration,
laws pertaining to police law enforcement, building public safety
partnerships, and international policing, which are outlined as follows:

3.1 Basic Information: Socio-economic and Crime Conditions

The geographical and socio-economic characteristics of these
countries revealed the correlation of different factors which contribute
to their crime characteristics, as described below.
3.1.1 Geographical Characteristics and Crime Conditions
The total size of the ten ASEAN countries is 4,458,737 [Link].
As the largest ASEAN member country, Indonesia spans 1,910,931 [Link]
and is comprised of 17,508 islands. The second largest ASEAN

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country is ​​Myanmar, with 653,080 [Link] (its size is one third of that
of Indonesia) and the third largest is Thailand, with 510,890 sq. km.
The top two smallest ASEAN countries are Singapore, with ​​709 [Link]
(approximately half the size of Bangkok) and Brunei, with ​​5,765 [Link].
Cambodia, Lao PDR, Malaysia, Myanmar, the Philippines, Thailand
and Vietnam are medium-sized countries, with an area ranging from
180,000 to 330,000 [Link].
In terms of locations, there are six countries situated on the
Indochina Peninsula, which comprise Myanmar, Thailand, Laos,
Cambodia, Vietnam, and Malaysia (excluding Borneo Island), and
there are four archipelagic countries, which are Singapore, Indonesia,
the Philippines, and Brunei (including Borneo Island in Malaysia).
Their sizes and geographical locations have an impact on
their police administration for public safety. As for Singapore and
Brunei, their smaller size is a factor which enables them to manage
public safety more easily than their larger counterparts. In large-scale
archipelagic countries, e.g. Indonesia and the Philippines, police
administration requires administrative and organizational mechanisms
characterized by decentralization and regional police agencies need
sufficient compositions and resources to ensure complete task execution
in areas of their responsibility. In large countries with transport
limitations, e.g. Lao PDR, Myanmar, and Vietnam, in remote areas,
local leaders play a significant role in maintaining peace and order
in local communities.

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Figure 1 Locations of ASEAN Member Countries

Source: [Link]

Their locations have a relationship with the characteristics

of their domestic and cross-border crimes. Sharing a boundary with
another country contributes to cross-border crimes, e.g. stealing vehicles
to sell in neighboring countries, cross-border drug smuggling, and
border crossing by fugitives.
Archipelagic countries, e.g. Indonesia, the Philippines, and
Malaysia (on Borneo Island) have maritime areas. Among the ten
countries, Laos is the only landlocked country, while the others have
coastal areas, with a total length of approximately 110,000 km
(nearly three times longer than the Earth’s circumference, which is
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approximately 40,000 km)210. Their maritime areas include globally

important shipping routes, e.g. Singapore Strait and the Strait of
Malacca, both of which are international commercial routes between
the Andaman Sea and the South China Sea. The Lombok Strait,
which is situated at the end of eastern Java Island in the Indonesian
maritime territory, is an important secondary shipping route as a
result of its high safety record. Situated between Sumatra and the
Java Islands is the Sunda Strait, where water currents are strong
but water is not very deep. Consisting of many islands, the Sunda
Strait is a relatively hazardous strait, which is not a popular route
for vessels.211 The South China Sea and the Zulu Sea are also im-
portant shipping routes. Along the coasts situated to the southwest
of Vietnam next to the Cambodian border, there are a lot of islets.
Such maritime areas are conducive to vessel seizure and ransom
demands by pirates.
3.1.2 Demographic and Social Characteristics
The entire ASEAN population is 641.5 million, and the
population of each ASEAN country reflects its size to a certain
extent. Indonesia, the largest ASEAN country, has a population of
261.1 million. The population of Malaysia, Myanmar, the Philippines,
Thailand, and Vietnam, which are medium-sized countries, ranges
from 30 to 100 million. As for Cambodia and Lao PDR, which also
have a medium size, their population is relatively small, which is
15.8 and 6.8 million, respectively. The least populous ASEAN coun-

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tries are Brunei and Singapore, with a population of approximately

400,000 and 5.6 million, respectively.
ASEAN countries are characterized by ethnic and religious
diversity. The dominant faiths of the populations in Indochinese
countries, i.e. Myanmar, Thailand, Laos, Cambodia, Vietnam, and
Singapore (excluding Malaysia) are Buddhism and sects. The dominant
faith of archipelagic countries, which consist of Indonesia, Brunei,
and Malaysia (on Borneo Island), is Islam. In ASEAN, the Philippines
is the only archipelagic country where most of the population observes
Christianity. While there is a sizable Muslim population, most of the
Muslims live in the southern part of the country.
In countries where most of its citizens observe Islam, Islam
is a factor which influences police administration in those countries.
Police agencies need to have an adequate proportion of female police
officers for the treatment of female suspects or victims because male
police officers’ treatment of females is limited by Islamic practices.
3.1.3 Economic Characteristics
The ASEAN country which enjoyed the highest gross domestic
product (GDP) in 2016 was Indonesia (932,259.18 million USD),
followed by Thailand (407,026.13 million USD), the Philippines
(304,905.41 million USD), Singapore (296,975.68 million USD), Malaysia
(296,535.93 million USD), and Vietnam (223,864.00 million USD),
respectively. Their counterparts with a GDP lower than 100 billion USD
consisted of Myanmar (63,225.10 million USD), Cambodia (20,016.75
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 Table 1 Socio-economic Data of ASEAN Countries
Country Area Population Religion/Language GDP GDP per GDP growth rate
([Link].) (million) (million USD) capita (USD) (percent per
annum)
1. Brunei 5,770 0.4 Islam 67%/Bahasa 11,400.27 26,938.5 -2.5 %
2. Cambodia 181,040 15.8 Buddhism 95%/Khmer 20,016.75 1,269.9 6.9 %
3. Indonesia 1,910,931 261.1 Islam 87%/Bahasa 932,259.18 3,570.3 5.0 %
4. Lao PDR 236,800 6.8 Buddhism 75%/Lao 15,805.71 2,338.7 7.0 %
5. Malaysia 328,550 31.2 Islam 60%/Bahasa 296,535.93 9,508.9 4.2 %

149
6. Myanmar 653,080 52.9 Buddhism 89%/Burmese 63,225.10 1,195.5 5.9 %
7. Philippines 300,000 103.3 Christianity 83%/English 304,905.41 4,096.0 6.9 %
8. Singapore 709 5.6 Buddhism 42.5%/English, 296,975.68 52,962.5 2.0 %
Chinese, and Malay
9. Thailand 510,890 68.9 Buddhism 95%/Thai 407,026.13 5,910.6 3.2 %
10. Vietnam 330,967 95.5 Sects 80.8%/Vietnamese 223,864.00 2,343.1 6.8 %
Total 4,458,737 641.5 2,433.5

Source: The World Development Indicators Database, World Bank, 2016, from [Link]
in 10 ASEAN Countries
Police Administration and Related Laws for Providing Public Safety
Police Administration and Related Laws for Providing Public Safety
in 10 ASEAN Countries

million USD), Lao PDR (15,805.71 million USD), and Brunei (11,400.27
million USD), respectively.
Considering the GDP per capita, the ASEAN country which
had the biggest per capita income was Singapore (52,962.5 USD),
followed by Brunei (26,938.5 USD), Malaysia (9,508.9 USD), Thailand
(5,910.6 USD), the Philippines (4,096.0 USD), Indonesia (3,570.3 USD),
Vietnam (2,343.1 USD), Lao PDR (2,338.7 USD), Cambodia (1,269.9 USD),
and Myanmar (1,195.5 USD), respectively.
The gross domestic product (GDP) and GDP per capita are
good indicators of country conditions and living conditions of local
people.
With regard to economic growth rates, the lower per capita
income these countries have, the higher economic growth rate they
will enjoy. The ASEAN country which enjoyed the highest economic
growth rate in 2016 was Lao PDR (7.0 percent), followed by Cambodia
(6.9 percent), Vietnam (6.8 percent), Myanmar (5.9 percent), Indonesia
(5 percent), Malaysia (4.2 percent), Thailand (3.2 percent), Singapore
(2 percent), and Brunei (-2.5 percent). However, economic growth
may contribute to domestic crimes. A rapid economic growth rate
with poor income distribution results in prosperity concentrated in
capital cities or large cities. This urges the migration of rural people
to urban areas, where they have to pay for a higher cost of living
while the balance between the increase in their income and that of
their expenditures is absent. This contributes to urban disorderliness,

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social problems, slums, as well as an income gap between the poor

and the rich. These issues contribute to a higher prevalence of crime
and drugs.
3.1.4 Crime Situations
[Link] General Crimes
Crimes in general in the region affect both local
people and tourists. The most prevalent crimes in this region are
assaults against property, e.g. purse snatching and pickpocketing in
public, break-ins, and physical attacks. Arms may be involved in
these kinds of offences in some areas, especially in capital cities or
big cities. The highest prevalence of crimes is identified in tourist
attractions. Some types of crimes are unique in some countries. For
example, as a result of urbanization, convenience stores, banks, gold
shops, and gas stations have mushroomed in Thailand. Accordingly,
these areas suffer from high prevalence of robbery cases and most
of the offenders are teenagers. Countries where motorcycles are a
popular vehicle, including Thailand, Vietnam, and Malaysia, experience
a high rate of motorcycle theft cases. Those with the highest rate
of car theft cases are Malaysia, Thailand, and Brunei.
Firearms are a factor contributing to the violence associated
with these crimes. Thailand and the Philippines are the only two
ASEAN countries which allow their citizens to apply for a permit to
possess a firearm or carry a firearm in public. Sometimes, the degree
of severity of the aforementioned crimes is increased by firearm use.
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However, some countries where firearm possession by the general

public is prohibited by law have encountered the problem of illegal
firearms, which continues to exist in the countries after the end of
wars or where they are smuggled – this also contributes to serious
crimes.
[Link] Special Characteristics of Crimes in Some
Countries
Geographical and socio-economic conditions result in
certain types of crimes being unique in some ASEAN countries,
e.g. Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore, and Thailand. A large economy,
public access to information technology, and full Internet network
coverage are factors contributing to economic crimes using information
technology. These crimes include credit card scams and skimming
of cash or credit cards to steal data on the cards to produce fake
credit cards and later swipe them for the purchase of goods. Criminals
may be foreigners who commit crime in one country and remit funds
to accomplices in another country. Cybercrime offences continue to
increase in terms of number.
The ASEAN country which has a very low crime rate
and is one of the world’s top safe countries is Singapore. Nonetheless,
Singapore suffers from certain types of crimes which are not severe
but affect public safety. Most of the crime are assaults against
property, e.g. break-ins in rooms in high-rise buildings as residents
are at work during daytime or leave their room door open, as well

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as bicycle stealing and theft in shops.

In the Philippines, there is high rate of kidnap-for-ransom
cases, the motives of which include cash and other objects. There
are also terrorists committing kidnap-for-ransom offences to finance
their operations, for example, in ​​Mindanao. In countries which have
many islands, have long coastlines, or are major shipping routes,
e.g. Indonesia, Vietnam and Cambodia, offences against fishery and
piracy laws have been reported.
[Link] Cybercrime
Cybercrime is a non-traditional kind of crime which
has a higher degree of seriousness in the respective ASEAN countries,
especially those with advanced technology, quick public access to
information technology through the Internet, business contacts, and
electronic financial transactions, e.g. Singapore, Thailand, Malaysia,
Indonesia, and the Philippines. Relying on information and commu-
nication technology, this type of crime includes Internet scams,
system penetration (phishing emails), and ransomware.
Cybercrime is becoming a critical issue for ASEAN
nations. The factors contributing to cyber threat risks vary from one
country to another country, which are outlined below.
1) The advancement of information technology
and communication infrastructure and wide public access to information
technology and the Internet.

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2) The economic status of the population in

each country who is criminals’ target of assaults against property
using technology and communication tools.
3) Concerning cyber security, the level of which
varies from one country to another country – An interesting piece
of information is the cyber security ranking among sixty countries
around the world, by the Economist. These are the rankings of
seven of the ASEAN countries:

Table 2 Safe Cities Index 2017

Rank Score
City/Country
(60 countries) (100)
2 Singapore 86.84
30 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia 66.17
52 Bangkok, Thailand 44.44
56 Ho Chi Minh, Vietnam 39.78
57 Yangon, Myanmar 39.07
59 Manila, Philippines 36.61
60 Jakarta, Indonesia 36.60
Source: SAFE CITIES INDEX 2017: Security in a rapidly urbanizing world,
A report from The Economist Intelligence Unit, [Link]
[Link]/uploads/5/82/[Link], 18 August 2018.

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4) Efficiency in law enforcement – Inefficiency

in law enforcement is one of the most important factors in the spread
of cybercrime and is a common issue for police agencies within
ASEAN. Due to its complicated nature, cybercrime requires experts
and sophisticated tools for investigation and evidence gathering and
needs appropriate and efficient legal systems and criminal case
proceedings.
[Link] Transnational Crime and Terrorism
The plan on the establishment of the ASEAN Political-
Security Community specifies major transnational crimes, i.e. terrorism,
kidnappings, trafficking in persons, drug trafficking, illegal fisheries,
small arms trade, cybercrime and piracy. The top priority crimes with
respect to the urgency to address are trafficking in persons, drug
trafficking, and piracy. 212
Transnational crimes encountered by the ASEAN member
countries include transnational drug trafficking, trafficking in persons
(especially by luring women into prostitution), Rohingya trafficking
in persons, terrorism, as well as telephone and online financial scams.
Transnational crimes are tending to shift from countries which provide
strict suppression operations and severe penalties to those which have
poor law enforcement or where criminals can enjoy more exploitation
or better sources of benefits.
The most common transnational crimes in countries
which share borders with other countries, e.g. Myanmar, Thailand,
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Lao PDR, Cambodia, and Malaysia, is cross-border drug smuggling.

In some parts of Myanmar, there are armed minorities who illegally
cultivate opium, which results in Myanmar being the second largest
opium cultivation area, following Afghanistan. Myanmar is also a
production base for methamphetamines and ice. Minority groups
along Myanmar borders need financing to aid their fight against the
Myanmar government. Illicit drugs are smuggled across the Thai-Lao
border to be sold in Thailand and other countries. Some other
ASEAN countries are transit countries of drugs imported from other
regions, e.g. Africa, and these drugs are sold inside and outside of
the ASEAN region. Drugs which are a major problem in ASEAN
member countries are methamphetamine, ice (shabu), marijuana,
ecstasy (E), ketamine (K), and even heroin, which is still prevalent
in Indonesia, Malaysia and Vietnam.
Thefts of cars and motorcycles are also reported in this
region. They are stolen in one country to be sold in another country
with a connected border. Highly prevalent in Thailand, Myanmar,
Cambodia, and Malaysia, this crime may be associated with terrorism.
Terrorists may secretly put bombs in stolen cars to cause unrest.213
A crime and safety report by the United States Depart-
ment of State, under the Bureau of Diplomatic Security, includes an
assessment of potential terrorist risks to US government officials in
different cities in ASEAN countries. According to this report, in 2017,
high-risk countries include Indonesia (Jakarta) and the Philippines

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(Manila), medium-risk ones include Malaysia (Kuala Lumpur), Malaysia

(Yangon), and Thailand (Bangkok), and low-risk ones include Brunei,
Singapore, Cambodia, Lao PDR, and Vietnam. 214
Terrorism is associated with other crimes. As terrorist
syndicates need financing for their movement and operations, they turn
to crime to achieve that. For example, terrorist groups in the Philippines
kidnap people for ransom. Insurgents in Thailand’s southernmost border
provinces or other regions steal cars or motorcycles for car bombs.
Major terrorist threats in the ASEAN region are derived from
Jama ah Islamiyah (JI) with its networks. The objective of its movement
and operation is to establish Islamic states (DAULAH ISLAMIYAH
NUSANTARA), in Indonesia, Malaysia, Thailand, Singapore, and the
Philippines, respectively, through cooperation with Islamic militants
in the respective countries.215 JI is considered not only a terrorist
organization but also a group that attempts to take away power
from Islams (Islamist insurgency). This group has resisted against the
Indonesian state since 1950s. Such resistance, because of its failure
to establish Islamic laws, created an ideological hatred towards the
government administration during the post-Suharto’s dictatorship era.216
After Al Qaeda was attacked by the U.S.A. and its allies,
the ISIS gained its strength within a short period of time. According
to the United Nations, approximately 25,000 people from ten countries
joined the ISIS. The ISIS’s goal differs from that of Al-Qaeda. What ISIS
wants to achieve is the establishment of the Wold Islamic Caliphate
by attacking anyone who opposes or disagrees with it, even Muslims.
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The ISIS prefers to use violence and spread propaganda via social
media. Taking economic control, it has received a lot of funding
support. It has committed crimes against humanity.217 Currently, the
ISIS’s operations in ASEAN countries are not efficient. However,
terrorism experts warn that the ISIS may become stronger in the
ASEAN region through efficient training and leadership.218
In conclusion, ASEAN countries can be categorized by
geographical conditions into Indochinese countries and archipelagic
counties. The difference in their socio-economic conditions, ethnic
groups, religions, as well as levels of advancement of information
and communication technology and public access to technology
result in variant domestic and cross-border crime characteristics.

3.2 Political Structure

3.2.1 Political History and Current Political Regime
Most ASEAN countries were Western colonies (Thailand is
the exception). Western and southern ASEAN countries, including
Myanmar, Malaysia, Singapore, and Brunei, were British colonies.
Those located to the east of the Indochina Peninsula, i.e. Laos,
Cambodia, and Vietnam, were French colonies. Indonesia was a Dutch
colony, and the Philippines were Spanish and American colonies. The
fact that these countries were Western colonies affected the evolution
of their political systems, legal systems, and characteristics of police
affairs. Modern police forces in ASEAN countries came into being
during the colonial era, which were influenced by colonial police
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systems. As for Thailand, although it has never been colonized, its

police system was influenced by the British and French police systems.
The ASEAN countries can be classified by their political
systems. The first group consists of countries with a monarchy form
of government, i.e. Cambodia, Malaysia and Thailand. In these countries,
the king serves the head of the state under the Constitution and there
are three powers. The executive power is led by the prime minister;
the legislative power is derived from an election (the exception is
Thailand during their transition period from 2014-2018); and the
judicial power. Brunei is ruled by an absolute monarchy regime, with
the sultan serving as the head of state and exercising his powers
for country administration.
Democratic countries with a president serving as the head
of the state and leader of the executive power are Indonesia, Myanmar,
the Philippines and Singapore.
Communist countries are Lao PDR and Vietnam.
Whether they are democratic countries with the king acting
the head of the state, republic countries with the president serving
as the head of the state and the leader of the executive power, or
communist countries, their political structure consists of three powers
– the executive power, legislative power, and judicial power. As for
Lao PDR and Vietnam, which are communist countries, these three
powers are not clearly separated as in democratic countries. Their
communist party holds the supreme power over all political institutions
in the country.
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Table 3 Historical and Current Political Regimes of ASEAN Countries

Country Colonizer Current political regime Administrative areas
1. Brunei Britain King Four regions, subdivided
Absolute monarchy holding into sub-districts and villages
the executive power
2. Cambodia France King 24 provinces and one special
Being under the constitution/ administrative unit
Head of the state
3. Indonesia The President 32 regions, 413 provinces,
Netherlands and 98 cities
Japan
4. Lao PDR France Communist 17 provinces and one
prefecture
5. Malaysia Britain King 13 states and three federal
Being under the constitution/ territories
Head of the state
6. Myanmar Britain President (Republic) Seven states and seven
regions, subdivided into
districts, sub-districts, and
villages
7. Philippines Spain President (Republic) 31 administrative areas,
U.S.A. 80 provinces, and 120 cities
8. Singapore Britain President (Republic) 5 Community Development
Council Districts and 44
planning areas
9. Thailand - King 76 provinces and one special
Being under the constitution/ administrative area (Bangkok)
Head of the state
10. Vietnam France Communist Eight regions, 59 provinces,
5 municipalities, and 600
districts

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3.2.2 Administrative Areas

ASEAN member countries have different sizes. The largest
ASEAN country is Indonesia, which covers 1.9 ​​ million [Link], while
the smallest one is Singapore, which spans only 709 sq. km. The
difference in their size determines the difference in their administrative
areas.
The administrative areas of large ASEAN countries are
subdivided into four levels – the region, province, district, and
sub-district. Indonesia has 32 regions; Myanmar has seven states
and seven regions; the Philippines has 31 administrative areas;
Malaysia has 13 states and three federal territories; and Vietnam has
eight regions.
The administrative areas of medium-sized ASEAN countries
are subdivided into three levels – provinces, districts, and sub-districts.
Cambodia has 24 provinces and one special administrative unit;
Lao PDR has 17 provinces and one prefecture; and Thailand has
76 provinces and one special administrative area.
As for Singapore and Brunei, small-scale countries, their
administrative areas are subdivided into two levels – Community
Development Council Districts and planning areas. Brunei has four
regions and Singapore has five regions.
The organizational structure of police agencies in charge of
crime prevention and suppression, as well as the provision of services
for local people, is divided according to the administrative areas.
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3.3 Police Structure and Administration

3.3.1 Evolution of the Police Organization
Modern police forces of the ASEAN countries were influenced
by Western countries, as most of them were Western colonies. The
evolution of ASEAN police organizations is broadly divided into three
phases, as follows:
1) the first phase – When Western colonizers ruled
Indochinese countries, they introduced police organization models to
their colonies, mostly in the 17th century.
1602: Indonesia, which was a Dutch colony, developed
a Western-style police administration.
1807: Malaysian justice was improved by the British,
and the Strait Settlement Police was established.
1820: Singapore established its first police force.
1825: Burma (now Myanmar) adopted the British police
system and set up the first police station in Burma.
1860: Thailand established its first police force, which
adopted the British style.
1865: Laos, a French colony, established a Western-style
police force.
1883: Vietnam became a French colony, and its police
organization was influenced by its French counterpart.
1884: Cambodian police was first organized by France.

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1898: The Philippines established the Police Department

and Internal Order.
1921: Brunei established its police force.
Under colonial powers, each of the ASEAN countries
adopted the colonial policing model, including the establishment of
modern police forces.
2) the second phase – After gaining independence and
undergoing socio-political changes, the respective countries adjusted
or reformed their police organizations, mostly after World War II,
in around 1945. Police administration work was transferred to these
local countries from the colonizers, or separate police agencies were
merged to create unity in management. An example was the
consolidation of the North Vietnamese Police and the South Vietnamese
Police and both parts of Vietnam in 1975. Other examples included
the merger between the Provincial Police and the Metropolitan Police
in Thailand in 1915, the merger between different police agencies
to become the Malaysian National Police in 1963, the birth of the
Cambodian National Police in 1945, the establishment of the Indonesian
National Police Service in 1946, as well as the establishment of the
Malaysian Police Force in 1964.
3) the third phase – Democratization, modernization,
or optimization of police organizations, which occurred during political
changes in some countries. During this phase, some of the countries
underwent political change and police organization was reformed in

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accordance with the principles of democracy, public right and freedom

protection, and operational optimization. For example, in 2000, Indonesia
separated its police from the army and reformed police affairs. The
Philippines separated its police from the army in 1991. Myanmar
started police reform in 1995, while the Philippines first had a police
reform law and established the National Police Commission in 1998.
Singapore introduced the concept of community policing to improve
its performance in the 1980s. Thailand improved police performance
by issuing the National Police Act, B.E. 2547 (2004).
The police organization models adopted in the ASEAN region
are models from Britain, France, and other colonizers. This can be
noticed from the introduction of the rank system, uniforms and
badges for the police in each country. For example, in the former
British colonies, e.g. Malaysia, Singapore, and Brunei, the color of
police uniforms is usually dark blue and police ranks are used as
titles. Former French colonies adopted a French armed force model
called ‘gendarmerie,’ which is a semi-military police force. Authorized
to use arms as small military units, gendarmerie officers have their
primary role in security. Historically, Lao PDR, Vietnam, and Thailand
(provincial police) applied this model, so their police ranks and uniforms
are similar to military ones. Cambodia still uses this system.
Currently, Cambodia’s Gendarmerie is a law enforcement
agency affiliated with the Ministry of Defense. Gendarmerie officers
share the same authority as police officers, and even more – they have

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the power to arrest offenders who are military officers. However, the
areas of responsibilities of Cambodian Gendarmerie are not separate
from those of police, as in France. Gendarmerie forces in Cambodia
are scattered around in different areas to support police operations,
e.g. crowd control, sieges, and disaster victim rescue.
The evolution of political regimes and political changes has
also affected policing principles of these countries. For example, the
Indonesian police force was part of the army; thus, the military
culture affected its policing. This happened until Indonesia was ruled
by a military dictatorship, under which the human rights of Indonesian
citizens were violated. After a police reform in 2000, the Indonesian
police organization was separated from the Indonesian army.219 Under
a democratic regime, in which police officers are fully civilians, policing
primarily takes human rights into account. In Myanmar, which is
on the path to a democracy, the police organization has also been
reformed.220
The political history of ASEAN member countries, which was
influenced by Western colonies, and their adaption to changes have
resulted in a variance in their current policing models, which are
outlined below:
1) Democratic Anglo-Peelian model – Former British
colonies, i.e. Brunei, Malaysia, Myanmar, and Singapore, as well as
an American colony, i.e. the Philippines, adopted the Democratic
Anglo-Peelian model. This model was derived from Sir Robert Peel,

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who founded London Metropolitan Police. It is characterized by

hierarchical personnel administration, whereby the police are divided
into different ranks and their roles focus on the general public,
maintaining peace and order, and preventing crimes in communities.
A philosophy of this model is that the police are people and the
people are police. As for Myanmar police, despite being influenced
by British police, a long rule by a military dictatorship has deprived
it of people-oriented roles. During its political transition, Myanmar is
in the process of a political reform based on this model.
2) Democratic continental model – Cambodia and
Indonesia, former French and Dutch colonies, were influenced by the
democratic continental police model which focuses more on law
enforcement of the state but less on people’s needs. Their police
force is more like a military force.
3) Communist authoritarianism model – In communist
countries, Lao PDR and Vietnam, the Communist Party holds the
dominant power over all political institutes. Thus, their police forces
are military-force like, and their roles and responsibilities pertain to
maintaining the state’s security rather than responding to public
needs. For them, national interests and security are more important
than individual interests.
4) Combination of the Anglo-democratic Peelian
model and democratic continental model – Thai policing was
influenced by British and French models. Thailand’s metropolitan
policing was organized based on a British model and European

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continental models, while its provincial policing was organized based

on a French model and European continental models, which still have
an influence on current Thai policing. The roles and responsibilities
of Thai police include responding to local people’s needs and
maintaining national security.
3.3.2 Police Organization
The police organizations of ASEAN are centralized in the
form of National Police. Their structures are outlined below:
1) Police organizations which are affiliated with the
Ministry of Interior or ministries in charge of internal affairs of the
country – This structure is found in Malaysia, Singapore, Myanmar,
the Philippines, and Cambodia. However, the Cambodia police structure
has a special characteristic. That is, there are Ministry of Interior-
affiliated departments, e.g. the Immigration Department and the
Cambodian Police School, which consist of personnel whose status
is police officers. The ranks and titles of the chiefs of these agencies
are equivalent to those of officers affiliated with the Police Department.
2) Police organizations which are directly under the head
of administration power, who is the president or prime minister –
This structure is in place in Brunei, Indonesia, and Thailand.
3) Police organizations which serve as the Ministry of
Security – Lao PDR and Vietnam have this structure.
Despite its centralized nature, the Philippine National Police
provides mechanisms for authorizing the central government and

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local authorities to exercise policing-related power by jointly allocating

budget monies, materials, and equipment and exercising the power
to appoint local police chiefs.
Although Malaysia is a federal state, with a central government
and local governments of different states and a sultan taking charge
of some local work, the Malaysian police organization is centralized
in the form of national police.
Internal police organizations in ASEAN member countries are
similar in terms of their internal police structure, which is composed
of three sections:
1) Administration directing and support – This section
includes the support system for police administration; for example,
personnel, logistics, budget, as well as information and communication
technology.
2) Operational support – This section supports the crime
prevention and suppression units and serves the general public, e.g.
forensic science, special operations, and suppression of special crimes.
3) Local operations – This section is subdivided into
different levels, with the lowest unit providing services for the general
public.
Under the national police, agencies in charge of crime prevention
and suppression are subdivided into different levels, as follows:
1) Large-size countries – Police agencies in large countries
are divided into four levels: the regional police, provincial police,

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district police, and police precinct (police box). The countries which
have such a structure consist of Indonesia, the Philippines, Vietnam
and Myanmar. Due to their large areas and/or archipelagos, they
attach great importance to setting up police precincts or police
boxes to maximize service distribution to local areas.
2) Medium-size countries – Police agencies in mid-size
countries are divided into three levels: the regional police, provincial
police, and police station. This structure is applied in Thailand,
Malaysia, Cambodia, and Brunei.
3) Small-size countries – Brunei, Singapore and Lao PDR,
which are small-scale countries, have a police structure which consists
of two levels: the provincial police and police station.
Countries providing police agencies which are smaller than
police stations, as police precincts or police boxes, are Indonesia,
the Philippines, and Brunei. Due to their great size, they need to
maximize the distribution of police officers to serve local people. In
Brunei, each police box is provided with only one police officer.
3.3.3 Personnel Administration
The top three ASEAN countries in terms of the amount of
police manpower are Indonesia (407,222), followed by Vietnam (280,000)
and Thailand (214,459).
The country with the highest police-population ratio is the
Philippines (1: 637), followed by Myanmar (1: 635), Indonesia (1: 629),
Singapore (1: 340), Vietnam (1:340), Cambodia (1: 257), Malaysia (1: 227)
and Brunei (1: 96).
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Each of the ASEAN countries provides tenure for female

police officers. Islamic countries attach great importance to assigning
female police officers to serve a female population as a result of
religious practices. Female police officers in Malaysia represent 18
percent of its total police manpower, while the percentage of female
police officers in Thailand is seven percent. Female police officers
in Indonesia and Malaysia execute the same tasks as their male
counterparts. In Malaysia, female police officers are seen conducting
patrols and providing other services the same as male police officers.
The retirement ages of police officers in ASEAN member
countries are different, as follows:
1) Countries where all groups of police officers retire
at the same age include Thailand (60 years), Malaysia (60 years),
Myanmar (60 years), Singapore (60 years), Indonesia (58 years), and
the Philippines (56 years).
2) There are countries where the retirement age varies
according to police groups, whereby the retirement age of lower-rank
police officers is lower than that of higher-rank ones. For example,
in Vietnam, the retirement age for general male police officers is 55
and that for general female police officers is 50; that for middle-
management male police officers is 58 and that for middle-management
female police officers is 53; and that for top-management male
police officers is 60 and that for top-management female police of-
ficers is 55. In Cambodia, retirement age for police officers holding
the rank of Police Colonel or higher is 60 and that for those holding
a rank lower than Police Colonel is 55.
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3) Brunei has a unique system. The retirement age is

55, and police officers who retire at this age will receive a pension
amounting to two-thirds of their pre-retirement monthly salary. When
they reach the age of 70, their pension will be equal to their
pre-retirement monthly salary.
In some countries, there are calls for the extension of retirement
ages of police officers; for instance, from 56 to 60 years in the
Philippines. In Indonesia, the age can be extended to 60 years in
some functions, and there is a desire for the retirement age to be
extended to 60 years.
The police rank systems of ASEAN member countries can
be divided into two groups:
Group 1: The police rank system which is the same as the
military rank system – The ASEAN countries which have adopted
such a system include Vietnam, Cambodia, Thailand, and Myanmar.
Group 2: The British police rank system or a system from
other European countries – The ASEAN countries which have applied
this system include Malaysia, Singapore, Brunei, the Philippines, and
Indonesia.
Currently, the Singaporean police rank system has a single-group
structure, which consists of 12 ranks, from the highest rank to the
lowest rank. The objective of the system is to provide clarity and
compactness of the career path and to efficiently create motivation
in its police officers.
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in ASEAN Countries
Manpower Police:
Police
No. Evolution Current structure (Number population Retirement age
organization
of officers) ratio
in 10 ASEAN Countries

1 The Royal Brunei - 1905: Brunei became a protectorate - A centralized structure as the 4,400 1: 96 - The retirement age
Police Force of the British, who paved the way national police force. is 55, and police
(RBPF) for modern governance and - A sultan serves as Inspector General officers who retire
administration. of Police. at this age will
- 1921: A police force was established. - The Police Commissioner administers receive a pension
- 1965: The king granted the word the police agencies. amounting to

172
‘Royal’ in the name of the police - The police agencies are divided into two-thirds of their
force. three levels – the regional police, pre-retirement
police station, and police box. monthly salary.
When they reach
the age of 70, their
pension will be
equal to their
Police Administration and Related Laws for Providing Public Safety

pre-retirement
monthly salary.
 Table 4 Comparison of the Evolution of Police Organizations, Police Structures, and Personnel Development
in ASEAN Countries (cont.)
Manpower Police:
Police
No. Evolution Current structure (Number population Retirement age
organization
of officers) ratio
2 Cambodia General - 1884 -1945: Cambodian policing was - A centralized structure as the 56,000 1: 257 - Police Colonel or
Department of organized by the French. national police force. higher: 60 years.
Police - 1945: Cambodia gained independence, - Affiliated with the Ministry of - Lower than Police
and the Cambodian National Police Interior, which has other affiliated Colonel: 55 years.
was born. police organizations, e.g. the General
Department of Immigration and the

173
Cambodian Police Academy.
- It has a gendarmerie force, a law
enforcement agency under the
Ministry of Defence.
- The police structure is divided into
three levels – the provincial police,
district police, and police station.
in 10 ASEAN Countries
Police Administration and Related Laws for Providing Public Safety
 Table 4 Comparison of the Evolution of Police Organizations, Police Structures, and Personnel Development
in ASEAN Countries (cont.)
Manpower Police:
Police
No. Evolution Current structure (Number population Retirement age
organization
of officers) ratio
in 10 ASEAN Countries

3 The Indonesian - 1946: The National Police Service - A centralized structure as the 407,222 1: 629 - 58 years
National Police was established. national police force.
(INP) - 1966: The police were under the - Being under the president.
army. - The police structure is divided into
- 2000: The police were separated from three levels – the regional police,
the army; operations in the police provincial police, police station, and

174
profession were adjusted; the old police precinct/police box.
police rank system was replaced by
a new one (the old one was the
same as a military rank system).
4 Lao General - 1865: The French ruled Lao PDR - A centralized structure as the N/A N/A N/A
Department of and set up a Western-styled police national police force.
Police organization. - Affiliated with the Ministry of Public
Police Administration and Related Laws for Providing Public Safety

- 1961: The Lao Police Force was Security.

set up. - The police structure is divided into
two levels – the provincial police and
district police.
 Table 4 Comparison of the Evolution of Police Organizations, Police Structures, and Personnel Development
in ASEAN Countries (cont.)
Manpower Police:
Police
No. Evolution Current structure (Number population Retirement age
organization
of officers) ratio
5 Royal Malaysian - 1807: Justice-related work was - A centralized structure as the 137,227 1: 227 - 60 years
Police (RMP) improved by the British; the Straits national police force.
Settlements Police, the Federated - Affiliated with the Ministry of Home
Malay States Police, and the Police Affairs.
outside the Federated Malay States - The police structure is divided into
were established. three levels – the regional police,
- 1963: Malaysian police agencies were district police, and police station.

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merged into the national police.
6 Myanmar Police - 1825: A British police system was - A centralized structure as the 93,000 1: 635 - 60 years
Force adopted; the first police station was national police force.
established, which was in Arakan. - Affiliated with the Ministry of Home
- 1964: The People’s Police Force was Affairs.
set up. - The police structure is divided into
- 1995: A police reform took place. four levels – the state police, district
police, township police, and police
station.
in 10 ASEAN Countries
Police Administration and Related Laws for Providing Public Safety
 Table 4 Comparison of the Evolution of Police Organizations, Police Structures, and Personnel Development
in ASEAN Countries (cont.)
Manpower Police:
Police
No. Evolution Current structure (Number population Retirement age
organization
of officers) ratio
7 Philippine National - 1898: The Police Department and the - It is the national police; however, 162,000 1: 637 - 56 years
in 10 ASEAN Countries

Police (PNP) Peace Keeping Force were set up. local authorities are authorized to
- 1901: The police organization became exercise power with the national
independent, which was responsible police to designate police chiefs and
for different areas. provide material and equipment
- 1950: The police became part of the support.
army. - There is the National Police

176
- 1991: The police were separated from Commission, which is affiliated with
the army. the Philippine Department of the
- 1998: A police reform law was in Interior and Local Government.
place; the police were restructured; - The police structure is divided into
and the National Police Commission four levels – the regional police,
was set up. provincial police, police station, and
precinct.
Police Administration and Related Laws for Providing Public Safety

8 The Singapore - 1820: The first police force was - A centralized structure as the 16,500 1: 340 - 60 years
Police Force (SPF) established. national police force.
- 1826: The police were part of the - Affiliated with the Ministry of Home
Straits Settlements Police. Affairs.
- 1965: Singapore separated from - The police structure is divided into
Malaysia. two levels – The police division and
the Neighborhood Police Centre (NPC).
 Table 4 Comparison of the Evolution of Police Organizations, Police Structures, and Personnel Development
in ASEAN Countries (cont.)
Manpower Police:
Police organiza-
No. Evolution Current structure (Number population Retirement age
tion
of officers) ratio
9 Royal Thai Police - 1860: A police force was set up. - A centralized structure as the 214,459 1: 320 - 60 years
(RTP) - 1915: Different police agencies were national police force.
merged. - Being under the Prime Minister.
- The police structure is divided into
three levels – the regional police,
provincial police, and police station.
10 The General - 1883: As a French colony, its - A centralized structure as the 280,000 1: 340 - General officers:

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Department of policing was influenced by the national police force. 55 years for males
Police, under the French. - Affiliated with the Ministry of Public and 50 years for
Ministry of Public - 1945: The first police force was Security, which has other affiliated females.
Security set up. departments. - Middle management:
- 1954: After the Geneva Treaty, - The police structure is divided into 58 years for males
South Vietnam established a four levels – 1) the General and 53 years for
gendarmerie force. Department of Vietnam Police 2) females
- 1975: North Vietnam and South Provincial Police 3) District/Regional - Top management:
Vietnam were united. Police, and 4) Sub-district Police. 60 years for males
and 55 years for
females.
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Police Administration and Related Laws for Providing Public Safety
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In addition to regular police manpower, various ASEAN

countries have sought public partnerships to support police operations
with regard to crime prevention.
The Malaysian police have two types of police forces which
support police operations. The first type is auxiliary police, whose scope
of authority is limited to the areas of ​​responsibility of their affiliated
organization. Any organization which wishes to organize their own
auxiliary police force, the members of which is determined by, and
which is controlled by, the state, will announce a job application
advertisement and be solely responsible for the cost. These organizations
will assign new recruits to be trained by the police to receive a
certificate before they are allowed to execute their duty. The auxiliary
police officers wear a police uniform; badges on their uniform sleeve
indicate their affiliated agency and their status as auxiliary police
officers. Superficially, they are similar to private security personnel.
Singapore has a number of manpower alternatives, including
the National Servicemen Full-time (NSFs). All Singaporean men must
serve in the army, the police, or the civilian defense manpower for
two years. Each year, there are 5,200 NSFs who serve as police
officers, which represent 30 percent of the entire Singapore Police
Force. After they complete their two-year service, they will be discharged
and promoted to Operationally-ready National Serviceman (NSman).
Currently, there are approximately 27,000 NSmen.

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Singapore also has approximately 1,000 police volunteers.

The history of Singaporean police volunteers can be traced back over
50 years ago.
Many other ASEAN countries provide police volunteers, e.g.
Brunei, Indonesia, Thailand, and Vietnam.
Concerning human resources administration, it is interesting
that the Malaysian National Police shows unity and comprehensiveness
in its human resources administration, ranging from the processes of
planning, recruitment, tenure and designation, and human resources
development. The Malaysian National Police is in charge of controlling
and formulating relevant polices. It has applied the competency concept
to personnel administration of the police organization. It has developed
the RMP Competency Model, under which police competencies are
divided into four groups – core competency, generic competency,
policing competency, and functional competency.
For the consideration of promoting senior officers, a selection
procedure is in place. Candidates are considered through police
competency-related requirements and the training they have completed;
bio data analysis; on-line assessment (a self-assessment questionnaire,
in-basket exercise, case study exercise, and questionnaire on values​​
and ethics); and structured panel interviews, which are conducted
by the Police Officer Commission. The Promotion Board is chaired
by the Royal Malaysian Police Commissioner. One of the purposes
of the personnel administration process is to link the personnel

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administration procedure to respond to the implementation of Royal

Malaysian Police’s strategies which aim to achieve the status of
“a World Class Police Force” in 2020. Another purpose is to apply
the competency principle to personnel administration and development.
The Singapore Police Force has a personnel administration
system which provides a clear career path. It offers a preparatory
program to police officers based on their knowledge, abilities, and
skills to enable them to grow on their career path accordingly. This
will contribute to the enhancement of their strengths and skills. Its
personnel administration approach is divided into two aspects, as
described below:
1) Singapore Police Force – This approach helps to
upgrade police officers’ operational efficiency, as well as develop and
retain police talent.
2) Police officers – Police officers can enjoy self-develop-
ment based on their strengths and aptitudes to create an opportunity
to improve their specialized expertise and to pursue their profession
which is beneficial to their strengths and skills as much as possible.
After completing a required basic training course, the police
will be designated to serve the Neighborhood Police Center (NPC),
which is a basic position. The objective is to allow all police officers
to have experience in area-level operations. After that, their career
path will develop based on their expertise. The police can choose
either of the two tracks, as outlined below:

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1) Generalist career – This career includes commanding

and directing. The agencies where police officers opt for this track
are agencies which are responsible for areas, e.g. police stations,
airport police, and traffic police. Also, they can work in directing
agencies, e.g. the planning and organizational unit, manpower unit,
and logistics unit.
2) Specialist career – This career requires specialized
expertise, i.e. investigation in criminal investigations and interrogation
units and the Investigation Department in local police organizations;
intelligence in police intelligence agencies and the Intelligence
Department in local police agencies; special operations; marine police;
and police coastal guard.
The country where local authorities are allowed to co-exercise
the power with police executives with regard to personnel administration
and police administration at the local level is the Philippines. Although
police officers across the Philippines are under the command of the
Philippine National Police, a law requires executives of local authorities
to represent the National Police Commission to act on behalf of
regional police. In addition, the executives of local authorities have
the power to appoint police chiefs at different levels. That is, the
Police Provincial Director and Governor have the authority to select
candidates from a list of three nominees proposed by the Police
Regional Director. The City/Municipal Mayor has the power to select
the chief of city police station from a list of nominees presented by
the Police Provincial Director.
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The authority to select and appoint the Police Regional Director

belongs to the National Police Commission, while the authority to
appoint the Chief of the National Police belongs to the president.
3.3.4 Police Education and Training
Police education and training among ASEAN member states
show quite a number of variations. The police education and training
institutions, training systems, and curriculums of these countries are
outlined in the table below.

Table 5 Police Education and Training Institutions and Training

Systems
Country Police education and training institutions
1. Brunei - The Police Training Centre in Gadong is responsible for training
non-commissioned police officers and people holding a bachelor’s degree
to be tenured as commissioned police officers.
- Police officers in Brunei are sent to be trained at the Home Team
Academy in Singapore.
- The Brunei Government provides scholarships for overseas education in
master’s and doctoral programs.
2. Cambodia - The Police Academy of Cambodia is directly under the Ministry of
Interior (It is not affiliated with the Cambodia General Department of
Police). It admits only non-commissioned police officers holding a senior
high school certificate to attend a four-year bachelor’s degree program.
- The Police Academy of Cambodia also provides training for correctional
officers.
- Found in five locations, the Regional National Police School is responsible
for providing two-month training for non-commissioned police officers.

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Table 5 Police Education and Training Institutions and Training

Systems (cont.)
Country Police education and training institutions
3. Indonesia - The Indonesian National Police Academy (AKPOL) provides a four-year
program for police cadet students. After completing the program, they will
be promoted to commissioned officers with the rank ‘Inspector level 2.’
- The Police Science College (PTIK) provides certificate, master’s and
doctoral training programs for high-rank police officers.
- The Police Command and Staff School (SESPIM), which trains non-
commissioned police officers who pass an entrance examination to
become commissioned police officers; graduates who pass an entrance
examination to become commissioned police officers; and commissioned
police officers who will be promoted to be the chief of a regional police
agency (provincial, district, and sub-district levels) in administration.
- The Criminal Investigation Training Center (PUSDIK RESKRIM), which
provides training in investigation.
- The Sekolah Polisi Indonesia, or the Indonesian Police School, (SPN)
provides training for non-commissioned police officers or constables.
It is found at 28 locations.
- The SEPOLWAN, a seven-month female police training course (similar to
male constables).
4. Laos - The People’s Police Academy, which offers the following courses:
- Two-year master’s degree program.
- Four-year bachelor’s degree program.
- Four-year English bachelor’s program.
- Two-year Chinese high diploma program.
- Two-year upgrading program.
5. Malaysia - The Malaysian Police Training Centre (Pusat Latihan Polis, PULAPOL)
provides basic police training at five locations, i.e. Kuala Lumpur, Jalan
Semarak, Bukit Sentosa, Rawang, Ayer Hitam, Negeri Sembilan, Segamat,
Johore, Langkawi, Kedah, and Sarawak.
- The Kuala Lumpur Royal Malaysia Police College offers executive
training courses, short training courses, and the International Senior
Police Officer Command Course (ISPOCC).

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Table 5 Police Education and Training Institutions and Training

Systems (cont.)
Country Police education and training institutions
6. Myanmar - The Police Officer Training Institute admits persons holding a bachelor’s
degree to attend one-year academic training, one-year practical training,
and one-year military training.
- There are 200 male police cadet students and 100 female police officers
per batch. Three batches of police cadet students are admitted each
year, with one-year overlap.
- There are six academies which train non-commissioned police officers,
which provide eight-month training.
- Non-commissioned police aged 30 years or lower are eligible to take an
examination to study at a police training institution.
7. Philippines - The Philippine National Police Academy (PNPA) is affiliated with the
Philippine Public Safety College, which is under the Department of
Interior and Local Government.
- Providing a Bachelor of Science in Public Safety (BSPS), which is a
four-year program.
- Providing education for police officers from the Philippine National Police
(PNP), the Bureau of Fire Protection (BFP), and the Bureau of Jail
Management & Penology (BIMP).
- Apart from the Philippine National Police (PNP), there are training
institutes which are under the Philippine Public Safety College, as
follows:
1) The National Police Training Institute (NPTI), under which there are
18 Regional Training Centers (RTCs), which is responsible for training
police officers from the Philippine National Police (PNP).
2) The National Police College (NPC), which is responsible for providing
higher education or executive training courses.
3) The National Jail Management and Penology Training Institute (NJMPTI).
4) The National Fire Training Institute (NFTI), the director of which is
an officer from the Bureau of Fire Protection.
5) The National Forensic Science Training Institute (NFSTI) is in charge
of training officers from the Philippine National Police (PNP), Bureau
of Fire Protection, and Bureau of Jail Management & Penology (BJMP).

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Table 5 Police Education and Training Institutions and Training

Systems (cont.)
Country Police education and training institutions
8. Singapore - The Home Team Academy provides training for law enforcement
agencies affiliated with the Ministry of Home Affairs.
- The concept of the Home Team Academy is: Each Home Team
Department is successful but stronger as a team, to harness and
synergise each Home Team Department’s strengths.
- It maintains central oversight over Home Team (HT) training, runs
cross-cutting HT courses, facilitates cross sharing of expertise/knowledge
across HTs, and shares premises with autonomous training schools.
- Training units which form the HTA consist of:
1) The Police Training Command.
2) The Immigration & Checkpoints Authority Training School.
3) The Prison Staff Training School.
The three institutions noted above are located in the same area, which
is home to the HTA.
4) The Internal Security Department School.
5) The Central Narcotic Bureau Training School.
6) The Civil Defense Academy.
The three institutions noted above are located outside the HTA.
- Senior police officers are provided with nine-month training at the HTA,
and junior police officers are provided with six-month training.
- The institution which trains police officers from the Singapore Police
Force (SPF) is the Police Trainings Command (TRACOM).

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Table 5 Police Education and Training Institutions and Training

Systems (cont.)
Country Police education and training institutions
9. Thailand - The Royal Police Cadet Academy admits persons holding a senior high
school certificate to study in four-year degree programs to become
commissioned police officers. It offers three master’s degree programs.
- The Royal Police Cadet Academy provides basic training for non-
commissioned officers who will be promoted to be commissioned police
officers, or persons holding a bachelor’s degree who are tenured as
police officers (four to six-month training).
- There are approximately 210 male police cadet students and 70 female
police cadet students per class year.
- The Central Police Centre and Police Training Centre, Regions 1-9,
which are affiliated with the Bureau of Education, admit persons who
hold a senior high school certificate to attend an 18-month training
course to be tenured as non-commissioned police officers.
- The Police College, under the Police Education Bureau, provides training
courses for police executives, i.e. the Inspector Course, the Superintendent
Course, and the Senior Command Course.
10. Vietnam - The People’s Police Academy (PPA), located in Hanoi, provides a variety
of education and training courses in central and northern Vietnam, as
follows:
✓ Four-year bachelor’s degree program (Police cadets from Lao PDR are
also admitted into the program).
✓ Police in-service training.
✓ Short course training for Cambodian police officers.
✓ After-hour course for police officers.
✓ Bachelor’s degree program for the general public without being
tenured as police officers.
✓ Collaboration with international police training institutions.
✓ Training for Vietnamese youth
- The People’s Police University, which is in charge of education and
training in southern Vietnam.

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The police recruitment and training systems vary from one

country to another country; however, they can be put into groups,
as follows.
1) There are three types of educational institutions that
produce and train non-commissioned police, as follows:
- Educational institutions which admit persons holding
a senior high school certificate to attend a four-year program, which
are available in Indonesia, the Philippines, Thailand, Vietnam, and Laos.
- Educational institutions which admit persons holding
a bachelor’s degree to attend training to be police officers, which
are available in Myanmar, Malaysia, Brunei, and Singapore.
- Educational institutions which admit non-commis-
sioned officers to attend a four-year program, which are available in
Cambodia.
2) Institutions which produce non-commissioned police
officers – In countries with vast areas, there is more than one training
center for non-commissioned police officers, scattered across different
regions.
3) Institutions which train senior officers or executive
officers, e.g. the Royal Malaysia Police College, the Police College of
Royal Thai Police, and the Police Science College (PTIK) of the
National Indonesia Police – They offer police administration programs,
as well as master’s and doctoral degree programs.
4) Specialized training institutions, e.g. the CID Training
Center.

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Training centers in Singapore are unique. The Home Team

Academy (HTA) serves as the center for training law enforcement
agencies, including immigration police, prisons, internal security,
narcotic suppression, and firefighting units. The HTA oversees training
courses provided by different agencies. Cross-cutting HT courses are
also available, which leverage experts and knowledge shared by
different agencies.
Such a training system provides an opportunity for law
enforcement officers from different agencies to join training organized
by institutions which have aligned standards and curriculums. One
benefit of this training system is the alignment in police operations
and easy coordination.
In Indonesia, there is a center dedicated to female police,
which is called SEPOLWAN. It aims to facilitate the supervising and
training of female police officers.
3.3.5 Police Administration Policies
Police organizations in some countries have developed
long-term strategies for police administration and visions to serve as
an operational framework for their affiliated agencies:
- Brunei – The Royal Brunei Police Force (RBPF) has
developed the Strategic Planning Corporate Map of the Royal Brunei
Police Force, 2007-2016, to serve as a starting point of continual and
systematic organizational modernization to ensure clear development

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goals and directions. Despite a low rate of general crimes in Brunei,

new forms of threats have become a challenge to the Royal Brunei
Police Force (RBPF). Thus, the strategy for high performance policing
has been formulated to ensure high-quality and efficient services for
the general public, maximize technological utilization, as well as
develop management patterns. Other strategies are ‘A Trusted Partner’
and ‘A Caring Force.’ There is also the strategy for addressing major
crimes and new forms of threats.
- Malaysia – In 1991, the Malaysian government, led
by Prime Minister Dr. Mahathir Muhammad, developed the 2020 Vision
(Wawasan 2020) with the aim to make Malaysia a well-developed
industrialized country by 2020. Since this vision was developed,
every government of Malaysia has formulated administration policies
and accelerated the path to achieve this vision. In 2010, the government
led by Prime Minister Najib Rasac, announced the policy “1 Malaysia”
(Satu Malaysia in Malay) to accelerate the achievement of the 2020
Vision. One key issue in policy implementation is crime reduction.
Based on the policy, the Royal Malaysian Police (RMP) has formulated
police-related strategies and has allocated different resources to
implement the crime reduction policy. Police are important part of
this policy with regard to social safety and modern policing.
- Philippines – The Philippine National Police (PNP) has
developed the PNP Patrol Plan 2030 to serve as operational strategies
for all police units. A main objective of this plan is to increase focuses

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and collaboration with regard to daily responsibilities and operations

through national security policies and strategies. Other objectives are
to restructure the police system to reduce mistakes, create unity and
reduce political interference and to strengthen the capacity of the
National Police.
- Singapore – Singapore has developed a challenging
vision for the Singapore Police Force (SPF), which aims to create
Singapore to be the world’s safest place. The Singapore Police Force
has a policy which prioritizes crime reduction through participation
of all parties in society. Some of its strategic issues pertain to adopting
the community-centric approach, being a smart force in a smart nation,
using a hierarchal model and differentiating between different levels
of agencies and areas, and building maximum capacity of the general
public. These are key factors which contribute to the efficiency of
collaboration between police and the general public for crime prevention
and equip police officers with necessary modern tools to accomplish
its goals.
Singapore’s police performance is characterized by
compromises between diverse ethnic groups in the country. Its police
operation-related policies are aimed at achieving cultural cooperation
and harmonization over ethnic conflicts and instilling the concept
that police missions are above anything else in all police officers.
- Indonesia – After the country’s reform following a
long rule by a military dictatorship, the Indonesian police adapted

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to people-centered performance and took more human rights into

account. A police reform has improved the credibility of the police
career for Indonesian people.
- Thailand – The Royal Thai Royal Police has formulated
the Royal Thai Police Strategy, B.E. 2555-2564 (2012-2021) under the
vision “Being professional police for public well-being.” To achieve
this vision, strategies have been formulated: upgrading of the capacity
for implementing key missions to respond to government policies;
development of policing to ensure transparency and meet standards;
participation of the general public and police networks; and strengthening
of the police administration.

3.4 Laws Related to Police Law Enforcement

3.4.1 Legal systems
During colonization, the legal system of individual ASEAN
countries was influenced by their colonizers, as the police systems
were. French colonies, including Lao PDR, Vietnam, and Cambodia,
were influenced by the civil law system. Lao and Vietnam also
incorporated the socialist legal system into their civil law systems.
The British colonies, i.e. Myanmar, Brunei, and Singapore, were
influenced by the common law system, which is based on trials and
judgments of previous cases.
Their legal systems incorporated their local norms and traditions.
When Lao PDR and Vietnam became communist countries, their
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original legal systems were abandoned and were replaced by new

legal systems; however, they still keep the civil law system.
In addition to the Criminal Code, each of the countries has
laws which prescribe criminal penalty for particular offenses, i.e.
drug-related offenses, trafficking in persons, and prostitution. In some
countries, some offenses are subject to severe penalty, e.g. offences
related to drugs and narcotics in Singapore, Indonesia, Malaysia, and
Brunei. They also have a different penalty provision for the same
offence. For example, in Vietnam, buying sexual service is illegal and
is subject to an arrest. In Brunei, the Sharia Penal Code is applied.
Countries where the general public is prohibited from firearm
possession include Singapore, Brunei, Malaysia, and Vietnam, while
people in Thailand and the Philippines are allowed to apply for
firearm possession. Firearm-related laws affect crime violence.
3.4.2 Criminal Procedures
In some countries, e.g. Malaysia, Indonesia, and Vietnam,
there are 2-3 police officers, including female and male, who are
provided at each police station or a police agency where crime
cases are reported. The police officers on duty make inquiries and
screen the cases. They will refer criminal cases to an investigation
and interrogation unit, which will investigate and interrogate, make an
arrest of offenders, and prepare documents to submit to a prosecutor.
In other words, officers who conduct investigations and search for
evidence and those who gather evidence to prove guilt are not
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separated from each other. Police officers in charge of reported

cases will not go to the scene.
However, in some countries, a detective and investigator are
different persons. In Singapore, investigators are responsible for gathering
evidence and preparing case documents to submit to prosecutors.
The role of Cambodian police stations is unique. Police officers
at police stations are in charge of issuing national ID cards for the
general public in areas of responsibility. Cambodian citizens who
reach the age of 18 will have to apply for a national ID card, and
those who have an expiring national ID card or have lost their
national ID card will have to apply for a new one.
With regard to detention of the accused, in most cases, when
the accused are arrested, they are detained by police officers for
24-48 hours, and then, they are sent to a prosecutor or court. The
detention duration after this will vary.
As for filing a lawsuit with a court, the authority of prosecutors
varies from one country to another country. Countries where prosecutors
hold high authority include Cambodia and Lao PDR. Prosecutors in
these countries are authorized to order investigative police officers
to conduct an investigation and to release the accused if sufficient
evidence is not found.
With regard to law enforcement to ensure peace and order,
some ASEAN countries provide laws on public assembly control,

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including Indonesia, the Philippines, Brunei, Myanmar, Thailand, and

Cambodia. They have laws stipulating that those who wish to organize
an assembly shall apply for permission from competent authorities
3-7 days in advance (the duration to one country to another country).
In some countries, some areas are dedicated to public assemblies.
In Cambodia, before marching, permission from competent authorities
shall be obtained first. One shall inform competent authorities of the
purposes of the assembly, routes used for marching, and number of
people in the march. If the authorities regard that the march could
result in trouble and affect the rights of other citizens, they may not
grant permission.

3.5 Building Public Safety Partnerships

Building public safety partnerships of many ASEAN countries
has been partly influenced by the community policing concept. Build-
ing public safety partnerships in communist countries differs from
that in countries ruled by another regime. The characteristics of
public safety partnerships in these countries are outlined below.
3.5.1 Using community policing and creating public
safety partnerships as part of a police reform – As for countries
where the police perform a security role or are characterized by
semi-military rather than people-centric operations, including Myanmar,
Indonesia, and the Philippines, their police reform was aimed at
resulting in police organizations focusing on public-centric practices.

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Thus, they have applied the community policing concept to build

partnerships with the general public to solve crimes. Despite limitations
in police administration, in 1994, Myanmar’s Committee for Reform
of the People’s Police Force Management System (CRPPEMS) tried
to reform police performance by revising laws pertaining to police
administration and disciplinary action and apply the community
policing concept. In 2014, Myanmar and the European Union (EU)
entered into a bilateral agreement on human rights, policing, and
police reforms to ensure international standards for Myanmar policing,
through training and implementation of pilot projects to build public
confidence in the police.
Since the police reform in Indonesia in 2000, when the police
were separated from the army, an effort has been made to civilianize
police administration in Indonesia and make it more public-oriented.
The Indonesian National Police (INP) has developed the community
policing principle to be applied to achieve police professionalism and
optimize crime problem solving and law enforcement. Indonesia’s
community policing has been public-centered and has placed an
emphasis on the respect for human rights and establishment of
community partnerships. After a terrorist attack on Bali Island on
12 October 2002, the Indonesian government and the Indonesian
National Police (INP) have focused on terrorism prevention, especially
in target areas, which include business districts and areas which
consist a lot of foreign visitors and residents. Private business owners
have put rigorous self-protection measures in place, including limiting
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public entrance-exit points, metal detector gates, CCTVs, sniffer dogs

(K-9), and security personnel, who inspect persons and objects that
come in and out of their premises 24-hours a day. Police operations
have also attached great importance to the involvement of private
security personnel, which exist in a large number. The police have
to collaborate with private security managers.
During its separation from Malaysia, Singapore paved the
way for its police system, based on the community policing concept
derived from Japanese policing practices. In the 1980s, Singapore
started to use the neighborhood police post (NPP) to bring police
officers closer to the general public. Such a system has developed
to be the community policing system (COPS), which enables the
police to work with communities and private businesses for effective
crime prevention.
Singapore’s crime prevention program provides an important
mechanism – the National Crime Prevention Council (NCPC). The
members of NCPC include representatives from the Singapore Insurance
Association, Singapore Architecture Institute, Singapore Hotel Association,
Retailer Association, Bank Association, Factory Association, Gold and
Jewelry Shop Association, Ministry of Interior, and the Singapore Police
Force.221 Despite being an independent organization, the National
Crime Prevention Council collaborates with police officers to educate
the general public about crime prevention and encourages them to
protect themselves against crimes. Thus, crime prevention in Singapore
entails the collaboration between the police and all sectors of society.
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3.5.2 Application of Community Policing as Part of the

Strategy for Optimizing Crime Prevention
When the Malaysian government defined its national vision for
Malaysia to become a fully-developed nation, one strategy contributing
to the vision achievement is crime reduction to safeguard Malaysian
society. Formulating a policy towards a paradigm shift and participation,
the Royal Malaysian Police focused on decreasing crimes and building
participation of different sectors in society. As a newly-established
agency, Malaysia’s Crime Prevention and Community Safety is
responsible for comprehensive crime prevention tasks, which rely on
patrol cars, motorcycles, community policing, as well as the participation
of the general public, communities, and agencies.
Thailand’s Police Department (the Royal Thai Police’s former
name) has undergone an evolution of partnership building. It started
with the introduction of the community policing and public-police
relations concepts. After some time, it officially put the community
policing concept into practice. That is, the establishment of the
Commission of Overseeing and Following-up Police Administration,
which allowed the general public and different sectors to engage in
police administration. The committee helps boost more community
policing activities such as serving as home police volunteers, providing
information for authorities, and participating in positive police-public
relations activities. In 2014, the National Police Act, B.E, 2547 (2004)
was enacted to allow local public participation in local crime prevention
with police stations.
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Brunei, a small country which has a low crime rate, has also
applied the community policing concept by building police-community
partnerships. Community leaders are a key mechanism which encourage
local people’s engagement with police officers as volunteers. Brunei’s
building of public safety partnerships is effective at the community
level.
3.5.3 Building public safety partnerships in communist
countries – For Lao PDR and Vietnam, which are communist countries,
developing a partnership between the police and the general public
or other sectors in society differs from that in the other countries in
the region. For these two countries, the primary objective of public
participation is to create national peace, order, and security. The
participation of people in local communities is an important part of
the social control policy, whereby household registration is a vital
tool for controlling a local population. The general public play an
important role in providing information for authorities and cooperating
with government officials to maintain security and safety in communities
and the country as a whole. In Lao PDR, local leaders play a vital role
in mediating disputes or conflicts in localities, which reduces workload
of police officers, who have operational limitations, especially those
in remote areas.

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3.6 International Policing

3.6.1 International Relations and INTERPOL
All ASEAN member states are members of INTERPOL, which
is a key mechanism which allows all police forces across the globe
to collaborate with each other to create safety across the world. This
is achieved by exchanging information and providing operational
technical support to combat crime.222 The following are the years
when the ASEAN countries became INTERPOL members:
1984: Brunei
1952: Indonesia
1956: Cambodia, Myanmar, the Philippines, and Thailand.
1957: Lao PDR
1961: Malaysia
1968: Singapore
1968: Vietnam
The respective countries have engaged in activities organized
by INTERPOL, which include seminars, training, and joint operations
for prevention and suppression of different types of international
crimes which are associated with the interests of these countries.
The joint operations include surveillance on persons, vehicles, cargo
containers, border crossings, drug smuggling, and trafficking in persons.
The cooperation as an INTERPOL member includes exchanging
information and tracking wanted persons. The INTERPOL National
Central Bureau (NCB) in the respective countries serves as a key

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coordination channel and mechanism. In terms of the organizational

structure, in most of the countries, including Brunei, Cambodia,
Indonesia, Laos, Myanmar, Singapore, Thailand, and Vietnam, the
NCB is affiliated with a police agency in charge of foreign affairs.
Malaysia’s NCB is part of the Criminal Investigation Department
(CID), which is responsible for transnational crimes. The Philippines’
NCB is not affiliated with the Philippine National Police but the Office
of the President. It coordinates with all law enforcement agencies in
the Philippines.
The ASEAN countries which have been involved in interna-
tional policing to support the United Nations’ peacekeeping, as well as
peacekeeping missions in other regions include Indonesia, Singapore,
and Thailand. These countries have deployed their officers to join
the United Nations Peacekeeping Force. Each year, the Indonesian
National Police (INP) has sent approximately 140 police officers force
to join the Formed Police Unit (FPU) in Darfur.
Singapore has played a key role in INTERPOL. Currently,
Singapore is home to the INTERPOL Global Complex for Innovation
(IGCI). The IGCI was established to facilitate modern research and
development for the study of the nature of crimes and offenders,
new training styles, and support an operational partnership. The
center is part of the General Secretariat of INTERPOL in Lyon, France.
It was also established to expand the INTERPOL network within
Asia.

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3.6.2 Regional Relations and ASEANAPOL

Another significant mechanism for cooperation among police
agencies in the ASEAN region is ASEANAPOL, which stands for
“ASEAN National Police.” As a gathering of the police in ASEAN,
ASEANAPOL was founded to enhance regional cooperation in
preventing and combating transnational crimes. ASEANAPOL is
neither under an ASEAN mechanism nor part of the ASEAN.
The history of ASEANAPOL started from 21-23 October 1981
in Manila, the Philippines, when the first ASEANAPOL Conference,
among ASEAN Chiefs of Police, was convened by five member
countries, namely Malaysia, Indonesia, the Philippines, Thailand and
Singapore. After that, the ASEANAPOL Conference was held annually.
The 20th ASEANAPOL Conference, in 2000, was hosted by Myanmar
and was attended by all the ten ASEAN member countries. At the
25th ASEANAPOL Conference, which was held in Bali, Indonesia in
2005, a working group to establish the permanent ASEANAPOL
Secretariat was set up. Before 2009, the conference host countries
acted as the ASEANAPOL Secretariat.223
On 1 January 2010, the permanent ASEANAPOL Secretariat
was established at the Royal Malaysian Police (RMP), in Kuala Lumpur,
Malaysia. The Malaysian government, as the host state, supported
the establishment and implementation in the first year. As part of
a consensus, the 10 member countries provided the same amount of
funding for the expenditure of activities carried out by the ASEANAPOL

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Secretariat. Each year, the three major directors (Indonesia, Singapore

and Malaysia) were paid by their own governments. The Secretariat
shall be administrated based on the Terms of Reference, which was
signed by the ASEAN Chiefs of Police during the 29th ASEANAPOL
Conference in 2009 in Hanoi, Vietnam.
The objectives of ASEANAPOL are to:
1. Ensure the effective implementation of all resolutions
adopted at the ASEANAPOL Conferences;
2. Serve as a coordination and communication mechanism to
allow members to establish and to maintain all channels
of interaction amongst members;
3. Foster mutual assistance and cooperation amongst members;
and
4. Endeavour to increase regional cooperation efforts against
transnational crime.
Functions
1. Prepare and implement work plans for effective implemen-
tation of all the resolutions adopted in the annual Joint
Communiqués signed at the ASEANAPOL Conferences;
2. Facilitate and coordinate cross-border cooperation on intel-
ligence and information sharing and exchange;
3. Facilitate and coordinate joint operations and activities
involving criminal investigations, the building and maintenance
of the ASEANAPOL database, training, capacity building,

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the development of scientific investigative tools, technical

support and forensic science;
4. Provide support and necessary assistance in organizing the
ASEANAPOL Conferences;
5. Submit on a quarterly basis to the Chiefs of ASEAN Police
Forces proposals on all planned programs and activities to
be carried out;
6. Prepare an annual report on its activities and expenditures
to be presented to the ASEANAPOL Executive Committee
immediately before the ASEANAPOL Conference, and
distribute this to all members at the ASEANAPOL Conference;
and;
7. Act as a custodian of all documents and records of
ASEANAPOL.
ASEANAPOL identified 13 topics which are the interests of
the member states:
1. Drug trafficking
2. Terrorism
3. Arms smuggling
4. Trafficking in persons
5. Wildlife-related crime
6. Maritime fraud
7. Commercial crime and offenses related to banking and
credit card fraud
8. Cybercrime
9. Travel document fraud
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10. Transnational fraud

11. The Electronic ASEANAPOL Database System (e-ADS)
12. Mutual assistance on crimes
13. Training and personnel exchange programs between
ASEAN police forces
ASEANAPOL differs from INTERPOL and EUROPOL in terms
of the number of member nations and staff in the Secretariat Office.
These numbers of ASEANAPOL are much lower than those of the
other organizations. In addition, in terms of age, ASEANAPOL is very
young when compared with the other two, which have a long history.
The cooperation between police agencies in ASEAN member
countries started a long time ago, in 1981. The permanent ASEANAPOL
Secretariat was established in 2010. ASEANAPOL’s role became
more active, especially during the upcoming launch of the ASEAN
Community. The modern technology and communication world allows
crimes to be committed without border limitations. Accordingly, police
agencies in this region have realized the importance of cooperation
and coordination to combat this type of crime. The National Police
Chief of Indonesia discussed the importance of cooperation between
police agencies during leading up the launch of the ASEAN
Community, by stating that informal coordination between police
officers in ASEAN countries is not less important than formal
coordination since informal coordination allows for fast and timely
communication and cooperation.224

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3.6.3 Bilateral Relations

Police organizations of the ASEAN nations have bilateral
relations among themselves and with countries outside of the region.
The factors which have affected the relations among police organizations
in this region are the following:
- History – Their exposure to Western colonialism,
followed by World War II and the Cold War; international relations
during times of conflict and fighting for independence; and geopolitical
factors have had an impact on their present international relations.
An example is the relations between Vietnam, Lao PDR and Cambodia.
Apart from their history, their geography characterized by connected
borders has established a very close relationship between police
agencies at the national and area levels among these three countries.
- Geography – Connected borders can allow for the
connectivity of crimes. Having an awareness of this issue, the
ASEAN nations which share land and sea borders have cooperative
efforts to prevent and suppress cross-border crimes. For example,
Thailand, Myanmar, Cambodia, Lao PDR, and Malaysia have cooperated
in combating cross-border crimes, drug trafficking, trafficking in
persons, and cross-border car theft. As for archipelagic countries and
countries with connected sea areas, e.g. Malaysia, Singapore, Indonesia,
the Philippines, Brunei, Vietnam and Cambodia, they realize that police
organizations need to cooperate on the prevention and suppression
of transnational crimes, marine crimes, pirates, and ransom.

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- National interests – The cooperative issues between

international police organizations depend on national interests and
reciprocated benefits, which are an important factor contributing to
bilateral cooperation.
As crimes in their countries can be associated with other
countries outside of the region, they have established international
relations with those countries, e.g. Australia, Korea, China, and the
U.S.A.
3.6.4 Cooperation in Organizational Development
Another area of cooperation between ASEAN police agencies
is police organization development. There are cooperative training
programs for police capacity building. One program, under a partnership
between Singapore and Japan, provides developing countries with
training in police performance development. The International Law
Enforcement Academies (ILEAs) and the CID Training Centre also
provide training courses.
Vietnam, Lao PDR, Cambodia, Myanmar, and Thailand are
Indochinese countries which have a continued bilateral relationship
with regard to education and training. Thailand’s Royal Police Cadet
Academy has academic cooperation with the Vietnam People’s Police
Academy, the Police Academy of Cambodia, and the Myanmar Police
Academy in terms of education and training exchange. Thailand’s
Royal Police Cadet Academy admits police cadet students from these
Indochinese countries to attend a four-year program. There are also
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faculty, executive and student exchange programs for educational

institution visits and short-course training.
Each year, the Vietnam People’s Police Academy admits many
police cadet students and police officers from Cambodia and Lao
PDR to attend training courses.
Singapore’s Home Team Academy has a cooperative program
with Brunei, to which Brunei sends its police officers to be trained.
In conclusion, the ASEAN member nations play an active
role in international policing, with INTERPOL serving as an important
international network and a channel for the exchange of information,
joint operations, tracking wanted persons for whom arrest warrants
have been issued, and training and seminar support. The INTERPOL
National Central Bureau (NCB), which is located in each of the
countries, is a channel for coordination between them and the INTERPOL
Secretariat. Concerning regional cooperation, ASEANAPOL is in place,
which is an important channel for bilateral cooperation and relations.
The ASEAN countries also have a relationship with countries in
other regions. The factors that contribute to cooperative efforts include
history, geography and national interests.
In the 21st century, there has been an exponential growth
in the need for international policing due to changes in the world as
a result of advancement of information and communication technology,
as well as transport systems, which provides quick connectivity to
different areas both inside and outside of the region. All of these
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factors enable an influx of crimes across countries without borders.

Cooperation between police organizations both at national and regional
levels is an important tool for addressing crimes and maintaining
peace and order in this era.

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 Chapter 4
Conclusions and Recommendations

4.1 Key Lessons from the Comparison of Police Administration

in the ASEAN Countries
The study of the contexts of police administration demonstrates
that the socio-economic conditions, political structures, and history of
these ASEAN nations have an impact on their policing administration,
their organizational structures, laws related to law enforcement, building
public safety partnerships, and international policing.
The key lessons learnt from the comparative study of police
administration and related laws of the ASEAN nations are outlined
below.
4.1.1 Police Organizational Structure and Police Roles and
Responsibilities
[Link] The transition and adaptation of ASEAN
police organizations from the past to the modern time
The police in the ASEAN region has been influenced
by Western colonizers. After these countries obtained their independence
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and improved their internal administration, the political changes and

conditions in the countries had a significant impact on the transition
of police organizations. The development varied from one country to
another country. With respect to the circumstances in which they
had to address the issue of national security, the police played an
important role in maintaining peace and order and internal security.
When situations changed, police organizations had to adjust them-
selves to be more focused on public services and professional police
work. That was witnessed through the police reforms in Indonesia
and the Philippines, whereby the police were separated from the
army, with an effort to professionalize and demilitarize policing. An-
other example was the Singapore Police Force’s adaptation in con-
junction with the country’s reform, corruption problem solving, and
seeking of ways for the police to gain confidence from the general
public.
[Link] Alignment and unity in the organizational
structure
The structures of the Malaysian and Indonesian police
organizations show alignment between national, regional and provincial
police agencies. This allows tasks to be smoothly transferred from
the top level of administration to local areas, with agencies which
are responsible for the same kind of tasks at all levels. On the other
hand, tasks of area-level organizations are supported by upper-level
agencies, all the way up to national police agencies. Provincial or
district police agencies have required resources for ensuring the
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safety of local people and resources for investigation and interrogation,

which is able to provide a complete service in localities.
[Link] Distribution of local services
The countries which consist of vast areas and archipelagos,
e.g. Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, and Brunei, attach great
importance to police boxes, which are small service units after police
stations. They do not use much manpower to provide safety for local
people.
[Link] Traffic
It is the police’s responsibility to regulate and control
traffic, as well as enforcing traffic laws. For Indonesia, a large country
which suffers from the traffic problems, traffic is one of the top
priorities. It has modern traffic management centers, the roles of
which include traffic management, law enforcement, and traffic
accident prevention. Countries which enjoy rapid economic growth,
e.g. Cambodia and Vietnam, have experienced more serious traffic
problems. Thus, solving the traffic problem is a major police policy
in these countries. In Vietnam, police officers are responsible for car
and motorcycle registration. The Philippines is the only ASEAN country
where officers from local authorities have the power to enforce laws
and manage local traffic. The highway police, who are under the
Philippine National Police (PNP), play roles in law enforcement, traffic
facilitation, and the prevention of accidents on highways in the
country.
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[Link] Immigration
In almost all of the ASEAN countries, immigration is
a responsibility of the police. The exceptions are Brunei, Malaysia,
and Singapore. To determine which agency should be responsible
for immigration, one factor which has to be taken into account is
the coordination between police officers and immigration officers in
person identification, investigation, tracking and arresting of persons
immigrating in the country through different channels, as well as
security with regard to prevention and suppression of transnational
crimes and terrorism.
[Link] Police roles
There are diverse roles played by the police in ASEAN
nations, including crime prevention and suppression, national security,
and assistance of disaster victims, especially in natural disaster-prone
countries, e.g. Indonesia, the Philippines, and Brunei.
[Link] Roles and authorities of police stations
In addition to crime prevention and suppression, police
stations in some countries provide some different services, as described
below.
- Registration – In Cambodia and Vietnam, a role
of police officers pertains to civil registration and issuance of national
ID cards. One benefit from this role is that this allows police officers
to have information about its citizens, so they are able to control
local people and optimize their intelligence work.
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- Car and motorcycle registration – In Vietnam,

police stations are responsible for car and motorcycle registration.
- Firearm registration – In the Philippines, the
general public are allowed to possess a firearm. They have to apply
for a firearm possession license at a police station, and a police
agency will consider whether to issue the permit.
- Criminal records for persons who wish to work
overseas – A large number of Filipinos want to work overseas. They
have to go to a police station to get a criminal record before they
can travel overseas. Police stations in the Philippines are in charge
of checking and certifying the criminal records of Filipino citizens.
4.1.2 Police Administration Policies and Key Practices
[Link] Long-term national strategies in line with
national visions
The Malaysian government has formulated a vision for
Malaysia to become a high-income fully-developed country. One
approach which contributes to the achievement of this vision is crime
reduction. The Royal Malaysian Police (RMP) has taken actions to
respond to the crime reduction strategy by allocating resources and
establishing crime prevention units.
[Link] Response to terrorism
Indonesia and Malaysia are at risk of terrorism, espe-
cially Indonesia. A major terrorist event occurred on Bali Island,

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Indonesia, which had an impact on public confidence in Indonesia.

Attaching great importance to the terrorism issue, Indonesia has
developed relevant agencies and an information system, conducted
a study and analysis, and formulated guidelines for efficient terrorism
prevention and response. This can be witnessed through the coop-
erative effort between the government sector and business operators
in Jakarta, which has provided for a safe environment and strict
security measures.
[Link] Technological utilization
Lessons from the Singapore Police Force (SPF) and the
Royal Malaysian Police (RMP) demonstrate the application of various
technologies towards police operations, e.g. CCTV, the control and
command center system, e-service, criminal information for analysis
of crime trends, technology for the empowerment of local operational
police officers, back office technology, and optimization technology.
[Link] Preparedness for new forms of crimes and
cybercrime
There is a gap between the ASEAN nations in terms of
the readiness to address new forms of crimes as a result of constraints
with respect to financial resources, budgets, staff expertise, and
modern equipment.

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4.1.3 Human Resource Administration and Development

[Link] Personnel administration with regard to
appointments, transfers, and promotions
Key lessons of personnel administration can be derived
from the Singapore Police Force (SPF), which has provided a clear
career path for police and prepares police officers based on their
knowledge, abilities, and skills. It provides the opportunity for individual
police officers to grow on the career path based on their aptitudes.
This is beneficial for enhancing their strength and skills. The career
path of Singaporean police is divided into two tracks: 1) Generalist
career and 2) Specialist career, i.e. investigation in criminal investigations
and interrogation units and the Investigation Department in local police
organizations; intelligence in police intelligence agencies and the
Intelligence Department in local police agencies; special operations;
marine police; and police coastal guard.
The promotion of senior police officers of the Royal
Malaysian Police (RMP) requires an evaluation by a committee, testing,
and a self-assessment. As for the Philippine National Police (PNP),
the appointment of police chiefs in local police agencies uses the
checks and balance system and co-exercising of power between the
central authorities and the local authorities.

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[Link] Intelligence and citizen control by civil regis-

tration
In Cambodia, Vietnam, and Lao PDR, police officers
are responsible for registration and issuance of national ID cards.
One advantage is that the police officers can have local data and
are aware of the movement of the population in their areas of
responsibility, which contributes to intelligence efficiency.
[Link] Police Education and Training
1) Education and training services
They are key a mechanism for police reforms.
For instance, Indonesia’s police reform included a structural reform,
operational tool reform, and cultural reform. An educational and training
reform was part of a cultural reform to transition from a military
culture to professional police. The transitions were made by the
Indonesian National Police (INP) through an educational reform. It was
expected that the police reform would change attitudes towards
country democratization and human rights protection. To achieve this
outcome, the Indonesian National Police (INP) incorporated human
rights-related values in training courses for police officers at all levels.
2) Educational and training institutions for
law enforcement agencies
In Singapore, the Home Team Academy serves
as the centre for training different law enforcement agencies, which
is characterized by sharing resources for personnel training. Another
similar example is educational and training institutions in the Philippines
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under the Philippine Public Safety College, which oversees educational

institutions which trains both police officers and officers from relevant
units, e.g. fire fighting units, correctional units, and forensic units.
One advantage of the law enforcement training network system and
the resource sharing system is that law enforcement officers from
different agencies have an opportunity to be trained by institutions
which have aligned standards and curriculums. One benefit is the
alignment in police operations and easy coordination.
3) The structure of the educational and train-
ing institutions which is independent from police agencies
In many ASEAN countries, police educational
institutions are not subject to the command by the National Police
or the Police Department. The Police Academy of Cambodia is directly
under the Ministry of Interior, with the supreme commander holding
the rank of Police General (equivalent to the Director-general of the
Police Department). The Philippine Public Safety College is affiliated
with the Department of the Interior and Local Government (DILG),
and the People’s Police Academy (PPA) is affiliated with the Ministry
of Public Security.
Such a structure demonstrates the importance
attached to education and training. The organizational structure which
features unity in police education and training makes it easy to set
standards and control the overall police development policies and
resource sharing among law enforcement agencies in the country.

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4) Overall unity of educational and training

institutions with a variety of courses
The People’s Police Academy (PPA) offers a
diversity of courses, including four-year bachelor’s degree programs
to produce commissioned officers in Vietnam and abroad; graduate
programs are open for police cadet students from neighbouring
countries; short courses for executives; and courses for the general
public. In addition, it has an extensive academic network of inter-
national educational institutions.
5) Training institutions for female police officers
In Indonesia, the SEPOLWAN is dedicated to
training female police officers, to facilitate supervising and training
them. This also responds to the needs of female police officers in
Muslim countries, where male police officers’ oversight of the female
population is limited.
6) Practical training
Singapore’s Home Team Academy focuses on
practical training, facilities for simulation, and continuous rotation of
coaches who are police officers with first-hand experience.
4.1.4 Laws Related to Social Safety, Peace, and Order
[Link] The laws pertaining to maintaining peace
and order
The laws include firearm control laws and religious
laws, which have an impact on social peace and order. Countries

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where citizens are prohibited from possessing firearms are exposed

to a limited extent of domestic crime violence. In Islamic countries,
Muslim citizens are prohibited from drinking alcohol, which results
in a low rate of quarrels and physical assaults due to drunkenness.
[Link] Motorcycle control measures for crime reduction
In Myanmar, in some areas, such as Yangon, motorcycles
are prohibited, thus resulting in no purse snatching cases using a
motorcycle.
4.1.5 Building Public Safety Partnerships
[Link] Creating a partnership between the police
and various sectors
The Creation prevents crimes and build public confidence
is a major contributing factor in having a lower crime rate. The
advancement of crime control which relies on the partnerships between
the police and the general public and the private sector has resulted
in Singapore being ranked as one of the safest cities in the world.
[Link] The relationship between the police and local
people
This relationship plays a vital role in optimizing public
safety. For example, the Philippine police have a close relationship
with local authorities, as local authorities provide budget and material
support and are involved in designating local police chiefs. In Lao
PDR, home police volunteers are provided to work with community
and village leaders and serve as dispute mediators.
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4.1.6 International Policing

[Link] Roles in international policing
The ASEAN country which has played a relatively
leading role in international organizations is Indonesia since it has
deployed its police force to join peacekeeping operations with the
United Nations. Other ASEAN countries, e.g. Thailand and Singapore,
have sent out individual officers, but not a force. Playing an active
role in the international arena demonstrates the capacity of the police
organizations and countries themselves.
[Link] INTERPOL
INTERPOL serves as a key channel for police operations
st
in the 21 century and for the relationships between police organizations
at the regional and bilateral levels. This is because transnational
crime, terrorism, and cybercrime are threats to public safety, and the
cases related to these crimes have increased in both number and
intensity in recent years.
[Link] Relationships between police organizations
The relationships vary according to national interests
and issues of cooperation, including the prevention and suppression
of transnational crime, organizational development, and personnel
development. Strengthening formal and informal relationships with
different countries while considering short- and long-term reciprocal
benefits will optimize coordination and cooperation in crime response.

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4.1.7 Readiness to Support the ASEAN Community

In the Global Competitiveness Report 2017-2018, the World
Economic Forum ranked 137 countries across the world in terms of
global competitiveness, one indicator of which (Indicator 1.16) is the
reliability of police services. The following table shows the results of
the ranking of this indicator for the ASEAN countries:

Table 6 The Global Competitiveness Index 2017-2018 Rankings for

the Reliability of Police Services
Ranking for the reliability
Score
No. Country of police services
(7)
(137 countries)
1. Brunei 47 4.9
2. Cambodia 122 3.0
3. Indonesia 77 4.3
4. Lao PDR 78 4.3
5. Malaysia 36 5.5
6. Myanmar N/A N/A
7. The Philippines 112 3.4
8. Singapore 3 6.5
9. Thailand 91 4.1
10. Vietnam 74 4.3
Source: World Economic Forum, The Global Competitiveness Report 2017–2018,
[Link]
ompetitivenessReport2017%E2%80%[Link], 20 August 2018.

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Globalization, arising at the same time of the advancement

of information and communication technology and the Internet, which
can connect the world’s population rapidly without limits, has
inevitably exposed ASEAN member countries to challenges of more
complicated domestic crime, transnational crime, cybercrime, and
cyber threats. While making an effort to improve police organizations
and conduct a police reform to optimize crime prevention and
suppression, law enforcement, and human rights protection to build
public confidence, many ASEAN countries may fail to keep pace
with changes of the crimes and public safety. Thus, apart from
internal efforts, the cooperation on transnational crime prevention and
suppression and on exchanges to ensure police organization development
is essential for enabling Southeast Asia, under the name “ASEAN,”
to be a safe region with a collective effort.

4.2 Suggestions for Thai Police Administration

Based on the study of police administration and related laws
in the ASEAN member countries, especially good practices, and the
comparison of practices of the different countries, the following sug-
gestions are made for the development of the Thai police administra-
tion.
4.2.1 Directions and Strategies for the Royal Thai Police
[Link] Clearly define long-term visions and goals
These are in line with the directions of national develop-
ment and the trends of future crimes, including new forms of crimes
222
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and threats to public safety, e.g. transnational crimes, terrorism,

cybercrimes, fraud and scams which involve investment technology
and business, and financial transactions. In addition, the Royal Thai
Police should focus on building public confidence and practices which
respond to problem-solving for the general public.
[Link] Focus on crime prevention
A lesson learned from Singapore, which has been ranked
as one of the world’s safest cities, is the development of strategies
and policies for police operations which are crime prevention-focused
with crime prevention measures.
4.2.2 Police Restructuring
Police restructuring should take various factors and approaches
into account, as follows:
[Link] In response to changing crimes and relevant
missions, establish new organizations to take charge of new missions
or additional missions, or revamp existing organizations to serve
different missions, e.g. transnational crime and cybercrime prevention
and suppression, international police coordination, the pursuit of
public participation, and the establishment of a partnership between
the police and other sectors in society.
[Link] Consider the coherence in the structure of
upper-, middle- and lower-level organizations to create clarity of
different functions with regard to top-down policy making and policy
implementation and bottom-up policy proposals.
223
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[Link] Thoroughly and sufficiently distribute services

into localities, for example, through precincts or other service points.
4.2.3 Personnel Administration
[Link] Improve the police career path by developing a
system which consistently links the recruitment, selection, development,
designation, and transfer processes to provide individual police officers
with the opportunity to grow in the function they are strong at;
clearly divide career paths into the generic path and the specialized
path; and define a clear set of criteria for tenure, designation, transfer,
and promotion to develop the expertise of police officers in each
function.
[Link] Improve the designation and transfer system to
ensure the promotion of self- development of police officers, by
defining a procedure involving screening by supervisors at each
level and including the assessment or testing of knowledge, abilities,
physical performance, etc.; and provide a process for receiving feedback,
suggestions, or other information from local people to assist with
consideration.
[Link] Review the appropriateness of the rates of salary
and compensation for operational police officers to ensure that they
live their life with dignity.
[Link] Increase the proportion of female police officers
to render public services or female investigative officers to work on
cases related to sexual offenses or juvenile cases.
224
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4.2.4 Human Resources Development

[Link] Promote the Royal Thai Police’s educational and
training system as part of a police reform with regard to creating
organizational culture, values ​​and ideologies in duty execution of
professional police and with regard to focusing on problem-solving
for the general public, life protection, and human rights protection.
[Link] Establish a network for training and human
resource development of the Royal Thai Police at each level; and
make academic exchanges with local and international agencies
involved in law enforcement and the justice system in a systematic
and continuous basis.
[Link] Adjust the training styles to focus more on the
practical part; develop police officers’ self-study skills and problem-
solving competency; and provide sufficient places and equipment for
training in accordance with the actual tasks that police officers will
perform after they complete their training course.
[Link] Provide a lecturer, instructor, and speaker
development system, by providing an incentive system to attract
police officers with experience in operational units to be involved in
training in a rotational fashion; and enhance the skills and capacity
of police officers who will be trainers of different training units.

225
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4.2.5 Development of Relevant Legal Systems

[Link] Develop laws to cover new kinds and forms of
offenses, especially offenses related to technology, as well as fraud
and scams involving property.
[Link] Consider the formulation of laws, rules and
regulations which support the crime prevention and suppression
operations, especially preventive ones, e.g. those pertaining to
motorcycle riding control and Internet use; and use social media for
Internet scam prevention and investigation.
[Link] Review the criminal procedures in relation to
evidence, evidence collection, and hearing of evidence in the court
to ensure the coverage and effective enforcement of laws against
new forms of crimes, e.g. cybercrime and economic crime.
4.2.6 Development of Information and Communication
Technology
[Link] Upgrade public services through e-service to
reduce the workload of police officers at police stations.
[Link] Develop the use of information and communication
technology in the execution of officers’ duties in all functions which
provide linkages – An example is the criminal case search system
which links to the network of the data on civil registration and
registration of vehicles, firearms, firearm possession licenses, and
driver’s licenses. Based on this study, in many of the ASEAN countries,

226
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police officers have such data and use it as a key tool for controlling
crime and maintaining peace and order.
[Link] Create the preparedness of computer forensic
science because cybercrime is a great threat to public safety – Many
of the ASEAN countries have been active and made an effort to
develop investigation, interrogation and digital evidence gathering
systems to ensure efficient law enforcement for cybercrime cases.
Thus, the capacity of computer forensic science should be strengthened
and agencies in charge should be expanded and distributed to the
regional level.
4.2.7 Participation of Local Authorities as Local Safety
Partnerships
[Link] Develop mechanisms for local authorities’ involve-
ment in supporting operations related to maintaining public safety
in local communities, while encouraging police practices of local
police stations to be responsible to local communities – For example,
the police and local authorities can jointly develop plans/projects
based on a clear amount of budget monies and number of people
from different sectors who join operations and provide support.
[Link] At the policy level, push for public education
about self-protection against crime and raise social awareness about
collective problem-solving with respect to crime.
[Link] Develop participation mechanisms and networks
for police and the private sector to share the responsibility for crime
227
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in 10 ASEAN Countries

prevention in relevant areas, e.g. prevention of assaults against

property, Internet frauds and scams, and break-ins in different types
of residences, with the cooperation from financial institutions, bank
associations, real estate businesses, and retail businesses.
4.2.8 International Policing Development
[Link] Improve the operational system to connect
international relations to operations of local operating units.
[Link] Develop the cooperation between police orga-
nizations in the ASEAN nations, while identifying issues related to
crime and internal peace and order which require cooperation of
international police organizations; and upgrade bilateral cooperation.
[Link] Enhance the capacity for international coordination
for agencies which require such coordination, e.g. those responsible
for transnational crime, technological crime, trafficking in persons,
and drug trafficking.

228
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References
1 Donald E. Weatherbee, ASEAN: International Relations in Southeast

Asia: The Struggle for Autonomy, Kiatichai Pongpanich, Translation (Bangkok:

Saengdao, 2015), pp. 1-3.
2 Ibid, p. 282.

3 The World Bank, World Bank Open Data, 2016 [Link]

org/ 20 September 2016

4 Office of the Civil Service Commission, Public Administration of Negara

Brunei Darussalam (Nonthaburi: The Office of the Civil Service Commission),

pp. 19-20.
5 Ibid, p. 27.

6 ASEANAPOL, The Royal Brunei Police Force, [Link]

org/information/the-royal-brunei-police-force. Retrieved on 9 December 2017.

7 Ibid.

8 General Information of Brunei Darussalam, Country Paper presented in

The 25th Joint ASEAN Police Officers Course (25th JASPOC), organized by the
Indonesian National Police from 5-9 October 2015 in Jakarta, Indonesia.
9 Royal Brunei Police Force, Strategic Planning Corporate Map of the

Royal Brunei Police Force 2007-2016.

10 Komchadluek, Bruenei: Another Country under Shariah, [Link]

[Link]/news/politic/171763, Retrieved on 20 December 2017.

11 [Link]

darussalam.
12 Community Policing in Negara Brunei Darussalam (Neighborhood Watch).

Presentation at RBPF Headquarter, 19 September 2016.

13 ASEANAPOL, [Link]

secretariat, 20 December 2017.

14 The World Bank, World Bank Open Data, 2016 [Link]

org/20 September 2016.

229
Police Administration and Related Laws for Providing Public Safety
in 10 ASEAN Countries

15 Office of the Civil Service Commission, Public Administration of Cam-

bodia, p. 22.
16 The World Bank, World Bank Open Data, [Link]

indicator/.
17 OSAC, 16 August 2016. [Link]

[Link]?cid=19608.
18 Ibid.

19 Ibid, pp. 298-320.

20 ASEANAPOL, Cambodia National Police, [Link]

information/cambodia-national-police, 12 April 2018.

21 The Bureau of Policy and Strategy, the Office of the Permanent Secretary

of the Ministry of Justice. Laws, Rules, Regulations, Requirements, Work System,

and Guidelines of the Ministry of Justice and Agencies Related to the Justice
System of ASEAN Countries, Cambodia, p.1.
22 Ibid, p. 2.

23 K. Neam, Introduction to the Cambodian Judicial Process (The Asia

Foundation, 1998), available online at <[Link]

[Link]> (accessed on 10 March 2013), Cited in Ibid, p. 3.
24 Patchara Sinloima et al., The Final Report of the Project on the Review

of Criminal Laws and Criminal Justice System and Criminal Cooperation of

ASEAN to Prepare for the ASEAN Community, p. 204.
25 Interview with a Cambodian municipal police officer at Phnom Penh

Municipal Police. 2 March 2016.

26 INTERPOL, [Link]

142.
27 Ministry of Foreign Affairs and International Cooperation, Kingdom of

Cambodia, [Link]
4 January 2018.
28 [Link]

230
 Police Administration and Related Laws for Providing Public Safety
in 10 ASEAN Countries

29 The World Bank Open Data, 2017, [Link] 9 May

2017.
30 “The Republic of Indonesia,” Historical Encyclopedia of ASEAN

Neighboring Countries (Bangkok: The Office of the Royal Society, 2015), p. 67.
31 The ASEAN Department, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, ASEAN Mini

Book, 3rd Edition, (Bangkok Page Make Co., Ltd., 2013), p.14.
32 The World Bank, World Bank Open Data, [Link]

indicator/[Link] 20 September 2016.

33 Songkhla Rajabhat University, ASEAN, [Link]

เศรษฐกิจของอินโดนีเซีย, 20 September 2016.

34 Badan Pusat Statistik, 16 November 2015, <[Link]

TabelStatis/view/id/1572>.
35 Reksodiputo, Mardjono, The State of Crime in Indonesia: A Preliminary

Overview. [Link]
[Link]
36 Central Intelligent Agency (CIA). The World Factbook.

37 Institute for the Study of Violent Groups, Extremist Groups: An

International Compilation of Terrorist Organizations, Violent Political Groups,

and Issue-oriented Militant Movements, Volume 3 (Huntsville, Texas: Office of
International Criminal Justice and Institute for the Study of Violent Groups,
2006), pp.343-345.
38 Ibid., pp.354-356.

39 Ibid., pp.349-353.

40 Police Science College of Indonesian National Police, Police Science,

The INP 69th Anniversary, Edition 2015 (Jakarta Indonesia: PTIK Press, 2015),
pp. 1-13.
41 Global Investment Center, Indonesia: Justice System and National

Police Handbook, pp.105-106.

42 Ibid., p. 138

231
Police Administration and Related Laws for Providing Public Safety
in 10 ASEAN Countries

43 Indonesia Country Paper 2015, presented in The 25th Joint ASEAN

Senior Police Officers Course (25th JASPOC) in Jakarta, Indonesia, 5 October 2015.
44 Global Investment Center, Indonesia: Justice System and National

Police Handbook, p. 106.

45 Wikipedia, 16 November 2015, <[Link]

National_Police>.
46 Police Science College of Indonesian National Police, Police Science,

The INP 69th Anniversary, Edition 2015, p. 9.

47 Office of the Civil Service Commission, Public Administration of Indonesia,

p. 46.
48 Global Investment Center, Indonesia: Justice System and National Police

Handbook, pp.64-69.
49 Library of Congress, Global Legal Monitor, 26 November 2015, <http://

[Link]/law/foreign-news/article/indonesia-law-on-mass-organizations/>.
50 The Asia Foundation, Community Policing in Indonesia, [Link]

[Link]/resources/pdfs/[Link], 20 January 2018.

51 IOM Indonesia, Community Policing, Jakarta: Indonesia, 2013.

52 The Asia Foundation, Community Policing in Indonesia, [Link]

[Link]/resources/pdfs/[Link], 20 January 2018.

53 Indonesia Country Paper 2015, presented in The 25th Joint ASEAN

Senior Police Officers Course (25th JASPOC) in Jakarta, Indonesia, 5 October 2015.
54 INTERPOL, Indonesia, [Link]

South-Pacific/Indonesia. 20 December 2017.

55 Ibid.

56 Information from Indonesian police officer who joined FPU in the

first year of Indonesian joint operation.

57 Jakarta Center for Law Enforcement Cooperation, Foundation, https://

[Link]/foundation-goal, 20 December 2017.

58 ASEANAPOL, Introduction, 12 December 2015, <[Link]

org/ about-aseanapol>.
232
 Police Administration and Related Laws for Providing Public Safety
in 10 ASEAN Countries

59 Australian Embassy Indonesia, 12 December 2015, <[Link]

[Link]/jakt/MR15_020.html>.
60 The World Bank Open Data, 2016, [Link]

[Link]?locations=KG, 20 September 2017.

61 Phanompatt Smitananda, “Lao People’s Democratic Republic,” Learning

about ASEAN (Bangkok: Dhurakij Pundit University Press: 2015), p. 333.

62 The World Bank Open Data, 2016, [Link]

19 January 2018.
63 Office of the Civil Service Commission, Public Administration System

of Lao People’s Democratic Republic, pp. 28-29.

64 Facts and Details, Justice System, Police and Crime in Laos, http://

[Link]/southeast-asia/Laos/sub5_3d/[Link], 20 September
2017.
65 Vientiane Times, Economic Pressures Causing Crime to Rise in Vientiane,

[Link] 22 February
2018
66 J&C Services, Spate of Crimes, Expats among Targets: Vientiane,

Vientiane Times, 08/08/2014, [Link]

vientiane/, 22 February 2018.
67 Donald E. Weatherbee, ASEAN: International Relations in Southeast

Asia: The Struggle for Autonomy, Kiatichai Pongpanich, Translation (Bangkok:

Saengdao, 2015), pp. 308-311.
68 United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC), Trafficking in

Persons from Cambodia, Lao PDR and Myanmar to Thailand (Bangkok: UNODC,
2017), p. 59.
69 Taksina Khaikaew, Thai VOA Washington, UN Urges ‘Laos’ to Increase

Aids to Victims of Trafficking in Persons, 18 January 2017, [Link]

com/a/laos-child-trafficking-tk/[Link], 23 February 2018.
70 Office of the Civil Service Commission, Public Administration System

of Lao People’s Democratic Republic, p. 38.

233
Police Administration and Related Laws for Providing Public Safety
in 10 ASEAN Countries

71 Ibid, p. 62.

72 Ibid, pp. 66-68.

73 Suwit Thirasatwat, Lao History (Bangkok: Sangsan Printing Co., Ltd.,

2000), pp. 223-224.

74 Manager Online, Lao Police Department has the First Major General

for the Past 10 Years, [Link]

NewsID=9580000134554, 4 March 2018.
75 Overseas Security Advisory Council in the Justice System, Police and

Crime in Laos, [Link]

html#chapter-5
76 Supasit Rowanchai, “Comparative Criminal Justice Process between

Thailand and Lao PDR: Process before Trial,” Thesis of Master of Law, (Graduate
School: Chulalongkorn University, 2004), p. 60.
77 Ibid.

78 Harry R. Dammer and Jay S. Albnese, Comparative Criminal Justice

Systems, p. 56.
79 Ministry of Public Security. Lao People’s Democratic Republic, Lao

Public Security TV Program, 25 November 2016.

80 Interview with a Thai person who wants to be anonymous, who lived

and conducted business in Laos.

81 INTERPOL, Laos, [Link]

Pacific/Laos, 30 March 2018.

82 ASEANAPOL, Chronology, [Link]

chronology, 30 March 2018.

83 The World Bank Open Data, 2016, [Link]

[Link].K2, 10 April 2018.

84 Office of the Civil Service Commission, Public Administration System

of Malaysia (Nonthaburi: Kornkanok Printing), pp. 41-43.

85 The World Bank, World Bank Open Data [Link]

indicator/[Link], 10 April 2018.

234
 Police Administration and Related Laws for Providing Public Safety
in 10 ASEAN Countries

86 Malaysia – Economic Data, [Link]

malaysia_economics.html, 10 April 2018.

87 United State Department of State Bureau of Diplomatic Security,

Malaysia 2017 Crime & Safety Report, [Link]

[Link]?cid=21370, 12 April 2018.
88 Presentation Crime Prevention and Community Safety Department,

Royal Malaysia Police, 21 January 2016.

89 Commercial Crime Investigation Department (CCID), [Link]

be_smart/, 22 April 2018.

90 Drug and Alcohol Rehab in Thailand, Drug Addiction in Malaysia,

[Link] 13 April 2018.

91 Office of the Civil Service Commission, Public Administration System

of Malaysia, p. 59.
92 ASEAN Information Center. Public Relations Department. Information

on Malaysian Politics from [Link]

php?nid=4373&filename=index. Retrieved on 25 August 2016.
93 Presentation by ACP KASUAHDI ALI, Assistant Director of Establishment

(Audit), Management Department, Royal Malaysia Police, 21 January 2016.

94 Presentation by ACP KASUAHDI ALI, Assistant Director of Establishment

(Audit), Management Department, Royal Malaysia Police, 21 January 2016.

95 Public Relations Department, ASEAN Court System [Link]

chaiyaphum/ewt_news.php?nid=7871, 20 April 2018.

96 Act 593 Criminal Procedure Code as of 1 November 2012, published

by The Commissioner of Law Revision, Malaysia Under the Authority of the

Revision of Laws Act 1968, [Link]
Publications/LOM/EN/Act%20593%20-%20Criminal%20Procedure%[Link].
97 Prachatai, Expensive Freedom in Malaysia, [Link]

2015/05/59084, 20 April 2018.

98 Presentation Crime Prevention and Community Safety Department,

Royal Malaysia Police, 21 January 2016.

235
Police Administration and Related Laws for Providing Public Safety
in 10 ASEAN Countries

99 Community Policing Malaysia, Program Kepolisan Komuniti Malaysia,

[Link] 20 April 2018.

100 [Link]
Bantuan_Dinaik_Taraf.html in [Link]
note-2.
101 Police Volunteer Reserve Corp (Malaysia), [Link]
[Link]/Police%20Volunteer%20Reserve%20Corp%20(Malaysia)/en-en/, 20 April
2018
102 INTERPOL, Malaysia, [Link]
South-Pacific/Malaysia.
103 Mutual Assistance in Criminal Matters Act 2002, [Link]
site/adboecdanti-corruptioninitiative/[Link], 22 April 2018.
104 The World Bank, World Bank Open Data, 2016, [Link]
org/indicator/[Link], 20 May 2018.
105 Office of the Civil Service Commission, Public Administration of the
Republic of the Union of Myanmar, pp. 22-23.
106 The World Bank, World Bank Open Data [Link]
indicator/[Link], 21 May 2018.
107 United States Department of State Bureau of Diplomatic Security,
Burma (Myanmar) 2017 Crime & Safety Report, [Link]
[Link]?cid=21412, 22 May 2018.
108 Ibid.
109 Office of the Civil Service Commission, Public Administration of the
Republic of the Union of Myanmar, pp. 72-74.
110 Ibid., pp. 32-42.
111 Ibid., p. 42.
112 Lalita Hingkanonta Hanwong, Policing in Colonial Burma, (Chiang Mai:
Center for ASEAN Studies, Chiang Mai University, Thailand, 2013), p.3-22.
113 Ibid., p. 273.

236
 Police Administration and Related Laws for Providing Public Safety
in 10 ASEAN Countries

114 ASEANAPOL, Myanmar Police Force, 8 October 2015, <[Link]

[Link]/information/myanmar-police-force>.
115 Interpol, Myanmar Police Force, [Link]
countries/Asia-South-Pacific/Myanmar.
116 [Link] 22 May 2018.
117 Andrew Selth, “Police Reform and the ‘Civilianisation’ of Security in
Myanmar,” in Law, Society and Transition in Myanmar, Melissa Crouch and
Tim Lindsey, editors, p. 275.
118 VOA, EU Defends Training of Myanmar Police after Alleged Entrapment
of Journalists, [Link]
case/[Link], 26 May 2018.
119 [Link] 26 May 2018.
120 Office of the Civil Service Commission, Public Administration of the
Republic of the Union of Myanmar (Nonthaburi: Office of the Civil Service
Commission), p. 68.
121 Report on the Study of Law, Rules, Regulations, Requirements, Work
System and Guidelines of the Ministry of Justice and Relevant Agencies in
ASEAN Countries, pp. 41-42.
122 Martin Jelsma; Ernstien Jensema; Nang Pann Ei Kham; Tom Kramer;
Gloria Lai; and Tripti Tandon, Towards A Healthier Legal Environment:
A Review of Myanmar’s Drug Laws, (Amsterdam: Transnational Institute, February
2015), p.3.
123 VOICE, Myanmar Discards ‘Assembly Law’, [Link]
read/61769, 25 May 2018.
124 MGR Online, “Teng Seng” signs: Protest is lawful in Myanmar for the
first time, [Link] 25 May 2018.
125 Office of the Civil Service Commission, Public Administration of the
Republic of the Union of Myanmar, pp. 69-70.

237
Police Administration and Related Laws for Providing Public Safety
in 10 ASEAN Countries

126 Philstar Global, Myanmar, EU cooperate in human rights, community

policing, police reform, [Link]
eu-cooperate-human-rights-community-policing-police-reform#6JQqg5dSZS5qFMjZ.99,
28 May 2018.
127 INTERPOL, Myanmar Police Force, [Link]
countries/Asia-South-Pacific/Myanmar, 28 May 2018.
128 Vachara Sinthuprama, “The Republic of the Philippines, “Encyclopedia
on History of ASEAN Neighboring Countries (Bangkok: Office of the Royal
Society, 2015), pp. 244-245.
129 The World Bank Open Data, 2016, [Link]
[Link], 30 May 2017.
130 Office of the Civil Service Commission, Public Administration of the
Republic of the Philippines (Nonthaburi: Kornkanok Printing), p. 12.
131 The World Bank, World Bank Open Data [Link]
indicator/[Link], 10 April 2018.
132 Celia V. Sanidad-Leones, The Current Situation of Crime Associated
with Urbanization: Problems Experienced and Countermeasures Initiated in The
Philippines, Resource Material Series No.68, 129th International Senior Seminar
Visiting Experts’ Papers, p. 133-135, [Link]
No68_13VE_Leones1.pdf, 30 May 2018.
133 Rappler, Crimes, except homicide, in the Philippines down by 21.8%
in 2017, [Link]
2017-all-crimes-drop-except-homicide-pnp-yearend-2017, 15 June 2018.
134 Fact and Detail, Crime in the Philippines, [Link]
southeast-asia/Philippines/sub5_6f/[Link], 15 June 2018.
135 United States Department of State Bureau of Diplomatic Security,
Philippines 2018 Crime & Safety Report [Link]
[Link]?cid=23672, 15 June 2018.

238
 Police Administration and Related Laws for Providing Public Safety
in 10 ASEAN Countries

136 Institute for the Study of Violent Groups, Extremist groups: An

international compilation of terrorist organizations, violent political groups, and
issue-oriented militant movements, Volume 3 (Huntsville, Texas: Office of
International Criminal Justice and Institute for the Study of Violent Groups,
2006), pp.335-340.
137 United States Department of State Bureau of Diplomatic Security,
Philippines 2018 Crime & Safety Report [Link]
[Link]?cid=23672, 15 June 2018.
138 Office of the Civil Service Commission, Public Administration of the
Republic of the Philippines, ibid, p. 28-29.
139 Center for Police Strategy Management, Brief Background of the PNP,
2 Nov 2015 <[Link]
140 [Link]
141 National Police Commission, [Link]
10 July 2018.
142 Maan Macapagal, ABS-CBN News, Police officers to receive pay hike
this month, [Link]
hike-this-month, 23 July 2018.
143 Philippine National Police, PNP PATROL PLAN 2030, [Link]
[Link]/about-us/pnp-patrol-plan-2030, 10 July 2018.
144 The University of Melbourne, Southeast Asian Legal Research Guide:
Introduction to the Philippines & its Legal System, [Link]
[Link]?g=402982&p=5443355, 13 July 2018.
145 Office of the Civil Service Commission, Public Administration of the
Republic of the Philippines, ibid, p. 44-45.
146 NAPOLCOM, [Link]
20 July 2018.
147 Mike Frialde, NAPOLCOM expands police powers of governors, mayors.
The Philippine Star-18 December 2015. [Link]
2015/12/18/1534106/napolcom-expands-police-powers-governors-mayors, 20 July
2018.
239
Police Administration and Related Laws for Providing Public Safety
in 10 ASEAN Countries

148 ASEANAPOL, [Link] 22

April 2018.
149 The World Bank, World Bank Open Data, 2016, [Link]
org/indicator/[Link], 26 April 2018.
150 Office of the Civil Service Commission, Public Administration of the
Republic of Singapore, pp. 22-23.
151 The World Bank, World Bank Open Data [Link]
indicator/[Link], 25 April 2018.
152 Knowledge “ASEAN Economic Community: AEC) from [Link]
[Link]/160, Retrieved on 15 February 2016.
153 The Economist Intelligence Unit, SAFE CITIES INDEX 2017 Security
in a Rapidly Urbanizing World: A report from The Economist Intelligence Unit,
2017,
154 [Link]
[Link], 26 April 2018.
155 United States Department of State Bureau of Diplomatic Security,
Singapore 2017 Crime & Safety Report, [Link]
[Link]?cid=21644, 26 April 2018.
156 Central Narcotics Bureau, Overview of Singapore’s Drug Situation in
2017, [Link]
documents/cnb-annual-stats-release-for-2017-(final).pdf, 28 April 2018.
157 Office of the Civil Service Commission, Public Administration of the
Republic of Singapore, pp. 22-23.
158 Singapore Police Force, Our Heritage, [Link]
our-heritage/our-heritage, 28 April 2018.
159 Singapore Police Force, Our Heritage, [Link]
our-heritage/our-heritage, 28 April 2018.
160 Ibid.
161 Office of the Civil Service Commission, Public Administration of the
Republic of Singapore (Nonthaburi: Office of the Civil Service Commission), p. 32.
240
 Police Administration and Related Laws for Providing Public Safety
in 10 ASEAN Countries

162 THE STATUTES OF THE REPUBLIC OF SINGAPORE PENAL CODE

(CHAPTER 224), [Link] 20 April
2018.
163 Singapore Statues Online, PUBLIC ORDER ACT (CHAPTER 257A),
[Link] 13 May 2018.
164 The Bureau of Policy and Strategy, the Office of the Permanent Secretary
of the Ministry of Justice. Laws, Rules, Regulations, Requirements, Work System,
and Guidelines of the Ministry of Justice and Agencies Related to the Justice
System of ASEAN Countries, Cambodia, 2012, p. 129.
165 INTERPOL, Singapore, [Link]
South-Pacific/Singapore, 16 May 2018.
166 ASEANAPOL, Singapore Police Force, [Link]
singapore-police-force, 16 May 2018.
167 INTERPOL, The INTERPOL Global Complex for Innovation, https://
[Link]/About-INTERPOL/The-INTERPOL-Global-Complex-for-Innovation/
Publications, 17 May 2018.
168 ASEANAPOL, [Link]
22 April 2018.
169 The World Bank Open Data, 2016, [Link]
[Link], 1 June 2018.
170 Sakonkan Wiset, ASEAN Contents (Bangkok: C and N Book, 2012),
pp. 40-41.
171 The World Bank, World Bank Open Data [Link]
indicator/[Link], 25 April 2018.
172 United State Department of State Bureau of Diplomatic Security,
Thailand 2016 Crime & Safety Report: Bangkok [Link]
[Link]?cid=19119, 22 January 2017.
173 Immigration Bureau, Handbook on Transnational Crime Prevention and
Suppression (Bangkok: Police Printing Bureau, 2011).
174 Ibid.
241
Police Administration and Related Laws for Providing Public Safety
in 10 ASEAN Countries

175 Office of the Narcotics Control Board, Drug Situations in Thailand,

[Link]
[Link], 2 June 2018.
176 Prapat Thepchatree, ASEAN Community (Bangkok: Sematham, 2011),
p. 33.
177 Thailand 2016 Crime & Safety Report: Bangkok, [Link]
pages/[Link]?cid=19119, 22 January 2017.
178 Benarnews, Report says: No Association between Islamic Popular Front
in Southern Thailand and ISIS, [Link]
[Link]/, 2 June 2018.
179 National Police Act, B.E. 2547 (2003), Section 16.
180 Data from the Office of Human Resources Royal Thai Police, December
2017.
181 Office of the Civil Service Commission, Public Administration of the
Kingdom of Thailand (Nonthaburi: Office of the Civil Service Commission), p.25.
182 Division 2, Office of Budget and Finance, Police Department, Handbook
for Community and Mass Relations Officers, (Bangkok: Police Printing Bureau,
1998), pp. 15-23.
183 Ibid, pp. 20-22.
184 Supisan Pakdinaruenart, Pol. Maj. Gen., Community Policing Theory:
21st Century Theory (Bangkok: Crime Suppression Division, Central Investigation
Bureau, 2012), p. 28.
185 Royal Thai Police’s Regulations on Promoting the Participation of
General Public, Communities, Localities, and Organizations in Police Affairs, B.E.
2551 (2018), Royal Thai Government Gazette, Vol., 125, Special Part 45 (Ngo),
3 March 2018.
186 INTERPOL, Royal Thai Police, [Link]
Asia-South-Pacific/Thailand, 3 June 2018.
187 Ibid.
188 Data from the Foreign Affairs Division, the Royal Thai Police, April 2015.
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189 ASEANAPOL, [Link]

22 April 2018.
190 Foreign Affair Division, Royal Thai Police, Table of Agreements between
Thai and International Police, [Link] 9 June 2018.
191 The World Bank Open Data, 2017, [Link]
[Link].K2, 27 July 2018.
192 The World Bank Open Data, 2017, [Link]
[Link], 27 July 2018.
193 Thira Nutpiam, “Socialist Republic of Vietnam,” ASEAN Country History
Encyclopedia, Royal Society of Thailand Edition, p. 326.
194 The World Bank, World Bank Open Data [Link]
indicator/[Link]?locations=VN, 21 July 2018.
195 Office of the Civil Service Commission, Public Administration of the
Socialist Republic of Vietnam (Nonthaburi: Office of the Civil Service Commission),
p. 25.
196 Facts and Details, Crime in Vietnam, [Link]
southeast-asia/Vietnam/sub5_9f/[Link], 31 July 2018.
197 Vietnam 2018 Crime & Safety Report: Hanoi, [Link]
pages/[Link]?cid=24498, 31 July 2018.
198 OSAC, Vietnam 2018 Crime & Safety Report: Hanoi, [Link]
gov/pages/[Link]?cid=24498, 2 September 2018.
199 OSAC, Vietnam 2018 Crime & Safety Report: Hanoi, [Link]
gov/pages/[Link]?cid=24498, 2 September 2018.
200 Office of the Civil Service Commission, Public Administration of the
Socialist Republic of Vietnam (Nonthaburi: Office of the Civil Service Commission),
p. 50-51.
201 Data from a seminar on the 25th Joint ASEAN Police Officers Course
(JASPOC) by Indonesian National Police, from 5-9 October 2015 in Jakarta,
Indonesia.
202 Interview with the Vietnamese Police on 9 June 2016.
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in 10 ASEAN Countries

203 Ibid.
204 Lieutenant General Pham Quy Ngo, Vice Minister of Public Security,
Remarks, 80th INTERPOL General Assembly, 31 October 2011, Hanoi, Vietnam
[Link]
Assembly/80th-INTERPOL-General-Assembly, 10 August 2018.
205 Faculty of Law, Chiang Mai University, Final Report on Vietnam Laws
and Matters of Law on Trade and Investment of Vietnam, proposed to the
Office of the Council of State, 2016, p. 36.
206 Ms. Helen McKernan and Inspector Dean McWhirter, Policing
communities in Vietnam: Intercultural lessons for community policing with
Vietnamese Australians, p. 3-4, [Link]
[Link].
207 Megan Helwig, Countries with Low Crime Rates: Comparing Vietnam
and Japan, [Link]
rates-comparing-vietnam-and-japan, 8 August 2018.
208 Ibid.
209 INTERPOL, Vietnam, [Link]
South-Pacific/Vietnam, 8 August 2018.
210 Lieutenant General Pham Quy Ngo, Vice Minister of Public Security,
Remarks, 80th INTERPOL General Assembly, 31 October 2011, Hanoi, Vietnam
[Link]
Assembly/80th-INTERPOL-General-Assembly, 10 August 2018.
211 Tourism Authority of Thailand (TAT) ATA Review, ASEAN has the
greatest seas. [Link]
2013/menu-2013-apr-jun/523-22556-sea-asean (20 February 2017).
212 Maritime Security Cooperation within the ASEAN Community Framework,
Academic article, the Academic Office, Secretariat of the House of Representatives,
[Link] (20 Febru-
ary 2017)

244
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in 10 ASEAN Countries

213 Panarat Preedakorn, ASEAN Cooperation in Addressing Transnational

Crimes, ASEAN Information Center, Government Public Relations Department,
retrieved from [Link]
nid=3631&filename=index.
2142 nd INTERPOL Global Conference on Vehicle Crime, Bangkok Thailand
16-18 February 2016.
215 United States Department of State, Bureau of Diplomatic Security,
Crime and Safety Report, [Link]
[Link]/Pages/[Link]?cid=2, 18 August 2018.
216 Faizal Thayeb, Head of Investigation of Special Detachment 88 at
POLRI, Counter Terrorism in Indonesia, 25th JASPOC, JAKARTA, 5 October 2015.
217 Muhammad Tito Karnavian, Explaining Islamist Insurgencies: The Case
of al-Jamaah al-Islamiyyah and the Radicalisation of the Poso Conflict, 2000-2007
(London: Imperial College Press, 2015).
218 Faizal Thayeb, Head of Investigation of Special Detachment 88 at
POLRI, Counter Terrorism in Indonesia.
219 Voice of America, [Link]
south-east-asia/[Link].
220 S. Yunanto (Coordinator), Moch Nurhasim and Iskhak Fatonie, Security
Sector Reform in Indonesia, a Collective Evaluation: Indonesian Armed Forces
and Police Force, (Jakarta: Friedrich-Ebert-Striftung (FES), 2005)
221 Andrew Selth, “Police Reform in Myanmar Changes “in Essence and
Appearance”, Debating Democratization in Myanmar, Nick Cheesman, Nicholas
Farrelly and Trevor Wilson, eds., (Singapore: Institution of Southeast Asian Studies,
2014)
222 Susan Sim, Making Singapore Safe, (Singapore: National Crime Council,
2011), P. 39
223 [Link]
224 Police Senior Superintendent DESY ANDRIANI, “Overview of ASEANAPOL,”
The 25TH Joint ASEAN Senior Police Officers’ Course.
225 Interview with the Indonesian Police at Jakarta Metropolitan Police
Region on 3 February 2016.
245